INDEX.

Butler & Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Frome, and London.

[1]. It gives me great pleasure to find, that, while I have been attempting to preserve memorials of the manners and customs of the most polished modern Arab people, one of my learned friends (M. Fulgence Fresnel) has been occupied, with eminent success, in rescuing from oblivion many interesting notices of the history of the early Arabs, and that another (Mr. [now, Sir Gardner] Wilkinson) has been preparing to impart to us an account of the private life, manners, etc., of the Ancient Egyptians. [The very high and just commendation which the works of these two authors (published since the above was written) have obtained from eminent critics renders it needless for me to add my humble testimony to their merits.]

[2]. Among the memoirs in “the great French work” on Egypt, is one entitled “Essai sur les mœurs des habitans modernes de l’Egypte;” but its author appears to me to have fallen into an error of considerable magnitude, in applying to the Egyptians in general, observations which were, in truth, for the most part descriptive of the manners and customs of their naturalized rulers, the Memlooks. It is probable that the Egyptians in some degree imitated, when they were able to do so, the habits and customs of this class: I may however, venture to affirm, that the essay here alluded to does not convey a true notion of their present moral and social state. Its author, moreover, shows himself to have been often extremely careless both in his observations and inquiries: this is particularly evident in his singular misstatement of the correspondence of French and Mohammadan hours, and in the first two pages (in the 8vo. edition) of the section on public fêtes. He has given many just philosophical observations; but these occupy too large a proportion of a memoir scarcely exceeding one-third of the extent of the present work. To show that these remarks are not made in an invidious spirit, I most willingly express my high admiration of other parts of “the great work” (especially the contributions of M. Jomard), relating to subjects which have alike employed my mind and pen, and upon which I shall probably publish my observations.—Burckhardt’s “Arabic Proverbs,” and their illustrations, convey many notions of remarkable customs and traits of character of the modern Egyptians; but are very far from composing a complete exposition, or in every case, a true one; for national proverbs are bad tests of the morality of a people.—There is one work[work], however, which presents most admirable pictures of the manners and customs of the Arabs, and particularly of those of the Egyptians: it is “The Thousand and One Nights,” or Arabian Nights’ Entertainments: if the English reader had possessed a close translation of it with sufficient illustrative notes, I might almost have spared myself the labour of the present undertaking.—[This remark, respecting “The Thousand and One Nights,” was, I believe, the cause of my being employed, since the publication of the first edition of the present work, to translate those admirable tales, and to illustrate them by explanatory notes.]

[3]. Thus commonly pronounced, for Esh-Shaaránee.

[4]. He professes to have had more than thirty wives in the course of his life; but, in saying so, I believe he greatly exaggerates.

[5]. It is a common belief among the Egyptians, that every European traveller who visits their country is an emissary from his King; and it is difficult to convince them that this is not the case: so strange to them is the idea of a man’s incurring great trouble and expense for the purpose of acquiring the knowledge of foreign countries and nations.

[6]. Kur-án, chap, iv., ver. 96.

[7]. Kur-án, chap. lvi., ver 78.

[8]. David Urquhart, Esq., author of “The Spirit of the East,” etc.

[9]. Here I must mention, that I have written “Básha” instead of “Pásha” in conformity with the pronunciation of the Egyptians.

[10]. Strictly speaking, it has a sound between that of “a” in “bad” and that of “u” in “bud;” sometimes approximating more to the former, and sometimes to the latter.

[11]. Its sound, however, often approximates to that of “a” in “ball.”

[12]. Respecting this term, see the first of the notes in Chapter xxvi.

[13]. This is the temperature in the shade. At Thebes, I have observed the thermometer to rise above 110° during a khamáseen wind, in the shade.

[14]. This remark was written before the terrible plague of the present year [1835], which was certainly introduced from Turkey, and extended throughout the whole of Egypt, though its ravages were not great in the southern parts. It has destroyed not less than eighty thousand persons in Cairo: that is, one-third of the population; and far more, I believe, than two hundred thousand in all Egypt. According to a report made by the government, the victims of this plague in Cairo were about forty thousand; but I have been informed, on high authority, that the government made it a rule to report only half the number of deaths in this case.

[15]. This is the name by which the modern Egyptians call their country, as well as its metropolis.

[16]. With red ochre and lime wash.

[17]. No. 1 is a view and section of a portion of the most simple kind. This and the other four kinds are here represented on a scale of about one-seventh of the real size. No. 6 shows the general proportions of the side of a projecting window. The portion A is, in most instances, of lattice-work similar to No. 1, and comprises about twelve rows of beads in the width: the portion B is commonly either of the same kind, or like No. 2 or No. 3; and the small lattice C, which is attached by hinges, is generally similar to No. 4.

[18]. Commonly similar to No. 1, or No. 5.

[19]. Some large houses have two courts: the inner for the hareem; and in the latter, or both of these, there is usually a little enclosure of arched wood-work in which trees and flowers are raised.

[20]. In the accompanying view of the court of a house, the door of the hareem is that which faces the spectator.

[21]. Apparently a corruption of the Persian “dargáh.”—The view of a ká’ah opposite p. 14 will serve to illustrate the description of the mandar’ah.

[22]. The “leewán” is not to be confounded with the “deewán,” which is afterwards mentioned.

[23]. One of the chief reasons of the custom here mentioned is, to avoid defiling a mat or carpet upon which prayer is usually made. This, as many authors have observed, illustrates passages of the Scriptures—Exodus iii. 5, and Joshua v. 15.

[24]. See Jeremiah xxii. 14.

[25]. In the larger houses, and some others, there is also, adjoining the principal saloon, an elevated closet, designed as an orchestra, for female singers. A description of this will be found in the chapter on music.

[26]. This word is said to be derived from “kamar” (the moon). Baron Hammer-Purgstall thinks (see the Vienna “Jahrbücher der Literatur,” lxxxi. bd., pp. 71, 72) that it has its origin from Chumaruje [or, as he is called by the Arabs in general, Khumáraweyh], the second prince of the dynasty of the Benee-Tooloon, who governed in Egypt in the end of the ninth century of the Christian era, and that it proves the art of staining glass to have been in a flourishing state in Cairo at that period.

[27]. Excepting in the kitchen, in which are several small receptacles for fire, constructed on a kind of bench of brick. Hence, and for several other reasons (among which may be mentioned the sober and early habits of the people, the general absence of draperies in the apartments, and the construction of the floors, which are of wood overlaid with stone), the destruction of a house by fire seldom happens in Cairo; but when such an accident does occur, an extensive conflagration is the usual result; for a great quantity of wood, mostly deal, and of course excessively dry, is employed in the construction of the houses.

[28]. See again the engraving opposite p. 9.

[29]. This is the measure of the sliding bolt.

[30]. This term is also applied sometimes to the door of the hareem.

[31]. The earthen pots used in the construction of these pigeon-houses are of an oval form, with a wide mouth, which is placed outwards, and a small hole at the other end. Each pair of pigeons occupies a separate pot.

[32]. Vulgarly called “Dumyát.”

[33]. The Muslim Egyptians, Copts, Syrians, and Jews of Egypt, with few exceptions, speak no language but the Arabic, which is also the language generally used by the foreigners settled in this country. The Nubians, among themselves, speak their own dialects.

[34]. The population of Cairo has increased to this amount, from about 200,000, within the last three or four years. Since the computation here stated was made, the plague of this year [1835] has destroyed not fewer than one-third of its inhabitants, as before mentioned; but this deficiency will be rapidly supplied from the villages.

[35]. About one-third of the population of the metropolis consists of adult males. Of this number (or 80,000) about 30,000 are merchants, petty shopkeepers, and artisans; 20,000, domestic servants; 15,000, common labourers, porters, etc.: the remainder chiefly consists of military and civil servants of the government.

[36]. I place but little reliance on the accounts of ancient authors on this subject.

[37]. It has been suggested to me that, if corn was exported, something of equal value was imported; and that the exportation of corn, or anything else, would give a stimulus to industry and to population: but I do not know what could be imported that would fill up the measure of the food necessary to sustain a population much greater than that which would consume the corn retained.

[38]. During the present year [1835] more than 100,000 bales of cotton (each bale weighing a hundred-weight and three-quarters) have been shipped at Alexandria. The price paid for this quantity by the merchants exceeded £700,000. The quantity exported last year was 34,000 bales, which is considerably less than usual.—The policy above recommended is strongly advocated by Ibráheem Básha.

[39]. This term was formerly used to designate the Arabian townspeople and villagers, while the Arabs who dwelt in the Desert were called “Aaráb,” or “Aarábees.” The Arabs dwelling in houses now term themselves “Owlád-el-’Arab,” or Sons of the Arabs.

[40]. Feminine, “Bedaweeyeh.”

[41]. In the feminine, “Masreeyeh,” “Bint-Masr,” and “Bint-el-Beled.”

[42]. Feminine, “Felláhah.”

[43]. Thus commonly pronounced for “Fir’own.”

[44]. Tooth-ache is, however, a very common disorder in Egypt, as it was in ancient times. This, at least, was probably the case, as Herodotus (lib. ii., cap. 84) mentions dentists among the classes of Egyptian physicians. It is, of course, most prevalent among the higher orders.

[45]. A few of the servants, and some others, shave their beards. The respect which Orientals in general pay to the beard has often been remarked. They swear by it, and say that a man disgraces it by an evil action. The punishment recorded in 2 Samuel, ch. x., v. 4, has frequently been practised in modern times, but not so often as the shaving of the whole of the beard.

[46]. The Muslims hold it to be inconsistent with the honour that is due to everything that has appertained to the human body to leave upon the ground the shavings or clippings of hair, the parings of nails, etc., which, therefore, they generally bury in the earth.

[47]. Persons of literary and religious professions generally disapprove of the shoosheh.

[48]. They are mentioned in the “Mishcát-ul-Masábih,” vol. ii., p. 359, and are observed by both sexes.

[49]. The fashion of their dress remains almost the same during the lapse of centuries.

[50]. In Arabic, “libás.”

[51]. Called “dikkeh,” or “tikkeh.”

[52]. The Prophet forbade men to wear silk clothing, but allowed women to do so. The prohibition is, however, attended to by very few modern Muslims, excepting the Wahhábees.

[53]. The stripes are seldom plain; they are generally figured or flowered.

[54]. See the foremost figure in the accompanying engraving.

[55]. See the figure to the left in the same engraving.

[56]. Called “tákeeyeh,” or “’arakeeyeh.”

[57]. “Khátim.”—It is allowable to wear it on a finger of the left hand.

[58]. See St. John’s Gospel iii. 33; and Exodus xxxix. 30.

[59]. Therefore, giving the ring to another person is the utmost mark of confidence.—See Genesis xli. 42.

[60]. This is a very ancient custom.—See Ezekiel ix. 2, 3, 11. The dawáyeh is represented in a cut in Chapter IX.

[61]. The zaaboot is mostly worn in the winter.

[62]. A kind of blue and white plaid (called “miláyeh”)[“miláyeh”)] is also worn by some men, but more commonly by women, in the account of whose dress it will be further described: the men throw it over the shoulders, or wrap it about the body.

[63]. Commonly written by English authors “Caliph,” or “Khalif.”[“Khalif.”]

[64]. This appellation (of which “’ulama” is the plural) signifies a man of science or learning.

[65]. “Sheykh” here signifies master, or doctor.

[66]. See 2 Kings ix. 30 (where, in our common version, we find the words, “painted her face” for “painted her eyes”), and Ezekiel xxiii. 40.

[67]. Scissors are often used to reduce the width of the eye-brows, and to give them a more arched form.

[68]. Lawsonia inermis; also called “Egyptian privet.”

[69]. The application of this dye to the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet is said to have an agreeable effect upon the skin; particularly to prevent its being too tender and sensitive.

[70]. The depilatory most commonly used by the Egyptian women is a kind of resin, called libán shámee, applied in a melted state: but this, they pretend, is not always necessary: by applying the blood of a bat to the skin of a newly-born female infant, on the parts where they wish no hair to grow, they assert that they accomplish this desire. A female upon whom this application has been made is termed “muwatwatah”; from “watwát,” a bat. Some women pluck out the hair after merely rubbing the part with the ashes of charcoal.

[71]. Egyptian women swear by the side-lock (as men do by the beard), generally holding it when they utter the oath, “Wa-hayát maksoosee!”

[72]. This is similar in form to the tób of women of the lower orders.

[73]. See Genesis xxiv. 65; and Isaiah iii. 23. See also I Corinthians xi. 10, and a marginal note on that verse.

[74]. Some of those who are descended from the Prophet wear a green burko’.

[75]. For “muláäh.”

[76]. There is a superior kind of miláyeh, of silk, and of various colours; but this is now seldom worn. The two pieces which compose the miláyeh are sewed together, like those which compose the habarah.

[77]. The classical reader will recognise, in this picturesque garment, an article of ancient Greek and Roman female attire.

[78]. Literally, “the son of his paternal uncle.”

[79]. In Cairo, it is the fashion to change the first five female names here mentioned, and the last, into Khaddoogeh, ’Eiyoosheh, Ammooneh, Fattoomeh, Zennoobeh, and Neffooseh; and some other names are changed to the same “measure” as these; which measure implies, in these cases, a superior degree of dignity.

[80]. On an improper use of this kind of surname, see a note towards the close of Chapter IV.

[81]. It is customary among the peasants throughout a great part of Egypt, on the first occasion of shaving a child’s head, to slay a victim, generally a goat, at the tomb of some saint in or near their village, and to make a feast with the meat, of which their friends, and any other persons who please, partake. This is most common in Upper Egypt, and among the tribes not very long established on the banks of the Nile. Their Pagan ancestors in Arabia observed this custom, and usually gave, as alms to the poor, the weight of the hair in silver or gold. The victim is called “’akeekah,” and is offered as a ransom for the child from hell. The custom of shaving one part of a child’s head and leaving another was forbidden by the Prophet.

[82]. See Isaiah xlix. 22.

[83]. It is mentioned by Diodorus Siculus (lib. i., cap. 20), that the ancient Egyptians clothed and reared their children at a very trifling expense.

[84]. “The structure of Eastern government is but the enlargement of the paternal roof.” (Urquhart’s Spirit of the East, vol ii., p. 249.)

[85]. Among the peasants, not unfrequently at the age of twelve, thirteen, or fourteen years.

[86]. For a description of the ornaments here mentioned see the Appendix: the kurs and safa are also represented in a preceding engraving, page 36.

[87]. A custom mentioned by Strabo (p. 824), as prevailing among the Egyptians in his time, is still universally practised in every part of Egypt, both by the Muslims and Copts, excepting in Alexandria and perhaps a few other places on the shore of the Mediterranean: it is also common, if not equally prevalent, in Arabia. Reland, who imperfectly describes this custom (De Religione Mohammedica, p. 75, edit. 1717), remarks its being mentioned likewise by Galen.

[88]. See the Chapter on music.

[89]. This term is a corruption of “fakeeh,” which latter appellation is generally given in Egypt only to a person deeply versed in religion and law; a man who merely recites the Kur-án, etc., professionally, or who teaches others to do so, being commonly called a “fikee.”

[90]. Friday, being the sabbath of the Muslims, is a holiday to the school-boys and fikee.

[91]. The cubit employed in measuring Egyptian cloths is equal to twenty-two inches and two-thirds.

[92]. The usual punishment is beating on the soles of the feet with a palm-stick.

[93]. The Arabic letters are often used as numerals.

[94]. I have since found an anecdote almost exactly similar to the above in the Cairo edition of the “Thousand and One Nights:” therefore either my informant’s account is not strictly true, or the man alluded to by him was, in the main, an imitator: the latter is not improbable, as I have been credibly informed of several similar imitations, and of one which I know to be a fact.

[95]. The young daughters of persons of the middle classes are sometimes instructed with the boys in a public school; but they are usually veiled, and hold no intercourse with the boys. I have often seen a well-dressed girl reading the Kur-án in a boys’ school.

[96]. Ch. 112.—In quoting passages in the Kur-án, I have sometimes followed Sale’s translation, to the general fidelity of which I willingly add my testimony. I should, however, mention that some of his explanatory notes are unauthorized and erroneous; as, for instance, with respect to the laws of inheritance; on which subject his version of the text also is faulty. When necessary, I have distinguished the verses by numbers. In doing this I had originally adopted the divisions made by Marracci, but have since made the numbers to agree with those in the late edition of the Arabic text by Fluegel, which, from its superior accuracy, is likely to supersede the former editions.

[97]. Kur-án, ch. iii., vv. 40-42.

[98]. Kur-án, ch. iv., v. 169.

[99]. The title of “Seyyidna” (our Lord) is given by the Muslims to prophets and other venerated persons.

[100]. Kur-án, ch. iv., v. 156.

[101]. The Muslim seldom mentions the name of the Prophet without adding, “Salla-lláhu ’aleyhi wa-sellem”; i.e., “God favour and preserve him!”

[102]. In the first edition of this work, I here mentioned the Devil as distinct from the genii; but I have since found that the majority of the most esteemed Arab authors are of the contrary opinion. Theirs is also the general opinion of the modern Arabs.—The angelic nature is considered as inferior to the human (because the angels were commanded to prostrate themselves before Adam), and still more so is the nature of genii.

[103]. Like those of the gazelle: this meaning of their common appellation (which is mentioned afterwards) is, however, disputed.[disputed.]

[104]. The title of martyr is given to the unpaid soldier killed in a war for the defence of the faith, to a person who innocently meets with his death from the hand of another, to a victim of the plague (if he has not fled from the disease) or of dysentery, to a person who is drowned, and to one who is killed by the fall of any building.

[105]. See Sale’s Preliminary Discourse to his Translation of the Kur-án, sect. iv.

[106]. A Muslim of some learning professed to me that he considered the description of Paradise given in the Kur-án to be, in a great measure, figurative: “like those,” said he, “in the book of the Revelation of St. John;” and he assured me that many learned Muslims were of the same opinion.

[107]. The corpse is always deposited in a vault, and not placed in a coffin, but merely wrapped in winding-sheets or clothes.

[108]. Alluded to in the first chapter.

[109]. For an account of these private ablutions, and the occasions which require their performance, the reader may consult Reland, De Rel. Moh., pp. 80-83, ed. 1717.

[110]. All persons do not use exactly the same words on this occasion, nor during the performance of the wudoó; and most persons use no words during the performance.

[111]. He should also use a tooth-stick (miswák) to clean his teeth; but few do so.

[112]. It is believed that the good man will rise to judgment with his face white; and the bad, with his face black. Hence a man’s face is said to be white or black according as he is in good or bad repute; and “may God blacken thy face!” is a common imprecation.

[113]. To every man is appropriated a book, in which all the actions of his life are written. The just man, it is said, will receive his book in his right hand; but the wicked, in his left, which will be tied behind his back; his right hand being tied up to his neck.

[114]. Here, again, I must beg to refer the reader (if he desires such information) to Reland’s account of the ghusl, and the occasions which require its performance.—De Rel. Moh., pp. 66-77, ed. 1717.

[115]. Seggádehs, of the kind here described, are now sold in London, under the name of Persian carpets or Persian rugs.

[116]. I have called this the first, because the Mohammadan day commences from sunset; but the morning prayer is often termed the first; the prayer of noon, the second; and so on.

[117]. The ’eshë of the Sháfe’ees, Málikees, and Hambel′ees, is when the red gleam (“esh-shafak el-ahmar”) after sunset has disappeared; and that of the Hanafees, when both the red and the white gleam have disappeared.

[118]. Generally on the first faint appearance of light in the east. The Hanafees mostly perform the morning-prayer a little later, when the yellow gleam (“el-isfirár”) appears: this they deem the most proper time, but they may pray earlier.

[119]. The ’asr, according to the Sháfe’ees, Málikees, and Hambel’ees, is when the shade of an object, cast by the sun, is equal to the length of that object, added to the length of the shade which the same object casts at noon; and, according to the Hanafees, when the shadow is equal to twice the length of the object added to the length of its mid-day shadow.

[120]. Here is added, in the morning call, “Prayer is better than sleep!” (twice.)

[121]. A common air, to which the adán is chanted in Cairo, will be given in the chapter on Egyptian music.

[122]. They are few who do so.

[123]. Kur-án, ch. xcviii., v. 4.

[124]. Same, ch. ix., v. 32, and ch. lxi., v. 8.

[125]. This exclamation (“Yá rabb!”) is made in a very loud tone.

[126]. The word “ebed” is here used adverbially, signifying “for ever.”

[127]. These words, “The perfection of Him who spake,” etc. (“subhána men kellema,” etc.), are pronounced in a very high and loud tone.

[128]. See Kur-án, ch. vii., v. 139.

[129]. “Aboo-Farrág” is a surname of a famous saint, the seyyid Ahmad El-Bedawee, buried at Tanta in the Delta: it implies that he obtains relief to those who visit his tomb, and implore his intercession.

[130]. The morning-prayers, two rek’ahs sunneh and two fard: the noon, four sunneh and four fard; the afternoon, the same; the evening, three fard and two sunneh; and the night-prayers (or ’eshë), four sunneh and four fard, and two sunneh again. After these are yet to be performed three rek’ahs “witr;” i.e., single or separate prayers: these may be performed immediately after the ’eshë prayers, or at any time in the night; but are more meritorious if late in the night.

[131]. There are some little differences in the attitudes of the four great sects during prayer. I describe those of the Hanafees.

[132]. Some persons previously utter certain supererogatory ejaculations, expressive of the praise and glory of God; and add, “I seek refuge with God from Satan the accursed;” which petition is often offered up before reciting any part of the Kur-án on other occasions, as commanded by the Kur-án itself (ch. xvi., v. 100). The Kur-án is usually recited, in the fard prayers, in a voice slightly audible, excepting at noon and the ’asr, when it is recited inaudibly. By Imáms, when praying at the head of others, and sometimes by persons praying alone, it is chanted. In the sunneh prayers it is recited inaudibly.

[133]. In the third and fourth fard rek’ahs, the recitation of a second portion of the Kur-án after the Fát’hah should be omitted; and before fard prayers of four rek’ahs, the “ikámeh”[“ikámeh”] (which consists of the words of the adán, with the addition of “the time of prayer is come,” pronounced twice after “come to security”) should be repeated; but most persons neglect doing this, and many do not observe the former rule.

[134]. The doctors of El-Islám differ respecting the proper position of the fingers of the right hand on this occasion: some hold that all the fingers but the first are to be doubled, as represented in Part II. of the sketch of the postures of prayer.

[135]. Some say that every believer is attended by two angels; others say, five; others, sixty, or a hundred and sixty.

[136]. Beginning with the words “God: there is no deity but He;” and ending with, “He is the High, the Great.”

[137]. Adjoining each mosque are several “latrinæ,” in each of which is a receptacle with water, for ablution.

[138]. If of the sect of the Sháfe’ees, to which most of the people of Cairo belong; but if of that of the Hanafees, four rek’ahs.

[139]. Kur-án, chap. xxxiii., v. 56.

[140]. There are some trifling differences in the forms of salutations of the Prophet in the Friday-prayers in different mosques; I describe what is most common.

[141]. A kind of lizard, the lacerta Libyca.

[142]. In the great mosque El-Azhar there are several Muballighs in different places, to make the adán heard to the whole congregation.

[143]. To commemorate the acquisition of Egypt by the sword. It is never used by the Khateeb but in a country or town that has been so acquired by the Muslims from unbelievers.

[144]. During my first visit to Egypt I went to the great mosque El-Azhar, to witness the performance of the Friday-prayers by the largest congregation in Cairo. I was pleased with the preaching of the Khateeb of the mosque, Gád-El-Mowla, and afterwards procured his sermon-book (“deewán khutab”), containing sermons for every Friday in the year, and for the two “’eeds,” or grand festivals. I translate the first sermon.

[145]. The year begins and ends with a sacred month. The sacred months are four: the first, seventh, eleventh, and twelfth. During these, war was forbidden to be waged against such as acknowledged them to be sacred, but was afterwards allowed. The first month is also held to be excellent on account of the day of ’A’shoora (respecting which see Chap. XXIV. of this work); and the last, on account of the pilgrimage.

[146]. That of the month of Ramadán.

[147]. See an account of the customs observed in honour of the day of ’A’shoora, chap. xxiv.

[148]. The Khateeb always closes his exhortation with one or two traditions of the Prophet.

[149]. The five daily prayers ordained by the Kur-án.

[150]. This is always the same, or nearly so.

[151]. Kur-án, chap. xxvi., last verse.

[152]. Idem., chap. xxxiii., v. 56.

[153]. The patriarch Abraham.

[154]. The reigning Sultán at the time when the above was written.

[155]. This sentence, beginning “O God, frustrate,” was not inserted in one copy of this prayer, which I obtained from an Imám. Another Imám, at whose dictation I wrote the copy here translated, told me that this sentence and some others were often omitted.

[156]. Kur-án, chap. vii., v. 22.

[157]. Ibid., chap. xvi., v. 92.

[158]. Because the Prophet received the first revelation in that month.

[159]. Kur-án, chap. ii., v. 183.

[160]. The year being lunar, each month retrogrades through all the seasons in the course of about thirty-three years and a half.

[161]. A Málikee is held bound to perform the pilgrimage if strong enough to bear the journey on foot, and able to earn his food on the way.

[162]. On the pronunciation of this word, see a note to the second paragraph of Chapter V., p. 120.

[163]. More properly “Sagheer.” This is what many travellers have incorrectly called “the Great Festival.”

[164]. Misled by the decision of those doctors, and an opinion prevalent in Europe, I represented the laws of “holy war” as more severe than I find them to be according to the letter and spirit of the Kur-án, when carefully examined, and according to the Hanafee code. I am indebted to Mr. Urquhart for suggesting to me the necessity of revising my former statement on this subject; and must express my conviction that no precept is to be found in the Kur-án which, taken with the context, can justify unprovoked war.

[165]. Kur-án, chap. ii., v. 216. A kind of wine, formerly called “nebeedh” (a name now given to prohibited kinds), may be lawfully drunk. This is generally an infusion of dry grapes, or dry dates. The Muslims used to keep it until it had slightly fermented; and the Prophet himself was accustomed to drink it, but not when it was more than two days old. The nebeedh of raisins is now called “zebeeb.”

[166]. A similar beverage, thus prepared from barley, was used by the ancient Egyptians. (Herodotus, lib. ii., cap. 77.) The modern inhabitants of Egypt also prepare boozeh from wheat and from millet in the same manner, but less commonly.

[167]. Swine were universally deemed impure by the ancient Egyptians (Herodotus, lib. ii., cap. 47.)

[168]. Kur-án, chap. v., v. 4.

[169]. The Arabic words of this prayer, “God give thee patience,” etc., are, “Allah yesabbirak (for yusabbirak) ’ala má belák.”

[170]. In some respects the Muslim code does not appear to be so strictly founded upon exigencies of a sanatory nature as the Mosaic. See Leviticus xi. 9-12. In Egypt, fish which have not scales are generally found to be unwholesome food. One of the few reasonable laws of El-Hákim was that which forbade the selling or catching such kinds of fish. See De Sacy, “Chrestomathie Arabe,” 2nde ed., tome i., p. 98.

[171]. It is unlawful to give or receive interest, however small, for a loan, or on account of credit; and to exchange any article for another article of the same species, but differing in quantity. These and several other commercial transactions of a similar kind are severely condemned; but they are not very uncommon among modern Muslims, some of whom take exorbitant interest.

[172]. Many of the Muslims hold that only sculptures which cast a shadow, representing living creatures, are unlawful; but the Prophet certainly condemned pictures also.

[173]. A law given in the Kur-án is called “fard.”

[174]. A law derived from the Traditions is called “sunneh.”

[175]. Kur-án, chap. iv., v. 3.

[176]. Some Muslim moralists argue, that, as four wives are a sufficient number for one man, so also are four concubine-slaves, or four women consisting of these two classes together; but, notwithstanding what Sale and some other learned men have asserted on this subject, the Muslim law certainly does not limit the number of concubine-slaves whom a man may have, whether in addition to, or without, a wife or wives.

[177]. In like manner, when a Christian man marries a Jewess, the Muslim law requires the offspring to profess “the better faith,” namely, the Christian, if unwilling to embrace El-Islám.

[178]. Chap. iv., vv. 26, 27.

[179]. By the Hanafee code, a man may not marry a woman from whose breast he has received a single drop of milk; but Esh-Sháfe’ee does not prohibit the marriage unless he has been suckled by her five times in the course of the first two years.

[180]. A boy may be thus married; but he may divorce his wife.

[181]. Whatever property the wife receives from her husband, parents, or any other person, is entirely at her own disposal, and not subject to any claim of her husband or his creditors.

[182]. Kur-án, chap. ii., vv. 229, 230.

[183]. As the Mosaic law also allows. See Deut. xxiv. 1.

[184]. The witnesses must always be Muslims in accusations against a person of the same faith.

[185]. Yet many Christians and Jews in Egypt infringe the law in this respect with impunity.

[186]. In this the Muslim law differs from the Mosaic, which assigns a double portion to the first-born son. See Deut. xxi. 17.

[187]. In my summary of the principal laws relating to inheritance, in the former editions of this work, there were some errors, occasioned by my relying too much upon Sale’s version of the Kur-án; for I doubted not his accuracy, as he had several commentaries to consult, and I had none; wherefore, in my inquiries respecting these laws, I sought only to add to, not to correct, the information conveyed by his version. I have here given a corrected statement, derived from the Kur-án and the Commentary of the Geláleyn, supplying some words of necessary explanation (which are enclosed in brackets) partly on the authority of a sheykh who was my tutor, and partly from the valuable work of D’Ohsson, “Tableau Général de l’Empire Othoman,” Code Civil, livre iv.

[188]. According to Sale’s translation of the 12th verse of chap. iv., and a note thereon, if the deceased have no child, and his parents be his heirs, then his mother shall have the third part, and his father the other two-thirds: but if he have brethren, his mother shall have a sixth part;—and by his translation of the last verse of the same chapter, stating that the brothers of a man who has died without issue have a claim to inheritance, it is implied that the brothers, if the father be living, must have a share; consequently, that they would have, in the case above-mentioned, a sixth part: for he has not stated that this portion which is deducted from the mother’s share goes to the father, nor that the father’s share is diminished.—Why the mother’s share is diminished and the father’s increased, in the case to which this note relates, I do not see: the reason might be easily inferred, were it not that the surviving brothers or sisters of the deceased may be his brothers or sisters by the mother’s side only.

[189]. This is exclusive of what may remain due to her of her dowry, of which one-third is usually held in reserve by the husband, to be paid to her if he divorce her, or when he dies.

[190]. The portions of the Kur-án upon which the above laws are founded are verses 12-15, and the last verse, of chap. iv.

[191]. The reader may see them in D’Ohsson’s work before mentioned.

[192]. Chap. ii., v. 280.

[193]. Chap. ii., v. 173.

[194]. Chap. iv., v. 94.

[195]. Or, according to some, ten thousand dirhems.

[196]. Kur-án, chap. v., v. 49.

[197]. Chap. v., v. 42.

[198]. The deenár is a mitkál (or nearly 72 English grains) of gold. Sale, copying a false translation by Marracci, and neglecting to examine the Arabic text quoted by the latter, has stated the sum in question to be four deenárs.

[199]. The feet are confined by a chain or rope attached at each end to a staff, which is turned round to tighten it. This is called a “falakah.” Two persons (one on each side) strike alternately.

[200]. Kur-án, chap. iv., v. 19.

[201]. This is a “Sunneh” law. The doom, as Mr. Urquhart observes, “stands rather as the expression of public abhorrence, than as a law which is to be carried into execution.” (“Spirit of the East,” vol. ii., p. 425.) The law is the same in the case of the adulterer, if married; but it is never enforced. See Leviticus xx. 10, and John viii. 4, 5.

[202]. It is worthy of remark, that the circumstance which occasioned the promulgation of this extraordinary law was an accusation of adultery preferred against the Prophet’s favourite wife, ’A’ïsheh; she was thus absolved from punishment, and her reputation was cleared by additional “revelations.”

[203]. Chap. xxiv., vv. 4-9.

[204]. An unmarried person convicted of adultery is likewise obnoxious only to this punishment. The two laws mentioned in Leviticus xx. 13 and 15 have been introduced into the Muslim code; but in the present day they are never executed.

[205]. In the villages of Egypt, a woman found, or suspected, to have been guilty of this crime, if she be not a common prostitute, often experiences a different fate, which will be described in the account of the domestic life and customs of the lower orders.

[206]. The conduct of the lower orders in Cairo on this occasion speaks sadly against their character. A song was composed on the victim of this terrible law, and became very popular in the metropolis.

[207]. Among many other erroneous statements respecting the Wahhábees, it has been asserted that they prohibit the drinking of coffee.

[208]. Though his territory has been greatly lessened since the above was written, his power in Egypt remains nearly the same.

[209]. The government of Egypt, from the period of the conquest of this country by the Arabs, has been nearly the same as it is at present in its influence upon the manners and customs and character of the inhabitants; and I therefore do not deem an historical retrospect necessary to the illustration of this work. It should, however, be mentioned that the people of Egypt are not now allowed to indulge in that excessive fanatical rudeness with which they formerly treated unbelievers; and hence European travellers have one great cause for gratitude to Mohammad ’Alee. Restraint may, at first, increase, but will probably, in the course of time, materially diminish the feeling of fanatical intolerance.

[210]. “Khideewee” is a relative adjective formed from the Turkish “Khideev,” which signifies “a prince.”

[211]. Thus pronounced in Egypt, but more properly “Kyáhya,” or “Ketkhud′a.”

[212]. A very arbitrary power is often exercised in this and similar courts, and the proceedings are conducted with little decorum. Many Turkish officers, even of the highest rank, make use of language far too disgusting for me to mention, towards persons brought before them for judgment, and towards those who appeal to them for justice.

[213]. He used to arrive in Cairo in the beginning of Ramadán; but the beginning of the first month, Moharram, has of late been fixed upon, instead of the former period.

[214]. The Egyptian piaster is now equivalent to the fifth part of a shilling, or 2¼d.

[215]. This law is borrowed from the Jews. See Deut. xix. 15.—A man may refuse to give his testimony.

[216]. A purse is the sum of five hundred piasters, and was then equivalent to nearly seven pounds sterling, but is now equal to only five pounds.

[217]. In the singular “’A′lim.” This title is more particularly given to a professor of jurisprudence. European writers generally use the plural form of this appellation for the singular.

[218]. Since this was written, the public women throughout Egypt have been compelled to relinquish their licentious profession.

[219]. “Ibn beled.” If blind, he answers, “Aama.”

[220]. “Wahhed;” or, to more than one person, “Wahhedoo.”

[221]. Baron Hammer-Purgstall is mistaken in substituting “Meshaaledschi” for “Shealeg′ee.” The officer who bears the latter appellation does not carry a mesh′al, but a twisted torch. The mesh′al is described and figured in Chap. vi.

[222]. An ornament worn on the crown of the head-dress by women, described in the Appendix to this work.

[223]. See Diodorus Siculus, lib. i., cap. 80.

[224]. Suleymán A′gha, the Silahdár.

[225]. Aboo-Dá-ood, Aboo-’Alee, etc., are patronymics, used by the Egyptian peasants in general, not as signifying “Father of Dá-ood,” “Father of ’Alee,” etc., but “whose father is (or was) Dá-ood,” “—— ’Alee,” etc.

[226]. Lib. xxii. The more easily the peasant pays, the more is he made to pay.

[227]. Some estimate it at five millions; others, at little more than two millions.

[228]. The feddán has lately been reduced: it was equal to about an English acre and one-tenth a few years ago; and somewhat more at an earlier period.

[229]. Of some productions, as cotton, flax, etc., the government always takes the whole.

[230]. Even the debts of the peasantry of one village are often imposed upon the inhabitants of another who have paid all that is justly due from them.

[231]. The above account of the government of Egypt, having been written in the years 1834 and 1835, is not altogether correct with respect to the present time (1842). Great changes are now being made in various departments; and as the Básha has no longer to maintain an enormous military and naval force, he will be able to ameliorate very considerably the condition of the people whom he governs. Most of the evils of which the people of Egypt have hitherto had to complain have arisen from the vast expense incurred in war, from the conscription, and from the dishonesty of almost all the Básha’s civil officers.

[232]. Men and women of this race often contract marriages with persons who are not members of the same; and as the title of shereef is inherited from either of the parents, the number of persons who enjoy this distinction has become very considerable.

[233]. This word is thus pronounced by the inhabitants of Cairo and the greater part of Egypt; but in most other countries where Arabic is spoken, “hájj.” The Turks and Persians use, instead of it, the synonymous Arabic word “hájjee.”

[234]. Unless there be a eunuch. The sakka is generally the chief of the servants.

[235]. I believe it is maple.[maple.]

[236]. To preserve the matting or carpet from injury, a small brass tray is often placed beneath the bowl; and a small tray of wood is made use of to receive the ashes of the tobacco.

[237]. A Persian word, signifying “glass.”

[238]. It is, however, often recommended in the case of a cough. One of my friends, the most celebrated of the poets of Cairo, who is much troubled by asthma, uses the nárgeeleh almost incessantly from morning till night.

[239]. This is the name of the beverage; the berries (whether whole or pounded) are called “bunn.”

[240]. In a full service there are ten fingáns and zarfs of uniform kinds, and often another fingán and zarf of a superior kind for the master of the house, or for a distinguished guest. In the accompanying sketch, the coffee-pot (“bekreg,” or “bakrag”) and the zarfs and tray are of silver, and are represented on a scale of one-eighth of the real size. Below this set are a similar zarf and fingán, on a scale of one-fourth, and a brass zarf, with the fingán placed in it. Some zarfs are of plain or gilt silver filigree; and a few opulent persons have them of gold. Many Muslims, however, religiously disallow all utensils of gold and of silver.

[241]. Baron Hammer-Purgstall considers this word a corruption, and writes “chasseki” in its stead; “’áz’kee” (for “’ázikee”[“’ázikee”]) is, however, the term used by the Egyptians.

[242]. They sometimes perfume the beard and mustaches with civet.

[243]. Whether walking or riding, a person of the higher classes is usually attended by a servant bearing his pipe.

[244]. One of the latter (that to the right) is an earthen vessel. Each of the above utensils is represented on a scale of about one-eighth of the real size.

[245]. “Yemeenak! shimálak!” (to thy right! to thy left!), “dahrak!” (thy back!), “wishshak!” (thy face!), “gembak!” (thy side!), “riglak!” (thy foot!), “kaabak!” (thy heel!), and, to a Turk, “sákin!” (take care!), are the most common cries. The following appellations are also often added: “yá efendee!” (to a Turk), “yá sheykh!” (to an old or a middle-aged Muslim native), “yá sabee!” (to a young man), “yá weled!” or “yá ibnee!” (to a boy), “yá shereef!” (to a green turbaned descendant of the Prophet), “yá m’allim!” (to a native Christian, or a Jew), “yá khawágeh!” (to a Frank), “yá sitt!” (to a lady, or a female of the middle order), and “yá bint!” that is “daughter,” or “girl” (to a poor female). A woman of the lower class, however old she be, the servant must call “girl,” or “daughter,” or probably she will not move an inch out of the way. A little girl, or young woman, is often called “’arooseh,” or “bride;” and “hággeh,” or “female pilgrim,” is an appellation often given to women in the streets.

[246]. See Mark vii. 3.

[247]. In the houses of some of the opulent, these utensils are of silver. I have also seen some of gilt copper.

[248]. The width of the former is fourteen inches; and the height of the latter, the same.[same.]

[249]. Or “Bi-smi-lláhi-r-rahmáni-r-raheem” (In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful).

[250]. One of the servants is holding a water-bottle: the other, a fly-whisk, made of palm leaves.

[251]. Our Saviour and His disciples thus ate from one dish. See Matt. xxvi. 23.

[252]. Or he merely sops his morsel of bread in the dish. See Ruth ii. 14; and John xiii. 26.

[253]. The bámiyeh is the esculent “hibiscus:” the part which is eaten is a polygonal pod, generally between one and three inches in length, and of the thickness of a small finger: it is full of seeds and nutritive mucilage, and has a very pleasant flavour. A little lime-juice is usually dropped on the plate of bámiyehs.

[254]. The black and white bádingán are the fruits of two kinds of egg-plant: the red is the tomato.

[255]. Because used for unclean purposes.

[256]. So called from the Persian “khósh áb,” or “sweet water.”

[257]. It is drunk with ladles of tortoise-shell or cocoa-nut.

[258]. The principal and best fruits of Egypt are dates, grapes, oranges and citrons of various kinds, common figs, sycamore-figs, prickly pears, pomegranates, bananas, and a great variety of melons. From this enumeration, it appears that there are not many good fruits in this country.

[259]. Or, “El-hamdu li-lláhi rabbi-l-’álameen” (Praise be to God, the Lord of all creatures).

[260]. It is deemed highly improper to rise during a meal, even from respect to a superior who may approach. It has been mentioned before, that the Prophet forbade his followers to rise while eating, or when about to eat, even if the time of prayer arrived.

[261]. The ancient Egyptians used drinking-cups of brass. (Herodotus, lib. ii. cap. 37.)

[262]. “Amyris kafal” of Forskal. An Arabian tree.

[263]. Baron Hammer-Purgstall has remarked, that two other vessels should have been mentioned here (in the first edition of this work), more especially because their names have been adopted in European languages: they are the “garrah” or “jarrah,” a water-jar or pitcher, and the “demigán” or “demiján,” a large bottle, “la dame-jeanne.”

[264]. “Allah yehenneek” (for “yuhenneek”).

[265]. “Nebeed” (more properly, “nebeedh”), or “mudám.”

[266]. Called simply “sharbát,” or “sharbát sukkar,” or only “sukkar.”

[267]. “Leymoonáteh,” or “sharáb el-leymoon.”

[268]. Called “zebeeb.” This name is also given to an intoxicating conserve.

[269]. A description of the shops, and a further account of the tradesmen of Cairo, will be given in another chapter, on Industry.

[270]. “Námooseeyeh.” It is composed of muslin, or linen of an open texture, or crape, and forms a close canopy.

[271]. In the Introduction to this work.

[272]. “The habit of irregular remuneration, in lieu of fixed, invariable, and actionable wages, produces a difference of mental habits, as regards servants and masters, that I am sure is not to be understood through description; and yet every day you see Europeans, those men who affect such comprehensive views and such powers of logic, reviling the habit of giving presents, not perceiving that this practice leads to the preservation of those interesting domestic relations which I conceive to be the greatest lesson, political and moral, that is presented to us by the Eastern world.”—Urquhart’s Spirit of the East, vol. ii. p. 402.

[273]. See Exodus, xxii. 26, 27.

[274]. The term “hareem” (which, as before mentioned, is applied both to the females of a family and to the apartments which they occupy) signifies prohibited, sacred, etc. The Turks, and many of the Arabs, use the synonymous Arabic term “haram,” which the former pronounce “harem.”

[275]. They are often betrothed two or three or more years earlier.

[276]. Abraham’s sending a messenger to his own country to seek a wife for his son Isaac (see Genesis xxiv.) was just such a measure as most modern Arabs would adopt under similar circumstances, if easily practicable.

[277]. See Genesis xxix. 26.

[278]. It is a common belief in Egypt, that, if any one makes a marriage-contract in the month of Moharram, the marriage will be unhappy, and soon dissolved: wherefore, few persons do so. The most propitious period is the month of Showwál.

[279]. This appellation is commonly given to a schoolmaster. See a [note] in page 48.

[280]. If the bride be not a virgin, a word importing this is substituted; namely, “seyyib,” or, more properly, “theyyib.”

[281]. Among the peasants, however, the father, or other lawful guardian of the bride, receives the dowry, and gives nothing in return but the girl, and sometimes a little corn, etc. The bridegroom, in this case, supplies everything; even the dress of the bride.

[282]. Burckhardt has erred in stating that Monday and Thursday are the days on which the ceremonies immediately previous to the marriage-night are performed, he should have said Sunday and Thursday. He has also fallen into some other errors in the account which he has given of the marriage ceremonies of the Egyptians, in the illustrations of his “Arabic Proverbs” (pp. 112-118). To mention this I feel to be a duty to myself; but one which I perform with reluctance, and not without the fear that Burckhardt’s just reputation for general accuracy may make my reader think that he is right in these cases, and that I am wrong. I write these words in Cairo, with his book before me, and after sufficient experience and inquiries.

[283]. The lantern here represented, which is constructed of wood, and painted green, red, white, and blue, is called “tureiya” (the Arabic name of the Pleiades), and, together with the frame above, from which six lamps are suspended, and which is termed “khátim Suleymán” (or Solomon’s seal), composes what is called a “heml kanádeel.”

[284]. These entertainments I do not here particularly describe, as it is my intention to devote the whole of a subsequent chapter to the subject of private festivities. The “khatmeh” is the recitation of the whole of the Kur-án; and the “zikr,” the repetition of the name of God, or of the profession of his unity, etc.; I shall have occasion to speak of both more fully in another chapter, on the periodical public festivals.

[285]. From the verb ‘adna,’ “he brought,”[From the verb ‘adna,’ “he brought,”] etc.

[286]. These cries of the women, which are heard on various occasions of rejoicing in Egypt and other Eastern countries, are produced by a sharp utterance of the voice, accompanied by a quick, tremulous motion of the tongue.

[287]. I have once seen this “zeffeh,” or procession, and a second which will be described hereafter, go forth much later, and return an hour after sunset.

[288]. The music is generally of a very rude kind; and the airs usually played are those of popular songs; specimens of which will be found in this work.

[289]. For a description of these ornaments, see the Appendix.

[290]. One of the most common of the feats witnessed on such an occasion is the performance of a laborious task by a water-carrier, termed a “keiyim,” who, for the sake of a present, and this empty title, carries a water-skin filled with sand and water, of greater weight, and for a longer period, than any of his brethren will venture to do; and this he must accomplish without ever sitting down, except in a crouching position, to rest. In the case of a bridal procession which I lately witnessed, the keiyim began to carry his burden, a skin of sand and water weighing about two hundred pounds, at sunset of the preceding day; bore it the whole night, and the ensuing day, before and during the procession, and continued to do so till sunset.

[291]. A correct description of this is given in Burckhardt’s “Arabic Proverbs,” pp. 115, 116.

[292]. Grand zeffehs are sometimes accompanied by a number of cars, each bearing a group of persons of some manufacture or trade performing the usual work of their craft; even such as builders, white-washers, etc.; including members of all, or almost all, the arts and manufactures practised in the metropolis.

[293]. Hence this kind of prayer is called “salah memáleekeeyeh,” or “the prayer of memlooks.”

[294]. Sometimes, when the parties are persons of wealth, the bride is displayed before the bridegroom in different dresses, to the number of seven.

[295]. I beg to refer the reader, if he desire further details on this subject, to page 117 of Burckhardt’s “Arabic Proverbs.” His account might have been more complete; but he seems to have studied to be particularly concise in this case.

[296]. Kur-án, chap. lxi., ver. 13.

[297]. A khäwal is also called “gháïsh”; plural, “gheeyásh.”

[298]. This performance is called the bride’s “sabáheeyeh.”

[299]. Among the peasants of Upper Egypt, the relations and acquaintances of the bridegroom and bride meet together on the day after the marriage; and while a number of the men clap their hands, as an accompaniment to a tambourine or two, and any other instruments that can be procured, the bride dances before them for a short time. She has a head-veil reaching to her heels, and a printed cotton handkerchief completely covering her face, and wears, externally, the most remarkable of her bridal garments (mentioned by Burckhardt, in the place before referred to, and, in some parts of Egypt, hung over the door of a peasant’s house after marriage). Other women, similarly veiled, and dressed in their best, or borrowed, clothes, continue the dance about two hours, or more.

[300]. Thus commonly pronounced, for “hamáh,” a word derived from the verb “hama,” “he protected, or guarded.”

[301]. Chap. xxiv. ver. 31.

[302]. See the chapter on Religion and Laws. Eunuchs are allowed to see the face of any woman; so also are young boys.

[303]. Commonly thus pronounced (or rather “durrah,” with a soft d) for “darrah”; originally, perhaps, by way of a pun; as “durrah” is a common name for a parrot.

[304]. The law enjoins a husband who has two or more wives, to be strictly impartial to them in every respect; but compliance with its dictates in this matter is rare.

[305]. See Genesis xvi. 4.

[306]. This has been explained in the 3rd chapter, page 88.

[307]. In general, the most beautiful of a man’s wives or slaves is, of course, for a time, his greatest favourite; but in many (if not most) cases, the lasting favourite is not the most handsome. The love of a Muslim, therefore, is not always merely sensual; nor does the relative condition and comfort of his wife, or of each of his wives, invariably depend so much on his caprice or her own personal charms, as on her general conduct and disposition.

[308]. A Muslim cannot take as a concubine a slave who is an idolatress.

[309]. The white female slave is called “Gáriyeh Beyda;” the Abyssinian, “Gáriyeh Habasheeyeh;” and the black, “Gáriyeh Sóda.”

[310]. The Gellábs generally convey their slaves partly over the desert and partly down the river.

[311]. The motion here described they term “ghung.”

[312]. The Egyptians (unlike the Maghrab′ees, and some other people of Africa and of the East) do not generally admire very fat women. In his love-songs, the Egyptian commonly describes the object of his affections as of slender figure and small waist.

[313]. I observed here,—“It would seem that these insects were eaten by the Jews (see Leviticus xi. 22); but we cannot suppose that they derived this custom from the Egyptians, who regarded the beetle as sacred.”—A learned friend, however, has informed me, that the word rendered “beetle” in our version of the passage of Scripture which occasioned this remark properly signifies a kind of locust.

[314]. It is also called “homár mughattee” (covered ass).

[315]. See Numbers xi. 5.

[316]. Page 122.

[317]. Like the “Keys” and “Yemen” of Syria.

[318]. “’Aleykumu-s selámu wa-rahmatu-lláhi wa-barakátuh,” or merely “’Aleykum es-selám” (On you be peace!); but the longer salutation is more commonly used, in accordance with an injunction in the Kur-án, chap. iv., ver. 88.

[319]. Very few Muslims in Egypt do so. A European traveller, not disguised by Turkish dress, often fancies that he is greeted with this salutation, when it is really intended for his Muslim attendant.

[320]. A Muslim, however, when he receives this salutation from a person of another religion, sometimes replies, “And on you” (Wa-’aleykum).

[321]. Herodotus speaks of the respect paid in Egypt to the aged, and of the polite salutations of the Egyptians to each other. (Lib. ii., cap. 80.)

[322]. Meaning, “I congratulate you on your safety,” and “I hope you are well.”

[323]. Chap. xxiv., ver. 27.

[324]. Chap. vi., p. 162.

[325]. That is, to those who are above him either in office, wealth, or religious or literary reputation.

[326]. The visitor, if superior, or not much inferior in rank to the master of the house, receives his pipe and coffee before the latter.

[327]. Mentioned in Chap. v., p. 136.

[328]. Acquaintances, and even strangers, often address each other as relations, by the terms “Father,” “Son,” “Paternal uncle,” “Son of my paternal uncle,” “Brother,” “Mother,” “Daughter,” “Maternal aunt,” “Daughter of my maternal aunt,” “Sister,” etc.

[329]. It seems probable that the Arabs of Egypt have retained, in this case, a pronunciation which was common, if not almost universal, with their ancestors in Asia.—See De Sacy’s Grammaire Arabe, 2nde ed., tome i., pp. 17 and 18.

[330]. The Arabs began to simplify their spoken language in the first century of the Flight, in consequence of their spreading among foreigners, who could not generally acquire the difficult language which their conquerors had hitherto used. For a proof of this, see “Abulfedæ Annales Muslemici, Arab. et Lat.” vol. i. pp. 432 and 434.

[331]. These are natives. There are also a few Turkish booksellers.

[332]. The Azhar is not called a “university” with strict propriety; but is regarded as such by the Muslims, as whatever they deem worthy of the name of science, or necessary to be known, is taught within its walls. Its name has been translated by European travellers, “the Mosque of Flowers,” as though it had been called “Gámë’ el-Azhár,” instead of “El-Gámë’ el-Azhar,” which is its proper appellation, and signifies “the Splendid Mosque.” It is the first, with respect to the period of its foundation, as well as in size, of all the mosques within the original limits of the city.—The preceding portion of this note (which was inserted in the first edition of the present work) appears to have escaped the notice of Baron Hammer-Purgstall, for he has remarked (in the Vienna “Jahrbücher der Literatur,” lxxxi. Bd., p. 71) that, instead of “Azhar,” I should have written, in this case, “Esher” [or “Ezher”]; the former, he says, signifying “flowers.” The name of the mosque in question (synonymous with “neiyir,” or “splendid,” etc.) is pronounced by almost all the natives of Egypt, and the Arabs in general, as I have written it, “Azhar,” with the accent on the first syllable; and the plural of “zahreh” (a flower), “azhár;” but by the Turks the former word is pronounced “ezher.”

[333]. In the singular, “mugáwir.”

[334]. Many persons say that their number is not less than three thousand; others, not more than one thousand. It varies very much at different times.

[335]. Since this was written he became Sheykh of the Azhar.

[336]. A celebrated compendious collection of the Traditions of the Prophet.

[337]. The saloon of the tomb.

[338]. That is, towards the niche which marks the direction of Mekkeh.

[339]. The twelfth century of the Flight commenced on the 16th or 17th of October, A.D. 1688.

[340]. It is the general opinion of our chronologers, that the first day of the Muslim era of “the Flight” (in Arabic, “el-Hijrah,” or, as it is pronounced by most of the Egyptians, “el-Higreh,” more correctly translated “the Emigration”) was Friday, the 16th of July, A.D. 622. It must be remarked, that the Arabs generally commence each month on the night on which the new moon is first actually seen; and this night is, in most cases, the second, but sometimes and in some places the third, after the true period of the new moon: if, however, the moon is not seen on the second or third night, the month is commenced on the latter. The new moon of July, A.D. 622, happened between five and six o’clock in the morning of the 14th: therefore the 16th was most probably the first day of the era. This era does not commence from the day on which the Prophet departed from Mekkeh (as supposed by most of our authors who have mentioned this subject), but from the first day of the moon or month of Moharram preceding that event. It is said that Mohammad, after he had remained three days concealed in a cave near Mekkeh, with Aboo-Bekr began his journey, or “the flight,” to El-Medeeneh, on the ninth day of the third month (Rabeea el-Owwal), sixty-eight days after the commencement of the era. Thus the first two months are made of thirty days each, which is often the case when the calculation from the actual sight of the new moon is followed; and the flight itself, from the cave, may be inferred to have commenced on the 22nd of September. It may be added, that this record, by showing that each of the first two months consisted of thirty days, strengthens the supposition that the era commenced on the 16th of July. On the eve of the 15th, the moon was not visible.

[341]. Consequently the time of noon according to Mohammadan reckoning, on any particular day, subtracted from twelve, gives the apparent time of sunset, on that day, according to European reckoning.

[342]. The periods of the ’eshë, daybreak, and ’asr, are here given according to the reckoning most commonly followed in Egypt. (See the chapter on religion and laws.) Mo. T. denotes Mohammadan Time: Eur. T., European Time.

[343]. More than a hundred books have been printed at this press: most of them for the use of the military, naval, and civil servants of the government.

[344]. As the Greeks believed in the age of Homer and Hesiod.

[345]. It has been justly remarked, by Baron Hammer-Purgstall, that the present chapter of this work is very deficient. I should gladly have made its contents more ample, had I not felt myself obliged to consult the taste of the general reader, upon whose patience I fear I have already trespassed to too great an extent by the insertion of much matter calculated to interest only Orientalists. With respect to recent innovations, I have made but few and brief remarks in this work, in consequence of my having found the lights of European science almost exclusively confined to those servants of the Government, who have been compelled to study under Frank instructors, and European customs adopted by scarcely any persons excepting a few Turks. Some Egyptians who had studied for a few years in France declared to me that they could not instil any of the notions which they had there acquired even into the minds of their most intimate friends.

[346]. I measured the height of a zóba’ah, with a sextant, at Thebes, under circumstances which insured a very near approximation to perfect accuracy (observing its altitude, from an elevated spot, at the precise moment when it passed through, and violently agitated, a distant group of palm-trees), and found it to be seven hundred and fifty feet. I think that several zóba’ahs which I have seen were of greater height. Others, which I measured at the same place, were between five hundred and seven hundred feet in height.

[347]. According to some writers, the Gánn are the least powerful class of Genii.

[348]. It is a custom of many “fukaha” (or learned and devout persons), and some others, to say, “In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful,” on locking a door, covering bread, laying down their clothes at night, and on other occasions; and this, they believe, protects their property from genii. The thing over which these words have been pronounced is termed “musemmee (for “musemma”) ’aleyh.”

[349]. As is the case also in Switzerland.

[350]. Also (and, I believe, more properly) written “dalik,” but commonly pronounced as above.

[351]. In the original, “owliya,” plural of “welee.”

[352]. Chap, x., ver. 63.

[353]. A miracle performed by a welee is termed “karámeh:” one performed by a prophet, “moagiz′eh.”

[354]. In the plural forms, “Nukaba,” “Angáb” or “Nugaba,” and “Abdál.”

[355]. For “Báb El-Mutawellee.”

[356]. This mysterious person, according to the more approved opinion of the learned, was not a prophet, but a just man, or saint, the Wezeer and counsellor of the first Zu-l-Karneyn, who was a universal conqueror, but an equally doubtful personage, contemporary with the patriarch Ibráheem, or Abraham. El-Khidr is said to have drunk of the Fountain of Life, in consequence of which he lives till the day of judgment, and to appear frequently to Muslims in perplexity. He is generally clad in green garments; whence, according to some, his name.

[357]. See 1 Kings xviii. 12, and 2 Kings ii. 9-16.

[358]. A street on the south of the Báb Zuweyleh.

[359]. Like that of the Sage Doobán, whose story is told in “The Thousand and One Nights.”

[360]. It is also said that similar phenomena, but not so brilliant, distinguish some other tombs at El-Medeeneh and elsewhere.

[361]. Several superstitious customs, observed in the performance of many ordinary actions, result from their extravagant respect for their prophet, and their saints in general. For instance, on lighting the lamp in the evening, more particularly at a shop, it is customary to say, “Commemorate Mohammad, and forget not the excellencies of ’Alee; the Fát’hah for the Prophet, and for every welee;” and then to repeat the Fát’hah. It is usual to say, on first seeing the new moon, “O God, favour our lord Mohammad! God make thee a blessed moon (or month);” and on looking at one’s face in a glass, “O God, favour our lord Mohammad!” This ejaculation being used to counteract the influence of the evil eye, it seems as if an Arab feared the effect even of his own admiring look.

[362]. See the account of the water-carriers in Chap. xiv.

[363]. Called the “Shems el-Kebeereh.”

[364]. The “zikr” will be fully described in another chapter, on the periodical public festivals, etc.

[365]. See St. Matthew xxiii. 29.

[366]. Often improperly called “esh-Sheykh es-Sádát.”

[367]. The title is “sáheb seggádeh.”

[368]. In most of their juggling performances the darweeshes of Egypt are inferior to the most expert of the Indians.

[369]. Thus commonly pronounced, for Esh-Shaaránee.

[370]. From “khalweh,” a cell, or closet.

[371]. “See” is a vulgar contraction of “Seedee,” which is itself a contraction of “Seyyidee,” signifying “My Master,” or “Mister.”

[372]. Called “áyát-el-hefz” (the verses of protection, or preservation).

[373]. Just before I quitted my house in Cairo to return to England[England], a friend, who had been my sheykh (or tutor), wrote on a slip of paper, “There is no deity but God: Mohammad is God’s apostle:” then tore it in halves, gave me the latter half (on which was written “Mohammad is God’s apostle”), and concealed the other in a crack in the roof of a little cupboard in my usual sitting-room. This was to insure my coming back to Cairo: for it is believed that the profession of the faith cannot remain incomplete: so that by my keeping the latter half always upon my person, it would bring me back to the former half.

[374]. These, it is said, were Christian youths of Ephesus, who took refuge from the persecution of the emperor Decius in a cave, and slept there, guarded by their dog, for the space of 300 [solar] or 309 [lunar] years. (See the Kur-án, chap. xviii.)

[375]. Called “mukhallafát en-nebee.”

[376]. A shirt which is said to have been worn by the Prophet is preserved in the mosque of El-Ghóree, in Cairo. It is wrapped in a Kashmeer shawl; and not shown to any but persons of very high rank.

[377]. The “burdeh,” which is worn by some of the peasants in Egypt, is an oblong piece of thick woollen stuff, resembling the “herám,” excepting in colour, being generally brown or greyish. It appears to have been, in earlier times, always striped; but some modern burdehs are plain, and others have stripes so narrow and near together, that at a little distance the stuff appears to be of one colour. The Prophet’s is described as about seven feet and a half in length, and four and a half in width. It was used by him, as burdehs are at present, both to envelop the body by day, and as a night-covering.—I may be excused for remarking here (as it seems to be unknown to some Arabic scholars) that the terms “akhdar” and “ahmar,” which are applied by different historians to the Prophet’s burdeh, are used to signify respectively grey and brown, as well as green and red.

[378]. This superstition explains many customs which would otherwise seem unaccountable.

[379]. The ejaculation which I thus translate is “Yá selám[selám],” or “Yá selámu sellim.” “Es-Selám” is one of the names of the Deity.

[380]. This is the name of the tenth day of Moharram.

[381]. Now equivalent to a farthing and one-fifth.

[382]. This is, Caireen.

[383]. The fat of the tail is esteemed a dainty.

[384]. See the engraving of a door with this inscription inserted in the introduction, p. 6.

[385]. Called “áyát esh-shifë” (the verses of restoration).

[386]. By Robert Hay, Esq., who purchased it from a peasant at Thebes.

[387]. Every year, on the first day of the Great Festival, which immediately follows the pilgrimage, a new covering is hung upon the Kaabeh. The old one is cut up; and the greater part of it is sold to the pilgrims.

[388]. It has been said, by a traveller, that this is only done at pilgrims’ houses: but such is not the case, at least in Egypt.

[389]. A sequin of this description is termed “benduk′ee musháhrah.”

[391]. The more approved záïrgehs are extremely complicated, and the process of consulting them involves intricate astrological calculations.

[392]. This superstition, however, was condemned by the Prophet.

[393]. I was informed that he had died during my second visit to Egypt.

[394]. I must be excused for deviating from our old and erroneous mode of writing the name of the master of the “wonderful lamp.” It is vulgarly pronounced ’Aláy-ed-Deen.

[395]. Of a more famous magician, the sheykh Ahmad Sádoomeh, who flourished in Egypt in the latter half of the last century, an account is given in my translation of “The Thousand and One Nights,” chap. i., note 15.

[396]. Or, “Tarsh” and “Taryoosh;” the final “un” being the inflexion which denotes the nominative case.

[397]. He generally requires some benzoin to be added to these.

[398]. The numbers in this magic square, in our own ordinary characters, are as follows:—

┌───┬───┬───┐

│ 4 │ 9 │ 2 │

├───┼───┼───┤

│ 3 │ 5 │ 7 │

├───┼───┼───┤

│ 8 │ 1 │ 6 │

└───┴───┴───┘

It will be seen that the horizontal, vertical, and diagonal rows give, each, the same sum, namely, 15.

[399]. This reminds us of animal magnetism.

[400]. Dark blue is called by the modern Egyptians “eswed,” which properly signifies black, and is therefore so translated here.

[401]. Whenever I desired the boy to call for any person to appear, I paid particular attention both to the magician and to ’Osmán. The latter gave no direction either by word or sign; and indeed he was generally unacquainted with the personal appearance of the individual called for. I took care that he had no previous communication with the boys; and have seen the experiment fail when he could have given directions to them, or to the magician. In short, it would be difficult to conceive any precaution which I did not take. It is important to add, that the dialect of the magician was more intelligible to me than to the boy. When I understood him perfectly at once, he was sometimes obliged to vary his words to make the boy comprehend what he said.

[402]. A few months after this was written, I had the pleasure of hearing that the person here alluded to was in better health. Whether he was confined to his bed at the time when this experiment was performed, I have not been able to ascertain.

[403]. I have been gratified by finding that this hope has been realized. I wish I could add that the phenomena were now explained. In No. 117 of the “Quarterly Review,” pp. 202 and 203, it has been suggested that the performances were effected by means of pictures and a concave mirror; and that the images of the former were reflected from the surface of the mirror, and received on a cloud of smoke under the eyes of the boy. This, however, I cannot admit; because such means could not have been employed without my perceiving them; nor would the images be reversed (unless the pictures were so) by being reflected from the surface of a mirror, and received upon a second surface; for the boy was looking down upon the palm of his hand, so that an image could not be formed upon the smoke (which was copious but not dense) between his eye and the supposed mirror. The grand difficulty of the case is the exhibition of “the correct appearance of private individuals unknown to fame,” as remarked in the “Quarterly Review,” in which a curious note, presenting “some new features of difficulty,” is appended. With the most remarkable of the facts there related I was acquainted; but I was not bold enough to insert them. I may now, however, here mention them. Two travellers (one of them, M. Léon Delaborde; the other, an Englishman), both instructed by the magician ’Abd-el-Kádir, are stated to have succeeded in performing similar feats. Who this Englishman was, I have not been able to learn: he positively denied all collusion, and asserted that he did nothing but repeat the forms taught him by the magician.

[404]. I am credibly informed that children in Egypt are often taught, at school, a regular set of curses to denounce upon the persons and property of Christians, Jews, and all other unbelievers in the religion of Mohammad. See Appendix D.

[405]. Chap. v., ver. 56. Verses 62 and 63 of the same chapter explain the reason of this precept:—“O ye who have believed, take not those who have made your religion a laughing-stock and a jest, of those who have received the Scripture before you, and the unbelievers [or polytheists], as friends; (but fear God, if ye be believers;) and [those who], when ye call to prayer, make it [namely, the prayer] a laughing-stock and a jest. This [they do] because they are a people who do not understand.” (The words enclosed in brackets are from the Commentary of the Geláleyn.)

[406]. The Prophet.

[407]. Kur-án, chap. xxxix. ver. 54.

[408]. Chap. xxix., ver. 45.

[409]. In the first edition of the present work, copying Sale, who gives no authority for the remark, I here added, “This precept is, however, generally considered as abrogated by that of the sword.” These words might lead the reader into error, as is shown by what I have said on the subject of war in page 81.

[410]. Kur-án, chap. lvi. ver. 78.

[411]. They are not, however, so apathetic as some travellers have supposed; for it is not uncommon to see them weep; and such a demonstration of feeling is not considered by them as unmanly: even heroes are frequently represented, in their romances and histories, as weeping under heavy affliction.

[412]. Chap. ii., ver. 191.

[413]. Literally, “your hands;” but in the Commentary of the Geláleyn, the meaning is said to be “yourselves.”

[414]. I think it proper to remark here, that I have good reason for believing Burckhardt to have been misinformed when stating (see his “Arabic Proverbs,” No. 393) that children in the East (in Egypt, etc.) torture serpents by putting them into a leather bag, then throwing unslaked lime upon them, and pouring water on it. I find no one who has heard of such cruelty; and it is not likely that boys in this country would dare to put a serpent in a bag (for they are excessively afraid of this reptile), or would give several piasters for a bag to destroy in this manner. The proverb upon which this statement is founded perhaps alludes to a mode of destroying serpents; but not for sport.

[415]. “The oppression of the Turks, rather than the justice of the Arabs,” is a proverb often heard from the mouth of the Arab peasant; who, in this case, applies the term “Arabs” to his own class, instead of the Bedawees, to whom it now usually belongs. See Burckhardt’s “Arabic Proverbs,” No. 176.

[416]. D’Herbelot mentions a somewhat similar case, in which a Turk, having buried a favourite dog with some marks of respect, in his garden, was accused, before the Kádee, of having interred the animal with the ceremonies practised at the burial of a Muslim, and escaped punishment (perhaps a severe one) by informing the judge that his dog had made a will, leaving to him (the Kádee) a sum of money.—(Bibliothèque Orientale, art. Cadhi.)

[417]. See Burckhardt’s Notes on the Bedouins, etc., 8vo edition, vol. i. pp. 179 and 180.

[418]. It has been remarked that this is inconsistent with the undeniable gratitude which the Arabs feel towards God. To such an objection they would reply, “We are entitled to the good offices of our fellow-creatures by the law of God; but can claim no benefit from our Maker.” I once afforded a refuge to a Bedawee who was in fear for his life; but on parting, he gave me not a word of thanks: had he done so, it would have implied his thinking me a person of mean disposition, who regarded a positive duty as an act imposing obligation. Hence the Arab usually acknowledges a benefit merely by a prayer for the long life, etc., of his benefactor.

[419]. The name which they give to it is “’eysh,” which literally signifies “life.”

[420]. Page 46.

[421]. Dogs, too, are eaten by many Maghrab′ees settled at Alexandria, and by descendants of the same people; of whom there are also a few in Cairo, in the quarter of Teyloon.

[422]. Kur-án, chap. vi., ver. 118.

[423]. To express that a person has done this, they say, “sháhad el-hawáïg,” for “ghasal el-hawáïg wa-teshahhad ’aleyha.”

[424]. See Leviticus xix. 32.

[425]. This is not meant to reflect upon the Turks, nor upon the Arabs of the desert.

[426]. Chap. vii., ver. 142.

[427]. In the first edition of the present work, I included, among these supposed causes, the degree of restraint imposed upon the women, and their seclusion from open intercourse with the other sex. This I did, not because confinement is said to have this effect in the West, where, being contrary to general custom, it is felt as an oppression, but because the assertion of the Egyptians, that the Eastern women in general are more licentiously disposed than the men, seemed to be an argument against the main principle of the constitution of Eastern society. I did not consider that this argument is at least counter-balanced by what I have before mentioned, that the women who are commonly considered the most licentious (namely, those of Egypt) are those who are said to have most licence.

[428]. Chap. xxiv., ver. 4.

[429]. Vulgarly called “Muristán.”

[430]. Madness is said to be more common and more violent in Egypt when the black bádingán (or black egg-plant) is in season; that is, in the hot weather.

[431]. “How many men, in Masr,” said one of my friends to me, “have lost their lives on account of women! A very handsome young libertine, who lived in this house which you now occupy, was beheaded here in the street, before his own door, for an intrigue with the wife of a Bey, and all the women of Masr wept for him.”

[432]. A respectable female is generally addressed, in a letter, as “the guarded lady, and concealed jewel” (“es-sitt el-masooneh wa-l-góharah el-meknooneh”).

[433]. Kur-án, chap. v., ver. 91.

[434]. “Wekáleh” (generally pronounced by the Franks occaleh, occal, etc.) is for “Dár el-Wekáleh,” signifying a factory.

[435]. This has long been the case in other Eastern countries. See Jeremiah xxxvii. 21.

[436]. The tradesman keeps his main stock of goods (if more than his shop will contain) in this magazine, or in his private dwelling, or in a wekáleh.

[437]. As Ephron did to Abraham, when the latter expressed his wish to purchase the cave and field of Machpelah. See Genesis xxiii. 11.

[438]. El-Is-hákee states that the custom of smoking tobacco began to be common in Egypt between the years of the Flight 1010 and 1012 (A.D. 1601 and 1603).

[439]. El-Gabartee relates, that about a century ago, in the time of Mohammad Básha El-Yedekshee (or Yedekchee), who governed Egypt in the years of the Flight, 1156-8, it frequently happened that when a man was found with a pipe in his hand in Cairo, he was made to eat the bowl with its burning contents. This may seem incredible, but a pipe-bowl may be broken by strong teeth. The tobacco first used in the East was probably very strong.

[440]. See De Sacy’s Chrestomathie Arabe, vol. i., pp. 412-483, 2nde ed.

[441]. “Kahweh,” being the name of the beverage sold at the coffee-shop, is hence applied to the shop itself.

[442]. A decoction of ginger, sweetened with sugar, is likewise often sold at the Kahwehs, particularly on the nights of festivals.

[443]. See, on this subject, the close of chapter xxii.

[444]. See the Plan, of which the following is an explanation.—A, General entrance and vestibule. B, B, Meslakh. C, C, C, C, C, Leewáns. D, Station of the M’allim. E, Faskeeyeh. F, Coffee-stall. G, G, Latrinæ. H, Beytowwal. I, I, Leewán. K, K, Mastab′ahs. L, L, Harárah. M, M, M, M, Leewáns. N, Faskeeyeh. O, O, Two chambers, each containing a maghtas (or tank). P, P, Hanafeeyehs. Q, Place of the fire, over which is the boiler.

[445]. This operation is termed “tekyees,” and the bag “kees el-hammán,[el-hammán,]” hence the operator is called “mukeyyisátee,” or more properly, “mukeyyis.”

[446]. The depilatory called “noorah,” which is often employed in the bath, being preferred to the resin more commonly used, is composed, as I am informed, of quick-lime with a small proportion (about an eighth part) of orpiment. It is made into a paste, with water, before application; and loosens the hair in about two minutes, when it is washed off.—See Russell’s Aleppo, vol. i, pp. 134, 378, 379: 2nd edition.

[447]. The larger seegas, in like manner, require a sufficient number of kelbs to occupy all the ’eyns excepting one.

[448]. During my last residence at Thebes, a fine athletic man, the best gereed-player of the place, whom I had taken into my service as a nightly guard, received a very severe wound at this game; and I had some difficulty to effect a cure: he was delirious for many hours in consequence of it, and had nearly lost his life. The gereed struck him a little before his ear, and penetrated downwards into his neck.

[449]. This is most remarkable in the more refined Egyptian music; but it is also observable in the airs of some common ballads and chants.

[450]. Often, in such cases, pronounced in an unusually broad manner, and the last syllable drawled out, thus—“Allauh!”

[451]. A friend (a native of Egypt) has observed to me, since the first edition of this work was printed, that “rabáb” would be a more proper term for this instrument, being the general Arabic name for a viol; but I never heard it called in Egypt by any other name than “kemengeh.” It is also thus called in Syria.

[452]. The mouth-piece (A B) of the zummárah is movable.

[453]. The arghool has three movable pieces to lengthen the longer tube (A B, B C, and C D); and is sometimes used with only one or two of these; and sometimes with none of them.

[454]. Here, in accordance with a rule observed in most modern Arab songs, the masculine gender is applied to the beloved object, who is, nevertheless, a female, as will be seen in several subsequent verses. In translation, I therefore substitute the feminine gender in every case where our language distinguishes gender. Some words occur, bearing double meanings, which I leave unexplained. I write the Arabic words as they are generally pronounced in Cairo, excepting in the case of one letter, which I represent by “k,” to express the sound which persons of education give to it instead of the more usual hiatus.

[455]. The Arabs find it impossible to utter three consonants together without a pause between the second and third: hence the introduction of the short vowel which terminates this word: it is a single letter that is represented by sh.

[456]. Or pace, or strut.

[457]. “Yá lellee,” which is thus translated, is a common ejaculation indicative of joy synonymous with “yá farhatee.” It is difficult to render this and other cant terms.

[458]. This line and the first of the next stanza require an additional note, which is the same as the last note of these lines, to be added at the commencement

[459]. This and some other lines require that the note which should be the last if they were of more correct measure be transferred to the commencement of the next line.

[460]. The famous saint Es-seyyid Ahmad El-Bedawee, who is buried at Tanta, in the Delta.

[461]. That is, the air of the song.

[462]. Namely, the black eyes.

[463]. The intoxication here meant is that of love, as is generally the case when this expression is used in Arab songs.

[464]. Cairo.

[465]. An ornament described in the Appendix, resembling a necklace of pearls, etc., attached on each side of the head-dress.

[466]. A kind of long necklace, reaching to the girdle.

[467]. The furniture consists of carpets, etc., spread upon the floor.

[468]. The lock of hair which hangs over the temple, commonly called “maksoos.”

[469]. “Bent” is a vulgar contraction of “bánet.”

[470]. Dual of “eed,” vulg. for “yed;” meaning “arm” as well as “hand.”

[471]. A vulgar diminutive of “má,” water.

[472]. More commonly called “nárgeeleh:” the Persian pipe.

[473]. The dark-complexioned girl has two white roses on her cheeks, instead of red.

[474]. Or, thou who hast.

[475]. In the chapter on religion and laws.

[476]. Since this was written, public female dancing and prostitution were prohibited by the government, in the beginning of June, 1834. Women detected infringing this new law are to be punished with fifty stripes for the first offence; and, for repeated offences, are to be also condemned to hard labour for one or more years: men are obnoxious to the discipline of the bastinado when parties in such offences. But there is a simple plan for evading punishment in cases of this kind, which, it is said, will be adopted by many persons. A man may marry a venal female, legally, and divorce her the next day. He has only to say two or three words, and pay a small sum of money, which he calls her dowry. He says, “Will you marry me?” She answers, “Yes.” “For how much?” he asks. She names the sum, and he gives it: she is then his lawful wife. The next day he tells her that she is divorced from him. He need be under little apprehension of her demanding the expenses of her maintenance during the period of her ’eddeh, before the expiration of which she cannot legally marry another man; for the marriage which has just been contracted and dissolved is only designed as a means of avoiding punishment in case of her being detected with the man; and otherwise is kept secret; and the sum which she can demand for her maintenance during the above-mentioned period is very paltry in comparison with that which she may obtain by taking a new husband every two or three days.

[477]. Lib. v., Epigr. 79.

[478]. Sat. xi., v. 162.

[479]. Commonly pronounced “Barám’keh.”

[480]. From the effect which it produced, it is probable that the dance performed by the daughter of Herodias was of the kind here described. See Matthew xiv. 6, 7, or Mark vi. 22, 23.

[481]. The courtesans of other classes abound in every town of Egypt; but in and about the metropolis, these and the others before mentioned are particularly numerous; some quarters being inhabited almost exclusively by them. These women frequently conduct themselves with the most audacious effrontery. Their dress is such as I have described as being worn by the Ghawázee, or differs from that of respectable women in being a little more gay, and less disguising. Some women of the venal class in Cairo not only wear the burko’ (or face-veil), but dress, in every respect, like modest women; from whom they cannot be distinguished, excepting by those to whom they choose to discover themselves. Such women are found in almost every quarter of the metropolis. Many of them are divorced women, or widows; and many are the wives of men whom business obliges to be often abroad.

[482]. The term “Gháïsh” (plural, “Gheeyásh”) is also applied to a person of this class.

[483]. See Psalm lviii. 4, 5; Eccles. x. 11; and Jerem. viii. 17.

[484]. In the account of the Moolid en-Nebee, in the first of the chapters on periodical public festivals, etc.

[485]. So called from his feats with serpents.

[486]. They tattoo, or make those blue marks upon the skin which I have described in the first chapter of this work; and perform the operation alluded to in a note inserted, page 48.

[487]. Thus vulgarly pronounced for “’Ewad.”

[488]. A description of this will be found in a subsequent chapter.

[489]. A kind of paste, resembling vermicelli.

[490]. This exhibition is called in Arabic “khayál ed-dill,” or, more correctly, “— edh-dhill.”

[491]. See the engraving opposite p. 359.

[492]. The reciter is generally heard to greater advantage in public than when he is hired to entertain a private party; as, in the former case, his profits are usually proportioned to the talent which he displays.

[493]. These words commence a piece of poetry of which a translation will be found in this chapter.

[494]. Literally, “Thou who hast a valiant maternal uncle!” I add this note merely for the sake of mentioning, that the Arabs generally consider innate virtues as inherited through the mother rather than the father, and believe that a man commonly resembles, in his good and evil qualities, his maternal uncle.

[495]. When the reciter utters these words, we hear, from the lips of most of the Muslims who are listening to him, the prayer of “Alláhum sallee ’aleyh!”—“O God, favour him!”

[496]. It is thus described in the romance: but a headless spear was formerly sometimes used instead of the “gereed,” or palm-stick.

[497]. Hence the Mohadditeen are sometimes called “Záhireeyeh.”

[498]. Es-Sáleh was of the house of Eiyoob, a family of Kurds.

[499]. “The ’A’dileeyeh” is the name of a mosque founded by El-Melik El-’A’dil Toomán Bey, in the year of the Flight 906 (A.D. 1501), outside the wall of Cairo, near the great gate called Báb en-Nasr. The same name is also given to the neighbourhood of that mosque.

[500]. ’Osmán (vulgarly called ’Otmán and ’Etmán) Ibn-El-Hebla was a rogue whom Beybars took into his service as groom, and compelled to vow repentance at the shrine of the seyyideh Nefeeseh (great-granddaughter of the Imám Hasan), and, soon after, made his mukaddam, or chief of his servants.

[501]. Damascus.

[502]. Eighty stripes, the punishment ordained for drunkenness.

[503]. ’Osmán, for the sake of a rude joke, changes the name of the Wezeer Sháheen (El-Afram) into an appellation too coarse to be here translated.

[504]. Grooms, also employed as running footmen.

[505]. A lane from which the house was entered.

[506]. Sometimes called in this work “Básha” of Syria.

[507]. This is an allusion to ’Aláy-ed-Deen’s having eaten a dish that had been prepared for Beybars, when the latter had just entered the service of the Sultán Es-Sáleh.

[508]. The Magnified King.

[509]. A dish of lamb’s feet, cooked with garlic and vinegar, etc.

[510]. Since the above was written, I have found that El-Idreesee applies the term “Hasheesheeyeh,” which is exactly synonymous with “Hashshásheen,” to the “Assassins:” this, therefore, decides the question.

[511]. The latter, being a masculine appellation, is evidently a corruption of the former. The name is written “Delhem′eh” in the older portions of some volumes in my possession, made up of fragments of this work. One of these portions appears to be at least three centuries old. In some of the more modern fragments, the name is written “Zu-l-Himmeh.”

[512]. The ’Ulama in general despise the romance of ’Antar, and ridicule the assertion that El-Asma’′ee was its author.

[513]. These are not terms of reproach among the Arabs, but of praise.

[514]. When the narrator introduces poetry, he generally desires his readers and hearers to bless the Prophet. Frequently he merely says, “Bless ye the Apostle:” and often, “Bless ye him for [the visit to] whose tomb burdens are bound:” i.e. “Bless ye him whose tomb is an object of pilgrimage:” for, though the pilgrimage ordained by the Kur-án is that to the temple of Mekkeh and Mount ’Arafát, yet the Prophet’s tomb is also an object of pious pilgrimage.—I translate the poetry from this tale verse for verse, imitating the system pursued with regard to rhyme in the originals.

[515]. Tá-Há (which is the title of the 20th chapter of the Kur-án, and is composed of two letters of the Arabic alphabet) is considered, and often used, as a name of the Arabian Prophet (of whom Mustaf′a and Ahmad, as well as Mohammad, are also names): so likewise is Yá-Seen, which is the title of the 36th chapter of the Kur-án.

[516]. The “litám” (or “lithám”) is a piece of drapery with which a Bedawee often covers the lower part of his face. It frequently prevents his being recognised by another Arab, who might make him a victim of blood-revenge.

[517]. It was the custom to entitle the chief of a powerful tribe “El-Melik,” or “the King.”

[518]. This custom seems to have been copied from the Jews, who are accustomed to abound in almsgiving and other good works during the ten days commencing with their New Year’s Day and ending with the Day of Atonement, more than in all the rest of the year.—See Dr. M’Caul’s “Old Paths,” pp. 125, 129.

[519]. At present, equivalent to a farthing and one-fifth.

[520]. The “malkaf” has been described in the Introduction to this work, page 14.

[521]. This is a common expression of affection, meaning, “Thou who art as dear to me as my eye.”

[522]. The words were, “Yá Aboo-Bekr, Yá ’Omar, Yá ’Osmán, Yá ’Alee, Yá Hasan, Yá Hoseyn, Yá seyyid Ahmad Rifá’ah, Yá seyyid ’Abd-el-Kadir, El-Geelánee, Yá seyyid Ahmad El-Bedawee, Yá seyyid Ibráheem Ed-Dasookee.”

[523]. Aboo-So’ood was a very famous saint; and, being esteemed the most holy person of his day, received the appellation of “Sultán,” which has been conferred upon several other very eminent welees, and, when thus applied, signifies “King of Saints.” The tomb of Aboo-So’ood is among the mounds of rubbish on the south of Cairo.

[524]. The term “hágg” is applied both collectively and individually (to the whole caravan, or body of pilgrims, and to a single pilgrim).

[525]. Many persons who have not applied themselves to the study of natural history are ignorant of the remarkable fact that the camel has in itself a provision against hunger, besides its well-known supply against thirst. When deprived of its usual food for several successive days, it feeds upon the fat of its own hump, which, under these circumstances, gradually disappears before the limbs are perceptibly reduced. This explanation of the use of an excrescence, which would otherwise seem a mere inconvenient incumbrance, shows how wonderfully the camel is adapted to the peculiar circumstances in which Providence has placed it, and perhaps may be applied with equal propriety to the hump of the bull and cow, and some other animals, in hot and arid climates.

[526]. Had I remained stationary, somewhat more than two hours would have elapsed before the whole caravan had passed me.

[527]. This seems to be the correct appellation, but it is commonly called “Mahmal;” and I shall follow, on future occasions, the usual pronunciation.

[528]. Or, as pronounced in Arabia, Hejáz.

[529]. Almost all travellers have given erroneous accounts of the Mahmal: some asserting that its covering is that which is destined to be placed over the tomb of the Prophet: others, that it contains the covering which is to be suspended round the Kaabeh. Burckhardt, with his general accuracy, describes it as a mere emblem of royalty.

[530]. The twelfth day of Rabeea el-Owwal is also the anniversary of the death of Mohammad. It is remarkable that his birth and death are both related to have happened on the same day of the same month, and on the same day of the week, namely, Monday.

[531]. Like that represented in Chap. VI.

[532]. Represented in Chap. V., near the end.

[533]. This was his name, not a title.

[534]. The angels in heaven.

[535]. The author of the poem. The singer sometimes puts his own name in the place of this.

[536]. “Tá-Há” (as I have mentioned on a former occasion) is a name of the Arabian Prophet.

[537]. As a proof of this, I may mention, that, since the above was written, I have found the last six of the lines here translated, with some slight alterations, inserted as a common love-song in a portion of “The Thousand and One Nights,” printed at Calcutta (vol. i., page 425).

[538]. “Yá ’ammee!” signifies “O my uncle!”

[539]. Few of the spectators, or hearers, gave more than ten faddahs; and those of the poorer classes gave nothing, and indeed were not solicited.

[540]. I believe there were double this number; for I think I may safely say that I saw as many as double on a subsequent occasion, at the festival of the Mearág, which will hereafter be described.

[541]. It is said that the second sheykh of the Saadeeyeh (the immediate successor of the founder of the order) rode over heaps of glass bottles, without breaking any of them!

[542]. Performers of zikrs of this kind have been called, by various travellers, “barking, or howling, dervishes.”

[543]. Thefts are also sometimes committed in this mosque on other occasions, as a friend of mine lately experienced.—“I went there,” said he, “to pray; and, as I was stooping over the brink of the ‘meydaäh,’ to perform the ablution, having placed my shoes beside me, and was saying, ‘I purpose to perform the divine ordinance of the “wudoó,”’ somebody behind me said to himself, ‘I purpose to take away this nice pair of shoes.’ On looking round, I found an old worn-out pair of shoes put in the place of my own, which were new.”

[544]. ’Eesa is the Arabic name of Jesus, and not uncommon among Muslims, as they acknowledge and highly venerate the Messiah.

[545]. The performances of Richardson, described in Evelyn’s Memoirs (pp. 375-6, 8vo edition), appear to have surpassed those of the darweeshes here mentioned.

[546]. “Seyyidna” signifies “our lord.”

[547]. About this time, the Turkish pilgrims, on their way to Mekkeh, begin to arrive in Egypt.

[548]. This mosque was commenced shortly before the invasion of Egypt by the French, and completed soon after they had quitted the country.

[549]. This tale applies to the Khaleefeh El-Hákim. I have heard it related with some trifling differences.

[550]. In the Commentary of the Geláleyn, “Sidrat el-Muntah′a,” or the Lote-tree of the Extremity (Kur-án, chap. liii., verse 14), is interpreted as signifying “The Lote-tree beyond which neither angels nor others can pass.”

[551]. The Preserved Tablet, on which are said to be written the original of the Kur-án, and all God’s decrees, is here commonly understood; but I am informed that the “Original” (or, literally, the “Mother”) “of the Book” is God’s knowledge or prescience.

[552]. Kur-án, chap. xiii., verse 39.

[553]. Kur-án, chap. xliv., verse 3.—By some persons these words are supposed to apply to the Night of el-Kadr, which will hereafter be mentioned.

[554]. Mohammad gloried in his illiteracy, as a proof of his being inspired: it had the same effect upon his followers as the words of our Saviour had upon the Jews, who remarked, “How knoweth this man letters, having never learned?”—John vii. 15.

[555]. “The best of the Creation” is an appellation of the Prophet.

[556]. It is from this latter office that the crier is called “Musahhir.”

[557]. Described in the chapter on music.

[558]. Young ladies in Egypt are often called “brides.”

[559]. The fifth and four following verses of the Soorat el-Insán, or 76th chapter.

[560]. Not the night supposed by Sale, which is that between the 23rd and 24th days. See one of his notes on the 97th chapter of the Kur-án.

[561]. Kur-án, ibid.

[562]. It is also called “’Eed el-Fitr” (or the Festival of the Breaking of the Fast); and, by the Turks, “Ramazán Beyrám.”

[563]. The salutation of peace should be pronounced on entering the burial-ground and on arriving at the tomb, in the manner described in Chap. x., in my account of visits to the tombs and cenotaphs of saints. In the former case it is general; and in the latter, particular.

[564]. This was denied by several of my Muslim friends, before whom I casually mentioned it; but, by producing a piece of the Kisweh, I proved the truth of my assertion. I state this to show that a writer may often be charged with committing an error on authority which any person would consider perfectly convincing.

[565]. The Kaabeh is a building in the centre of the Temple of Mekkeh, most highly respected by the Muslims. It is nearly in the form of a cube. Its height is somewhat more than thirty feet; and each side is about the same, or a little more, in width. It is not exactly rectangular, nor exactly equilateral. The black covering, after having remained upon it nearly a year, is taken off on the 25th of Zu-l-Kaadeh, cut up, and sold to the pilgrims; and the building is left without a covering for the period of fifteen days: on the 10th of Zu-l-Heggeh, the first day of the Great Festival, the new Kisweh is put on. The interior is also hung with a covering, which is renewed each time that a new Sultán ascends the Turkish throne. It is necessary to renew the outer covering every year, in consequence of its exposure to the rain, etc. As the use of stuffs entirely composed of silk is prohibited, the Kisweh of the Kaabeh is lined with cotton to render it allowable.

[566]. This is often called, by the vulgar, “the veil of sitna Fát’meh;” because it is said that Fátimeh Shegeret ed-Durr, the wife of the Sultán Es-Sáleh, was the first person who sent a veil of this kind to cover the door of the Kaabeh.

[567]. I went to the mosque of the Hasaneyn a few days after, to examine the Kisweh and the other objects above described, that I might be able to make my account of them more accurate and complete. I was permitted to handle them all at my leisure; and gave a small present for this privilege, and for a superfluous piece of the Kisweh, for which I asked, a span in length, and nearly the same in breadth.

[568]. These are described in the chapter on music.

[569]. “’Arafát” is the name of the mountain which is one of the principal objects of pilgrimage.

[570]. Thus is properly pronounced the name of the town which we commonly call Suez.

[571]. It is also called “’Eed el-Kurbán” (or the Festival of the Sacrifice), and by the Turks, “Kurbán Beyrám.”

[572]. I believe that this period has been called by all European writers who have mentioned it, excepting myself, “El-Khamseen,” or by the same term differently expressed, signifying the Fifty; i.e. the Fifty days; but it is always termed by the Arabs “el-Khamáseen,” which signifies the Fifties, being a vulgar plural of Khamseen. In like manner, the Arabs call the corresponding period of the Jewish calendar by a term exactly agreeing with “el-Khamáseen;” namely “el-Khamseenát;” only its last day being termed “el-Khamseen.” See De Sacy’s “Chrestomathie Arabe,” 2nde éd., tome i., p. 98 of the Arabic text, and pp. 292 and 320 of his translation and notes. This eminent scholar, however, appears to have had no authority but that of Europeans for the name of the above-mentioned period of the Coptic calendar; for he has followed the travellers, and written it “Khamsin.”

[573]. “Kishk” (as the word is commonly pronounced, but properly “keshik”) is prepared from wheat, first moistened, then dried, trodden in a vessel to separate the husks, and coarsely ground with a hand-mill: the meal is mixed with milk, and about six hours afterwards is spooned out upon a little straw or bran, and then left for two or three days to dry. When required for use, it is either soaked or pounded, and put into a sieve, over a vessel; and then boiling water is poured on it. What remains in the sieve is thrown away; what passes through is generally poured into a saucepan of boiled meat or fowl, over the fire. Some leaves of white beet, fried in butter, are usually added to each plate of it.

[574]. Beans soaked in water until they begin to sprout, and then boiled.

[575]. Chap. ii., ver. 244.

[576]. That is, to his tomb.

[577]. He would be guilty of a sin if he did not do this when desired.

[578]. This present year (1834), the river having risen with unusual rapidity, the dam was cut on the 5th of August. Fears were entertained lest it should overflow the dam before it was cut: which would have been regarded as an evil omen.

[579]. The words thus translated, the boys pronounce “O′fa-lléh,” for “Owfa-lláh.”

[580]. This is an old building between the aqueduct and Masr el-’Ateekah, where the Sultáns and Governors of Egypt used to alight, and inspect the state of the river, previously to the cutting of the dam of the canal.

[581]. The person before whose house the announcement is made.

[582]. In Paradise.

[583]. A Fountain of Paradise.

[584]. “’Akab” is the general name of the largest kind of the boats which navigate the Nile; and “’akabeh” (plural “’akabát”), the name of a single boat of this kind.

[585]. Doubting whether the Nile will rise sufficiently high.

[586]. That is, in comparing the height of the river at a particular period in the present year with its height at the same period in preceding years.

[587]. O thou who hast said to me, “Why dost thou not bring better news?”

[588]. Cucumis dudaim.

[589]. Mentha Kahirina.

[590]. The Sheykh of the Mikyás, or Nilometer.

[591]. A gold coin, now become scarce. Its value, I am informed, is about a third of a pound sterling, or rather less.

[592]. “Shóbash” is synonymous with “nukoot,” being an Arabic corruption of the Persian “shábásh,” which also signifies “well done!” “excellent!”

[593]. The phrase was thus written and explained to me by a sheykh; but I suspect it should be, “Ikbál le-’anduh,” which is an expression vulgarly used to signify, “access to him,” and would mean, in this case, “[May we have] access to him!”

[594]. These customs remind us of St. Paul’s advice to the Ephesians, chap. v., ver. 19; which shows the antiquity of social pastimes of this kind. The Egyptians highly enjoy the religious love-songs of the munshids at zikrs.

[595]. The Subooa after the birth of a child is celebrated with more rejoicing; and therefore, in speaking of the Yóm es-Subooa, the seventh day after childbirth is generally understood.

[596]. It was not such a festival as this alone that is alluded to in Genesis xxix. 27, and in Judges xiv. 12. It was, and I believe is still, the custom of wealthy Bedawees (and such was Laban) to feast their friends seven days after marriage (as also after the birth of a male child); and every respectable Muslim, after marriage, if disappointed in the expectations he has been led to form of his wife, abstains from putting her away for about a week, that she may not be disgraced by suspicion; particularly if it be her first marriage.

[597]. See Exodus i. 16.

[598]. Some women add another ingredient; not when it is to be sent to friends; but for a particular purpose, which is, to make them fat: they broil and mash up a number of beetles in the butter; and then add the honey, etc. This has been alluded to in the chapter on the Domestic Life of the Women.

[599]. In a note to the second paragraph of the preceding chapter.

[600]. In like manner, the Jewish law pronounces a woman unclean during forty days after the birth of a male child; but double that time after bearing a female child. See Leviticus xii. 2, 4, 5.

[601]. A name of the Arabian Prophet.

[602]. The Virgin Mary.

[603]. The daughter of the Imám ’Alee.

[604]. The daughter of the Prophet.

[605]. Vulgo “fikee.”

[606]. This and the following words distinguished by inverted commas are the titles of chapters of the Kur-án, which the boys, as I have mentioned on a former occasion, learn in the reverse order of their arrangement, after having learned the first chapter. The chapter of “The News,” is the 78th: the others, afterwards named, are the 67th, 55th, 36th, 18th, 6th, and 2nd.

[607]. The looking-glasses. This is said to amuse the ladies.

[608]. The 37th chapter of the Kur-án.

[609]. What follows this describes the ceremonies which are performed both after the siráfeh and after the more common zeffeh, of which I have given an account in a former chapter.

[610]. Some Muslims turn the head of the corpse in the direction of Mekkeh; others, the right side, inclining the face in that direction: the latter, I believe, is the general custom.

[611]. See 2 Chron. xxxv. 25; Jer. ix. 17; and Matt. ix. 23.

[612]. The Egyptians have a superstitious objection to keep a corpse in the house during the night after the death, and to burying the dead after sunset; but the latter is sometimes done: I have witnessed one instance of it.

[613]. It is hardly necessary to state that the corpse of a female is always washed by a woman.

[614]. The leaves of the lote-tree, dried and pulverized, are often used by the poor instead of soap.

[615]. The kefen is often sprinkled with water from the well of Zemzem, in the Temple of Mekkeh.

[616]. “’A-l-’ebád” is a vulgar contraction, for “’ala-l-’ebád.”—It will be observed (from the specimen here given, in the first two lines) that this poem is not in the literary dialect of Arabic.

[617]. Literally, “the two easts,” or “the two places of sunrise:” the point where the sun rises in summer, and that where it rises in winter.

[618]. Or, “the two places of sunset.”

[619]. In the funeral scenes represented on the walls of ancient Egyptian tombs, we often see females with a similar bandage round the head.

[620]. This was a custom of the ancient Egyptians: it is described by Herodotus, lib. ii., cap. 85.—Passengers in the streets and roads, when a corpse is borne by to the tomb, often say,—“God is most great! God is most great! That is what God and his Apostle have promised: and God and his Apostle have spoken truth. O God, increase our faith and submission!”—The women, pointing with the finger at the bier, say,—“I testify that there is no deity but God.”

[621]. This is only borne in funerals of young persons.

[622]. I give the form of prayer used by the Sháfe’ees, as being the most common in Cairo. Those of the other sects are nearly similar to this.

[623]. A “tekbeer” has been explained in a former chapter, as being the exclamation of “Alláhu Akbar” or “God is most great!”

[624]. Or, according to one of my sheykhs, “its business.”

[625]. It is believed that the body of the wicked is painfully oppressed by the earth against its sides in the grave; though this is always made hollow.

[626]. The burial-grounds of Cairo are mostly outside the town, in the desert tracts on the north, east, and south. Those within the town are few, and not extensive.

[627]. The Prophet forbade engraving the name of God, or any words of the Kur-án, upon a tomb. He also directed that tombs should be low, and built only of crude bricks.

[628]. Like that seen in the distance in the engraving here inserted.

[629]. The Málikees disapprove of this custom, the “talkeen” of the dead.

[630]. The opinions of the Muslims respecting the state of souls in the interval between death and the judgment are thus given by Sale (“Preliminary Discourse,” sect. iv.):—“They distinguish the souls of the faithful into three classes: the first, of prophets, whose souls are admitted into paradise immediately; the second, of martyrs, whose spirits, according to a tradition of Mohammad, rest in the crops of green birds, which eat of the fruits and drink of the rivers of paradise; and the third, of other believers, concerning the state of whose souls before the resurrection there are various opinions. For, 1. Some say that they stay near the sepulchres, with liberty, however, of going where-ever they please; which they confirm from Mohammad’s manner of saluting them at their graves, and his affirming that the dead heard those salutations as well as the living. Whence perhaps proceeded the custom of visiting the tombs of relations, so common among the Mohammadans. 2. Others imagine they are with Adam in the lowest heaven, and also support their opinion by the authority of their prophet, who gave out that in his return from the upper heavens in his pretended night-journey, he saw there the souls of those who were destined to paradise on the right hand of Adam, and those who were condemned to hell on his left. 3. Others fancy the souls of believers remain in the well Zemzem, and those of infidels in a certain well in the province of Hadramót, called Barahoot [so in the Kámoos, but by Sale written Borhût]; but this opinion is branded as heretical. 4. Others say they stay near the graves for seven days; but that whither they go afterwards is uncertain. 5. Others, that they are all in the trumpet, whose sound is to raise the dead. And, 6. Others, that the souls of the good dwell in the forms of white birds, under the throne of God. As to the condition of the souls of the wicked, besides the opinions that have been already mentioned, the more orthodox hold that they are offered by the angels to heaven, from whence being repulsed as stinking and filthy, they are offered to the earth; and being also refused a place there, are carried down to the seventh earth, and thrown into a dungeon, which they call Sijjeen, under a green rock, or, according to a tradition of Mohammad, under the devil’s jaw, to be there tormented till they are called up to be joined again to their bodies.” I believe that the opinion respecting the Well of Barahoot commonly prevails in the present day.

[631]. Chapter xxxvii., last three verses.

[632]. See Genesis 1. 3.

[633]. As the ancient Egyptian women did in the same case.—See a passage in Herodotus, before referred to, lib. ii., cap. 85.

[634]. Καθαριότητος εἵνεκεν. Compare the account given by Herodotus of the habits of the priests of ancient Egypt: lib. ii., cap. 37.

[635]. I have neglected to write the name of this appendage; but if my memory do not deceive me, I was told that it is termed “kalás’weh,” which word seems to be a corruption of “kalensuweh.” Mengin calls it “kaloucyeh” (“Hist. de l’Egypte sous Mohammed-Aly,” tome ii., p. 290).

[636]. Mengin, ubi supra, pp. 284-289.

[637]. This has been shown by Quatremère, in his “Researches on the Language and Literature of Egypt.”

[638]. They chant nearly in the same manner as the Muslims reciting the Kur-án.

[639]. Acts xv. 20 and 29.

[640]. The ball and bird are called “el-kubbeh wa-t-teyr.” It is said that the Muslims of Egypt, on some occasions, as on the inauguration of a Sultán, used to observe the custom here described; but this appears to be an error, arising from a misunderstanding of the term “el-kubbeh wa-t-teyr” applied by historians to an umbrella surmounted by the figure of a bird, which was borne over the head of a Sultán in certain pompous processions.

[641]. The custom mentioned by Burckhardt, in his Arabic Proverbs, page 117, as prevailing “among the lower classes of Muslims at Cairo,” is observed by the Copts.

[642]. Thus pronounced for “Mo’allim.” It signifies “teacher” or “master;” and is a title given to all Copts but those of the poorer class, or peasants. The registrar of the taxes of a village is simply called “the M’allim of the village.”

[643]. If the reader desire further and fuller details on this subject, he may consult Et. Quatremère’s ‘Mémoires Géogr. et Hist. sur l’Egypte,’ tome ii., pp. 220-266.

[644]. Equivalent (at that period) to about thirteen shillings, or, as some say, a little more than half a guinea.

[645]. It should be observed here, that the cases alluded to form exceptions to the general toleration exhibited by the Muslims; and that the Copts who have been converted to El-Islám by oppression have been few in comparison with those who have changed their religion voluntarily. Many have done this through love of Muslim women.

[646]. Chap. v., ver. 85.

[647]. It is surprising that Muslims should hang a Jew against a window of a mosque, when they consider him so unclean a creature that his blood would defile the sword. For this reason a Jew, in Egypt, is never beheaded.

[648]. I have transmitted a list of these works to the Royal Asiatic Society.

[649]. One of the less important acts of Mohammad ’Alee I should mention, as it is one which renders my description of the streets and shops of Cairo not altogether applicable to their present state. He has lately caused the mastab′ahs in most of the thoroughfare-streets to be pulled down, and only allowed them to be rebuilt in the wider parts, generally to the width of about two spans. At the same time, he has obliged the tradesmen to paint their shops, and to remove the unsightly “sakeefehs” (or coverings) of matting which shaded many of the sooks; prohibiting the replacing of them unless by coverings of wood. Cairo has, in consequence, lost much of its Arabian aspect.

[650]. The dress worn by the military and some other officers of the Básha of Egypt is still quite Turkish in everything but the want of the turban, which is now worn by few of those persons, and only in winter; the red cap alone, over which the muslin or Kashmeer shawl used always to be wound, being at present the regular head-dress. The trousers are very full from the waist to a little below the knee, overhanging a pair of tight leggings which form parts of them. A tight vest (the sleeves of which are divided from the wrist nearly to the elbow, but generally buttoned at this part), a girdle, a jacket with hanging sleeves, socks, and a pair of red shoes, complete the outward dress generally worn: but the jacket is sometimes made with sleeves like those of the vest above described, and the vest without sleeves; and black European shoes are worn by some persons. The sword is now hung in our manner, by a waist-belt. The dress of the private soldiers consists of a vest and trousers (the latter similar to those above described, but not so full), of a kind of coarse red serge, or, in summer, of white cotton, with the girdle, red cap, and red shoes.

[651]. See, again, the engraving on page [36].

[652]. Chap. iii. ver. 16.

[653]. See Genesis xxiv. 47, where in our common version, “ear-ring” is improperly put for “nose-ring.”

[654]. Chap. iii. ver. 21.

[655]. Chap. xvi. ver. 12. Here, again, a mistake is made in our common version, but corrected in the margin.

[656]. See p. 75.

[657]. Or “driven away with stones.”

[658]. Europe and Asia.

[659]. Emperor, or monarch.

[660]. The Mediterranean and Black Seas.

[661]. The reigning Sultán at the time when the above was written.

Transcriber’s Note

The phrase ‘ground floor’ appears on occasion as ‘ground-floor’, with no preponderance of either. Both are kept as found. ‘Daybreak’ and ‘day-break’ are used interchangeably as well.

The first complete footnote on p. 8 refers to styles of latticework. However, the anchor in the text is missing. It has been added at the end of the paragraph, presuming that the discussion is now about ‘inferior houses’, but the placement is otherwise arbitrary.

Lapses of punctuation in the Index have been corrected without comment.

The index entries for ‘Paradise’ and ‘Benzoin’ cross-reference ‘Genneh’ and ‘Gáwee’, respectively. However, neither entry exists. The index entry for ‘Hogget el-bahr’ has no page reference, nor does the phrase appear in the text. The page reference for ‘Jugglers‘ was transposed from ‘355’ to ‘553’. The page reference for ‘Copts’, under the ‘Pilgrimage’ item was incorrectly as ’561’, rather than ‘501’. An apparently specious (because out-of-order) reference regarding printed translations of the Ku-rán should be ‘234’ rather than ‘44’. The page reference for the virtues of Mohammed’s ninety-nine names is missing, and p. [228] has been provided as the most likely.

Other errors deemed most likely to be the printer’s have been corrected, and are noted here. The references are to the page and line in the original.

[xi.19]to witness any Muslim ri[ght/te]Replaced.
[xvi.11]said he, [“]the salutationAdded.
[17.21]are mere hovels[.]Added.
[17.35]or of millet-stalks, etc.[,]Added.
[52.33]called by the Arabs “El-Islám.[”]Added.
[54.20]in the bridge “Es-Sirát[”]Added.
[76.17]greet him with a salutation![”/’]Replaced.
[77.1]’A’[i/ï]sheh, the mother of the faithfulReplaced.
[80.36][‘/“]el-’Eed el-Kebeer,”Replaced.
[82.21]chiefly [a/o]n account ofReplaced.
[89.42]who is a Muslim’eh[./,] or a ChristianReplaced.
[93.40]the homicide is a member[.]Added.
[100.18]The “Meglis el-Meshwar′ah[”]Added.
[119.35]Mustaf[’]a KáshifInserted.
[127.10](or prayer-carpet[)]Added.
[137.16]as its name implies[;]Added.
[149.6]the “belláneh[”]Added.
[187.4]of the present company[;/,]Replaced.
[189.17]the literary and vulga[r]Restored.
[206.31]peal of thunder was heard[;/,]Replaced.
[214.40]but some perons assertInserted.
[217.10]Imá[n/m] ’AleeReplaced.
[217.11]Imá[n/m] El-HoseynReplaced.
[228.19][(]or the vesselAdded.
[229.22]“What God willeth [cometh to pass![”]/[]”)Transposed.
[229.25]“M[a/á] sháa-lláh!”Replaced.
[230.37]are especially consid[er]ed preservativesInserted.
[235.28]the sheyk[h] IbráheemAdded.
[244.23]in [in] this placeRepeated.
[245.2]took the latter[;/,]Replaced.
[263.20]“God is all-knowing[”]Added.
[295.7]and [to ]give themRemoved.
[309.2]a small kind of stall, for coffee[.]Added.
[333.37]They are placed upon[ ]a camelInserted.
[369.32]The We[ez/ze]er SháheenTransposed.
[370.5]The We[ez/ze]er SháheenTransposed.
[370.9]’Aláy-ed[./-]DeenReplaced.
[370.21]The We[ez[ze]er said to himTransposed.
[371.26]The King answered[./,]Replaced.
[377.33]He exclaimed[,]Added.
[379.12]The Sult[a/á]n answered,Replaced.
[387.31]to the fortress of Esh[ /-]ShamtaReplaced.
[392.17]required[ by] their lawInserted.
[398.40]relatively few persons collec[t]edInserted.
[413.29]and not feared the watchmen?[’]Added.
[415.19]Yá ’amme[e] ’Ashmáwee!Added.
[432.33]have been carr[r]ied fromRemoved.
[435.33]“Soorat Yá-Seen Yá-Seen[”]Added.”“
[451.4]“El-’Eed el-Kebeer;[”]Added.
[465.17]and so on[.]Added.
[472.13]w[f/i]th one or twoReplaced.
[483.23]“Soorat el-Bakarah el-Bakarah[”]Added.
[514.8]to spare his life[.]Added.
[546.21]For other particulars [r]especting> themAdded.

The errors below appear in footnotes and are referenced by page upon which the note begins, the original note number, and the line within it.

[x.2.24]There is one wor[d/k]Replaced.
[27.1.1](called “miláyeh”[)]Added.
[28.1.1]or [‘/“]Khalif.”Replaced.
[54.2.2]is, however, disputed[.]Added.
[65.1.3]the “ikámeh[”]Added.
[122.1.1]I believe it is maple[.]Added.
[126.1.2](for “’ázikee[”])Added.
[133.3.2]the same[.]Added.
[150.1.1][“]From the verb ‘adna,’ [“]he brought,” etc.Misplaced.
[227.1.1]to return to E[u/n]glandInverted.
[229.2.1]“Yá selá[n/m],”Replaced.
[312.1.1]“kees el-hammán el-hammán[,]”Added.