An account of the manners and customs of the modern Egyptians

by Edward William Lane

I.—THE COPTS.

The fame of that great nation from which the Copts mainly derive their origin renders this people objects of much interest, especially to one who has examined the wonderful monuments of Ancient Egypt: but so great is the aversion with which, like their illustrious ancestors, they regard all persons who are not of their own race, and so reluctant are they to admit such persons to any familiar intercourse with them, that I had almost despaired of gaining an insight into their religious, moral, and social state. At length, however, I had the good fortune to become acquainted with a character of which I had doubted the existence—a Copt of a liberal as well as an intelligent mind; and to his kindness I am indebted for the knowledge of most of the facts related in the following brief memoir.

The Copts, at present, compose less than one fourteenth part of the population of Egypt; their number being not more than about one hundred and fifty thousand. About ten thousand of them reside in the metropolis. In some parts of Upper Egypt are villages exclusively inhabited by persons of this race; and the district called the Feiyoom particularly abounds with them. The vast number of ruined convents and churches existing in various parts of Egypt shows that the Copts were very numerous a few centuries ago; but every year many of them have embraced the faith of El-Islám, and become intermixed by marriage with Muslims; and thus the number of genuine and Christian Copts has been reduced to its present small amount.

The Copts are undoubtedly descendants of the ancient Egyptians; but not an unmixed race; their ancestors in the earlier ages of Christianity having intermarried with Greeks, Nubians, Abyssinians, and other foreigners. Their name is correctly pronounced either “Kubt” or “Kibt;” but more commonly, “Gubt” or “Gibt,” and (in Cairo and its neighbourhood, and in some other parts of Egypt), “’Ubt” or “’Ibt:” in the singular it is pronounced “Kubtee, Kibtee, Gubtee, Gibtee, ’Ubtee,” or “’Ibtee.” All of these sounds bear a great resemblance to the ancient Greek name of Egypt (Αίγυπτος): but it is generally believed that the name of “Kubt” is derived from “Coptos” (once a great city in Upper Egypt), now called “Kuft,” or, more commonly, “Guft;” to which vast numbers of the Christian Egyptians retired during the persecution with which their sect was visited under several of the Roman Emperors. The Copts have not altogether lost their ancient language; their liturgy and several of their religious books being written in it: but the Coptic has become a dead language, understood by very few persons; and the Arabic has been adopted in its stead.

With respect to their personal characteristics, we observe some striking points of resemblance, and yet, upon the whole, a considerable difference, between the Copts and the ancient Egyptians, judging of the latter from the paintings and sculptures in their tombs and temples. The difference is, however, easily accounted for by the fact of the intermarriages of the ancestors of the modern Copts with foreigners, above mentioned. The people who bear the greatest resemblance to the ancient Egyptians, at present, are the Noobeh (or more genuine Nubians); and next to these, the Abyssinians and the Copts; who are, notwithstanding, much unlike each other. The Copts differ but little from the generality of their Muslim countrymen: the latter being chiefly descended from Arabs and from Copts who have embraced the faith of the Arabs, and having thus become assimilated to the Copts in features. I find it difficult, sometimes, to perceive any difference between a Copt and a Muslim Egyptian, beyond a certain downcast and sullen expression of countenance which generally marks the former; and the Muslims themselves are often deceived when they see a Copt in a white turban. We observe, in the latter, the same shades of complexion, in different latitudes of the country, as in the former; varying from a pale yellowish colour to a deep bronze or brown. The eyes of the Copt are generally large and elongated, slightly inclined from the nose upwards, and always black: the nose is straight, excepting at the end, where it is rounded, and wide: the lips are rather thick; and the hair is black and curly. The Copts are, generally speaking, somewhat under the middle size; and so, as it appears from the mummies, were the ancient Egyptians. Their women, of the higher and middle classes in particular, blacken the edges of their eyelids with kohl; and those of the lower orders tattoo blue marks upon their faces, hands, etc., in the same manner as other Egyptian females, but usually introduce the cross among these ornaments. Most of the Copts circumcise their sons; and another practice which prevailed among their pagan ancestors, mentioned by Strabo, and alluded to in a note subjoined to page 48 of this work, is observed among the Copts without exception.

The dress of the Copts is similar to that of the Muslim Egyptians; excepting that the proper turban of the former is black or blue, or of a greyish or light-brown colour; and such Copts as wear cloth generally choose dull colours, and often wear a black cotton gown, or loose shirt, over their cloth and silk dress. In the towns, they are usually careful thus to distinguish themselves from the Muslims; but in the villages, many of them wear the white or red turban. Other Christians, and Jews who are subjects of the Turkish Sultán, are distinguished from the Muslims in the same manner; but not all: many Armenians, Greeks, and Syrian Christians wear the white turban. Subjects of European Christian powers are allowed to do the same, and to adopt altogether the Turkish dress. The occasions which originally caused the Copts to be distinguished by the black and blue turbans will be mentioned in some historical notes respecting this people hereafter.—The Copt women veil their faces, not only in public, but also in the house, when any men, excepting their near relations, are present. The unmarried ladies, and females of the lower orders, in public, generally wear the white veil: the black veil is worn by the more respectable of the married ladies; but the white is adopted by many, from a desire to imitate the Muslim′ehs.

The Copts, with the exception of a small proportion who profess the Romish or the Greek faith, are Christians of the sect called Jacobites, Eutychians, Monophysites, and Monothelites; whose creed was condemned by the Council of Chalcedon, in the reign of the Emperor Marcion. They received the appellation of “Jacobites” (“Ya’ákibeh,” or “Yaakoobees”), by which they are generally known, from Jacobus Baradæus, a Syrian, who was a chief propagator of the Eutychian doctrines. Those who adhered to the Greek faith were distinguished from the former by the name of “Melekites” (“Melekeeyeh,” or “Melekees”), that is to say, “Royalists,” because they agreed in faith with the Emperor of Constantinople. The secession of the great majority of the Copts from what was generally considered the orthodox Church gave rise to an implacable enmity between them and the Greeks, under whom they suffered much persecution, and with whom they would no longer even contract marriages. This enmity was, of course, more bitter on the part of the Copts: they gladly received the Arab invaders of their country, and united with them to expel the Greeks. Their revenge was gratified; but they were made to bow their necks to a heavier yoke: yet the hatred with which even the modern Copts regard the Greeks and all other Christians who are not of their own sect is much greater than that which they bear towards the Muslims.—Saint Mark, they assert, was the first who preached the Gospel in Egypt; and they regard him as the first Patriarch of Alexandria. The Nubians and Abyssinians embraced Christianity soon after the Egyptians; and, following the same example, they adopted the Jacobite doctrines. The Nubians, however, have become Muslims; and boast that there is not a single Christian among their race, and that they will never allow one to live among them; for, as they are more ignorant, so are they also more bigoted, than the generality of Muslims. In Abyssinia, Jacobite Christianity is still the prevailing religion.

The religious orders of the Coptic Church consist of a Patriarch, a Metropolitan of the Abyssinians, Bishops, Archpriests, Priests, Deacons, and Monks.

The Patriarch (“el-Batrak”) is the supreme head of the church; and occupies the chair of Saint Mark. He generally resides in Cairo; but is styled “Patriarch of Alexandria.” He is chosen from among the order of monks; with whose regulations he continues to comply; and it is a point of these regulations that he remains unmarried. He is obliged to wear woollen garments next his body; but these are of the finest and softest quality, like the shawls of Kashmeer; and are concealed by habits of rich silks and cloth. So rigid are the rules with which he is obliged to conform, that, whenever he sleeps, he is waked after every quarter of an hour.[^[634]] A patriarch may be appointed by his predecessor; but, generally, he is chosen by lot; and always from among the monks of the Convent of Saint Anthony (“Deyr Antooniyoos”), in the Eastern Desert of Egypt, near the western Gulf of the Red Sea. The bishops and principal priests, when a patriarch is to be elected, apply to the superior of the convent above mentioned, who names about eight or nine monks whom he considers qualified for the high office of head of the Church: the names of these persons are written, each upon a separate slip of paper, which pieces of paper are then rolled into the form of little balls, and put into a drawer: a priest draws one, without looking; and the person whose name is thus drawn is invested as patriarch. Formerly, a young child was employed to draw the lot; being supposed to be more under the direction of heaven.

The property at the disposal of the patriarch is very considerable: it chiefly consists in houses; and can only be employed for pious uses. Modern patriarchs have done little more than augment their property: generally, when a Copt sells a house in Cairo, the patriarch bids for it; and no one ventures to bid against him; so that the owner of the house is obliged to part with it for considerably less than its just value.

The patriarch and bishops wear a turban of a wider and rounder form than those of other persons; much resembling the mukleh of the Muslim ’Ulama; but of the same dark colour as those of the other Copts.

The Metropolitan of the Abyssinians (“el-Matrán”) is appointed by the Patriarch. He retains his office for life; and resides in Abyssinia.

A bishop (“Uskuf”) is generally (or, I am told, always) chosen from among the monks; and continues, like the patriarch, to conform with their regulations. The canons of the Church do not require that bishops should be monks; but unmarried men, or widowers, were formerly always chosen for the episcopal office. The number of bishops is twelve.

An Archpriest (“Kummus”) is elevated from the order of common priests. The archpriests are numerous.

A priest (“Kasees”) must have been a deacon: he must be without bodily defect, at least thirty-three years of age, and a person who has never married, or who has married but one wife, and taken that wife a virgin, and married her before he became a priest; for he cannot marry after. If a priest’s wife die, he cannot marry again; nor is the widow of a priest allowed to marry a second husband. A priest may be of the order of monks; and, consequently, unmarried. He is supported only by alms, and by what he obtains through his own industry. Both priests and deacons are ordained either by the Patriarch or by a bishop. The priests wear a turban formed of a long narrow band. This was worn, a few years ago, by all the Copts in Cairo: a desire to imitate the Muslims has made them change the style.

A Deacon (“Shemmás”) must be either unmarried, or a person who has only once married, to a virgin bride. If he take a second wife, or marry a widow, he loses his office. He may be of the order of monks, as appears from what has been said above.

A Monk (“Ráhib”) must have submitted to a long trial of his patience and piety, and made a vow of celibacy, before his admission into the monastic order. He usually performs menial and arduous services, previously to his admission, for a year, or a year and a half, in some sequestered convent in the desert. He is generally employed in fetching wood and water, sweeping the convent, etc., and waiting upon the monks; and expends all his property (if he have any) in the purchase of clothes and other necessaries for the monks and the poor in general. If, after a sufficient service, he persevere in his resolution, he is admitted. The prayers of the dead are recited over him, to celebrate his death to the world; and it has been said that, when he dies, he is buried without prayer; but I am informed that this is not the case. The monks are very numerous, and there are many nuns. They lead a life of great austerity; and are obliged always to wear woollen garments next the body. Every monk is distinguished by a strip of woollen stuff, of a deep blue or black colour, about four inches wide, attached beneath the turban and hanging down the back to the length of about a foot.[^[635]] A woollen shirt is generally the only article of dress worn by the monks, beside the turban. They eat two meals in the course of the day, at noon and in the evening; but, if living in a convent, seldom anything more than lentils; as most of their convents are in the desert: on feast-days, however, they eat flesh, if it be procurable. The number of convents and churches is said to be a hundred and forty-six;[^[636]] but the former are few in comparison with the latter.

The Coptic Church recommends baptizing boys at the age of forty days, and girls at the age of eighty days, if they continue so long well and healthy; but earlier if they be ill, and in apparent danger of death: for it is a prevailing belief among the Copts, that, if a child die unbaptized, it will be blind in the next life, and the parents are held guilty of a sin, for which they must do penance, either by repeating many prayers, or by fasting: yet people of the lower orders, if living at an inconvenient distance from a church, and even in other cases, often neglect baptizing their children for a whole year. The child is dipped three times in the water, in which a little holy oil, dropped on the priest’s thumb, has been washed off; and prayers, entirely in Coptic, are repeated over it. The Copts hold that the Holy Spirit descends upon the child in baptism. No money is taken by the priest for performing the baptismal service, unless voluntarily offered.

I have said that most of the Copts circumcise their sons. Not many of them in Cairo, I am told, do so; but in other parts, all, or almost all, observe this rite. The operation is generally performed when the child is about seven or eight years of age; and always privately: there is no fixed age for its performance: some of the Copts are circumcised at the early age of two years; and some at the age of twenty years, or more. The more enlightened of the Copts certainly regard circumcision as a practice to be commended; but not as a religious rite; which the priests declare it is not. It appears, however, from its being universal among the peasantry, that these look upon it as something more than a mere civil rite; for if they regarded it as being of no higher importance, surely they would leave the more polished to comply with the custom. Some say it is in imitation of Christ, who submitted to this rite, that they perform it. It is a relic of ancient customs.

The Copts have numerous schools; but for boys only: very few females among them can read; and those have been instructed at home. The boys are taught the Psalms of David, the Gospels, and the Apostolical Epistles, in Arabic; and then the Gospels and Epistles in Coptic. They do not learn the Coptic language grammatically; and I am told that there is not to be found, among the Copts, any person who can write or speak that language with correctness or ease; and that there are very few persons who can do more than repeat what they have committed to memory, of the Scriptures and Liturgy. The Coptic language gradually fell into disuse after the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs. For two centuries after that event, it appears to have been the only language that the generality of the Copts understood; but before the tenth century of our era, most of the inhabitants of Lower Egypt had ceased to speak and understand it;[^[637]] though in the Sa’eed (or Upper Egypt), El-Makreezee tells us, the women and children of the Copts, in his time (that is, about the close of the fourteenth century of our era, or the early part of the fifteenth), scarcely spoke any other language than the Sa’eedee Coptic; and had a complete knowledge of the Greek. Soon after this period, the Coptic language fell into disuse in Upper Egypt, as it had done so long before in the Lower Provinces; and the Arabic was adopted in its stead. All the Copts who have been instructed at a school still pray, both in the church and in private, in Coptic; and the Scriptures are still always read in the churches in that language; but they are explained, from books, in Arabic. Many books for the use of priests and other persons are written in the Coptic language, expressed in Arabic characters.

The ordinary private prayers of the Copts are a subject particularly worthy of notice. In these they seem to have imitated the Jews, and to resemble the Muslims. I am informed that there are few of them in Cairo who do not comply with a precept of their church which enjoins them to pray seven times in the course of the day. The first prayer is said at day-break; the second, at the third hour; the third, at the sixth hour; the fourth, at the ninth hour; the fifth, at the eleventh hour; the sixth, at the twelfth hour, which is sunset; and the seventh, at midnight. In each of these prayers, those persons who have learned to read, and are strict in the performance of their religious duties, recite several of the Psalms of David (about a seventh part of the whole book of Psalms) in Arabic, and a chapter of one of the four Gospels in the same language; after which they say, either in Coptic or Arabic, “O my Lord! have mercy!” forty-one times; some using a string of forty-one beads; others counting by their fingers: they then add a short prayer in Coptic. In the seven prayers of each day, altogether, they repeat the whole book of Psalms. Such, I am assured, are the rigid practices of the more strict and instructed classes in their daily worship. The illiterate repeat, in each of the seven daily prayers, the Lord’s prayer seven times, and “O my Lord! have mercy!” forty-one times. Previously to private as well as public prayer, persons of the better and stricter classes wash their hands and face; and some also wash their feet; and in prayer they always face the east. Though in most of the rules above mentioned they nearly resemble the Jews and the Muslims, they differ from both these sects in holding that prayer, excepting with the congregation in the church, is better performed in private than in public. Their ordinary prayers, or at least the latter and shorter form, they often repeat while walking or riding or otherwise actively employed. I can hardly believe that the longer form is generally used by the instructed classes; though I am positively assured that it is.

The larger churches are divided into four or five compartments. The “Heykel,” or Chancel, containing the altar, occupies the central and chief portion of the compartment at the upper end, which is screened from the rest of the church by a close partition or wall of wooden panel-work, having a door in the centre, the entrance of the Heykel, before which is suspended a curtain, with a large cross worked upon it. The compartment next before this is appropriated to the priests who read the lessons, etc., and to boys who serve as acolytes and singers, and the chief members of the congregation: this is separated from the compartment next before it by a partition of wooden lattice-work, about eight or nine feet high, with three doors, or a single door in the centre. The inferior members of the congregation occupy the next compartment, or next two compartments; and the lowest is appropriated to the women, and is screened in front by a partition of wooden lattice-work, to conceal them entirely from the men. Upon the walls of the church are suspended ill-executed and gaudy pictures of various saints; particularly of the patron saint; but no images are admitted. The floor is covered with mats.

Every man takes off his shoes on entering the church; but he retains his turban. He first goes to the door of the Heykel, prostrates himself before it, and kisses the hem of its curtain. He then prostrates himself, or makes a bow, and a salutation with the hand, before one or more pictures of saints, and sometimes kisses the hand of one or more of the officiating priests, in the compartment next before the Heykel. Almost every member of the congregation has a crutch, about four feet and a half or five feet long, to lean upon while he stands; which he does during the greater part of the service. The full service (with the celebration of the Eucharist) occupies between three and four hours; generally commencing at day-break.

The priests who officiate in the Heykel are clad in handsome robes; but the others wear only their ordinary dress. The whole of the service that is performed in the Heykel is in the Coptic language; no other language being allowed to be spoken within the sanctuary. The priests without, standing opposite and facing the door of the Heykel, read and chant explanations and lessons in Arabic and Coptic.[^[638]] A priest is not permitted to sit down while reading the service in the sanctuary; and as this occupies so long a time, he pauses, in order that he may sit down, several times, for a few minutes, and on these occasions, cymbals of various sizes and notes are beaten as long as he remains sitting. Several times, also, a priest comes out from the Heykel, waves a censer, in which frankincense is burning, among the congregation, and blesses each member, placing his hand upon the person’s head. Having done this to the men, he proceeds to the apartment of the women. The Sacrament of the Lord’s Supper is often performed in the Coptic Church. The bread, which is made in the form of small round cakes, or buns, stamped upon the top, is moistened with the wine, and in this state administered to the congregation, and partaken of by the ministers in orders, who have larger shares than the laymen, and are alone privileged to drink the wine. Each member of the congregation advances to the door of the Heykel to receive his portion.

The priests and others are often guilty of excessive indecorum in their public worship. I heard a priest, standing before the door of the sanctuary in the patriarchal church in Cairo, exclaim to a young acolyte (who was assisting him, I suppose, rather awkwardly), “May a blow corrode your heart!” and a friend of mine once witnessed, in the same place, a complete uproar: a priest from a village, having taken a part in the performance of the service, was loudly cursed, and forcibly expelled, by the regular officiating ministers; and afterwards, many members of the congregation, in pressing towards the door of the Heykel, vociferated curses, and beat each other with their crutches. The form of service in itself struck me as not much characterized by solemnity; though probably it approaches very nearly to that of the earliest age of the Christian Church.

Confession is required of all members of the Coptic Church; and is indispensable before receiving the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper. Each person generally confesses to the same priest. The penance which the confessor usually imposes is a certain number of crossings and prostrations, with the repetition, during each prostration, of the Lord’s Prayer, or, “O my Lord! have mercy!”

The Copts observe long and arduous fasts. A week before their Great Fast, or Lent, commences a fast of three days, kept in commemoration of that of Nineveh, which was occasioned by the preaching of Jonah. Some of the Copts observe this fast by total abstinence during the whole period of three days and three nights; others keep it in the same manner as the other fasts, of which an account here follows.

Their principal fast, called “Ses-óm el-Kebeer” (or the Great Fast), above alluded to, was originally limited to forty days; but it has been gradually extended, by different patriarchs, to fifty-five days. During this period, excepting on two days of festival, which will presently be mentioned, they abstain from every kind of animal food, such as flesh-meat, eggs, milk, butter, and cheese; and eat only bread and vegetables (chiefly beans), with sweet oil, or the oil of sesame, and dukkah. The churches are open, and service is performed in them, every day during this fast; and the Copts eat nothing after their supper until after the church-prayers of the next day, about noon: but they do not thus on the other fasts.

They observe, however, with almost equal strictness, three other fasts:—1st, the “Sóm el-Meelád” (or Fast of the Nativity); the period of which is twenty-eight days immediately preceding the festival of the Nativity, or Christmas-day; that is, all the month of Kiyahk excepting the last two days:—2dly, the “Sóm er-Rusul” (or Fast of the Apostles), which is the period between the Ascension and the fifth of Ebeeb; and is observed in commemoration of the Apostles’ fasting after they were deprived of their Lord:—3dly, the “Sóm el-’Adra” (or Fast of the Virgin), a period of fifteen days previous to the Assumption of the Virgin.

The Copts also fast every Wednesday and Friday in every other period of the year; excepting during the fifty days immediately following their Great Fast: that is, from the end of the Great Fast to the end of the Khamáseen. On these Wednesdays and Fridays, they eat only fish, vegetables, and oil.

Each fast is followed by a festival. The Copts observe seven great festivals:—1st, the “’Eed el-Meelád” (or Festival of the Nativity), on the 29th of Kiyahk (or 6th or 7th of January):—2dly, the “’Eed el-Gheetás,” on the 11th of Toobeh (18th or 19th of January), in commemoration of the baptism of Christ:—3dly, the “’Eed el-Bishárah” (Annunciation of the Virgin, or Lady-day), on the 29th of Barmahát (or 6th of April):—4thly, the “’Eed esh-Sha’áneen” (Palm Sunday), the Sunday next before Easter:—5thly, the “’Eed el-Kiyámeh” (the Resurrection, or Easter), or “el-’Eed el-Kebeer” (the Great Festival):—6thly, the “’Eed es-So’ood” (the Ascension):—7thly, the “’Eed el-’Ansar′ah” (Whitsunday). On the first, second, and fifth of these, the church-prayers are performed at night: that is, in the night preceding the day of festival. On all these festivals, the Copts wear new clothes (or the best they have), feast, and give alms.

On the “Leylet el-Gheetás” (or eve of the festival of the Gheetás), the Copts, almost universally, used to perform a singular ceremony, which, I am informed, is now observed by few of those residing in the metropolis, but by almost all others; that is, by the men. To commemorate the baptism of Christ, men, old as well as young, and boys, plunge into water; and the Muslims say, that as each does this, another exclaims to him, “Plunge, as thy father and grandfather plunged; and remove El-Islám from thy heart.” Some churches have a large tank, which is used on this occasion; the water having first been blessed by a priest: but it is a more common practice of the Copts to perform this ceremony (which most of them regard more as an amusement than a religious rite) in the river; pouring in some holy water from the church before they plunge. This used to be an occasion of great festivity among the Copts of the metropolis: the Nile was crowded with boats; and numerous tents and mesh′als were erected on its banks. Prayers are performed in the churches on the eve of this festival: a priest blesses the water in the font, or the tank, then ties on a napkin as an apron, and, wetting the corner of a handkerchief with the holy water, washes (or rather, wipes or touches) with it the feet of each member of the congregation. This latter ceremony is also performed on the Thursday next before Easter, or Maunday Thursday (“Khamees el-′Ahd”), and on the Festival of the Apostles (“′Eed er-Rusul”), on the 5th of Ebeeb (or 11th of July).

On the Festivals of the “Bishárah” and the “Sha′áneen,” the Copts eat fish; and on the latter of these two festivals the priests recite the prayers of the dead over their congregations in the churches; and if any die between that day and the end of the Khamáseen (which is the chief or worse portion of the plague-season), his body is interred without the prayer being repeated. This custom seems to have originated from the fact of its being impossible to pray at the tomb over every victim of the plague; and must have a very impressive effect upon people expecting this dreadful scourge.

Among the minor festivals are the “Khamees el-′Ahd,” above mentioned; “Sebt en-Noor” (or Saturday of the Light), the next Saturday, when a light which is said to be miraculous appears in the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem; the “′Eed er-Rusul” before mentioned; and the “′Eed es-Saleeb” (or Festival of [the discovery of] the Cross), on the 17th of Toot (or 26th or 27th of September).

Pilgrimage to Jerusalem the Copts hold to be incumbent on all who are able to perform it; but few of the poorer classes acquit themselves of this duty. The pilgrims compose a numerous caravan. They pass the Passion-Week and Easter at Jerusalem; and, on the third day after the Passion-Week, proceed to the Jordan, in which they bathe.

The Copts almost universally abstain from eating swine′s flesh; not because they consider it unlawful, for they deny it to be so, but, as they say, on account of the filthiness of the animal. I should think, however, that this abstinence is rather to be attributed to a prejudice derived from their heathen ancestors. The flesh of the wild boar is often eaten by them. Camel′s flesh they consider unlawful; probably for no better reason than that of its being eaten by the Muslims. They abstain from the flesh of animals that have been strangled, and from blood, in compliance with an injunction of the Apostles to the Gentile converts,[^[639]] which they hold is not abrogated.

The male adults among the Copts pay a tribute (called “gizyeh”), besides the income-tax (or “firdeh”) which they pay in common with the Muslim inhabitants of Egypt. There are three rates of the former: the richer classes, in Cairo and other large towns, pay thirty-six piastres each; the middling classes, eighteen; and the poorest, nine: but in the country, this tax is levied upon families, instead of individuals. The firdeh is the same for the Copts as for the Muslims; the twelfth part of a man′s annual salary or gain, when this can be ascertained.

The Copts are not now despised and degraded by the government as they were a few years ago. Some of them have even been raised to the rank of Beys. Before the accession of Mohammad ′Alee, neither the Copts nor other Eastern Christians, nor Jews, were generally allowed to ride horses in Egypt; but this restriction has, of late years, been withdrawn.—A short time since, the Muslims of Damascus, who are notorious for their bigotry and intolerance, complained to the conqueror Ibráheem Básha, of the Christians in their city being allowed to ride horses; urging that the Muslims no longer had the privilege of distinguishing themselves from the infidels. The Básha replied, “Let the Muslims still be exalted above the Christians, if they wish it: let them ride dromedaries in the streets: depend upon it the Christians will not follow their example.”—The Copts enjoy an immunity for which they are much envied by most of the Muslims: they are not liable to be taken for military service; as no Muslim prince would honour a Christian by employing him to fight against a Muslim enemy.

The ordinary domestic habits of the Copts are perfectly Oriental, and nearly the same as those of their Muslim fellow-countrymen. They pass their hours of leisure chiefly in the same manner, enjoying their pipe and coffee: their meals, also, are similar; and their manner of eating is the same: but they indulge in drinking brandy at all hours of the day; and often, to excess.

They are not allowed by their church to intermarry with persons of any other sect; and few of them do so. When a Copt wishes to contract such a marriage, which causes him to be regarded as a reprobate by the more strict of his nation, he generally applies to a priest of the sect to which his intended wife belongs; and if his request be denied, which is commonly the case unless the man will consent to adopt his wife′s creed, he is married by the Kádee, merely by a civil contract. As a marriage of this kind is not acknowledged by the church, it may be dissolved at pleasure.

When a Copt is desirous of marrying according to the approved custom, he pursues the same course to obtain a wife as the Muslim; employing one or more of his female relations or other women to seek for him a suitable companion. Scarcely ever is he able to obtain a sight of the face of his intended wife, unless she be of the lower orders; and not always even in this case. If the female sought in marriage be under age, her father, or mother, or nearest male relation, is her “wekeel” (or agent) to make the necessary arrangements; but if she be of age, and have neither father nor mother, she appoints her own wekeel. The bridegroom, also, has his wekeel. The parties make a contract, in which various private domestic matters are arranged, in the presence of a priest. Two-thirds of the amount of the dowry is paid on this occasion: the remaining third is held in reserve: if she survive her husband, she claims this from his property: if she die before him, her relations claim it at her death. The contract being concluded, the Lord′s Prayer is recited three times by all persons present: the priest commencing it first.

The marriage-festivities, in the cases of persons of the higher and middle classes, when the bride is a virgin, usually occupy a period of eight days. Such is the length of what is termed a complete fête.

The night preceding Sunday (which the Copts, like the Muslims, call the night of Sunday) is the most approved for the performance of the marriage service; and most of the Copts are married on this night. In this case, the festivities commence on the preceding Tuesday, when the bridegroom and the bride′s family entertain their respective friends. At the feasts given on these occasions, and on subsequent days of the marriage-festivities, a curious custom, which reminds us of the alites or præpetes of the Romans, is usually observed. The cook makes two hollow balls of sugar; each with a hole at the bottom: then taking two live pigeons, he attaches little round bells to their wings; and having whirled the poor birds through the air till they are giddy, puts them into the two balls before mentioned: each of these is placed upon a dish; and they are put before the guests; some of whom, judging when the birds have recovered from their giddiness, break the balls: the pigeons generally fly about the room, ringing their little bells: if they do not fly immediately, some person usually makes them rise; as the spectators would draw an evil omen from their not flying.[^[640]] The guests are generally entertained with music on the evenings of these feasts.—Wednesday is passed in preparations.

On Thursday, in the afternoon, the bride is conducted to the bath, accompanied by several of her female relations and friends, and usually with music; but not under a canopy.—Friday, again, is a day of preparation; and the bride has the henna applied to her hands and feet, etc.

Early on Saturday, two sets of articles of clothing, etc., one for the bridegroom and the other for the bride, and each consisting of similar things (namely, a shirt of silk and cotton, a pair of drawers, the embroidered band of the drawers, and two handkerchiefs embroidered with gold, together with a tobacco-purse, ornamented in the same manner), are sent from the bride′s family to the house of the bridegroom. An old lady of the family of the bride afterwards goes to the bridegroom’s house, to see whether it be properly prepared; and the bridegroom’s “ashbeen” (or brideman) takes him and several of his friends to the bath.

In the ensuing evening, about an hour and a half, or two hours, after sunset, the bride, accompanied by a number of her female relations and friends, preceded and followed by musicians, and attended by a number of persons bearing mesh’als and candles, proceeds to the house of the bridegroom. This “zeffeh” (or parade) much resembles that of a Muslim′eh bride; but the Copt bride is not conducted under a canopy. She is covered with a shawl, with several ornaments attached to that part which conceals her face and head, and numerous coins and other ornaments upon the part which covers her bosom. The procession moves very slowly; and generally occupies about two hours. A lamb or sheep is killed for the guests at the bridegroom’s house this night: it is slaughtered at the door; and the bride steps over its blood. This ceremony, I am told, is only observed in Cairo and other large towns.

The bride’s party having rested about two hours at the bridegroom’s house, and there partaken of refreshments, proceed with her thence, in the same manner, to the church. The bridegroom goes thither with his friends, forming a separate party; and without music. In the church, where the men and women place themselves apart, long prayers are performed; and the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper is administered. The priest receives and blesses and returns two rings, for the bridegroom and bride; and places a kind of crown, or frontal diadem, of gold, upon the head of each of them, and a sash over the shoulder of the bridegroom. This ceremony is called the “tekleel” (or crowning). The two crowns belong to the church: before the parties quit the church, they are taken off; but the bridegroom often goes home with the sash; and it is there taken off by a priest. At the weddings of the rich in the metropolis, the Patriarch generally officiates. In most cases, the ceremonies of the church are not concluded until near daybreak: the parties then return to the house of the bridegroom. From respect to the sacrament of which they have partaken, the bridegroom and bride maintain a religious reserve towards each other until the following night (that preceding Monday); or, generally, until after the close of this night.[^[641]]

The bride’s father gives a dinner at the bridegroom’s house on Monday, at which the principal dishes are usually rice and milk, and boiled fowls. In the evening, after this dinner, the bridegroom and his ashbeen go about to invite his friends to a great feast to be given on the evening following, which concludes the marriage-festivities.

Such are the ceremonies which are usually observed on the marriage of a virgin-bride. Sometimes, the Patriarch, bishop, or priest, who is employed to perform the marriage-service, dissuades the parties from expending their money in zeffehs and repeated feasts; counselling them rather to devote the sums which they had purposed to employ in so vain a manner to the relief of the wants of the clergy and poor; and in consequence, the marriage is conducted with more simplicity and privacy. A widow is always married without ostentation, festivity, or zeffeh. A virgin bride of the poorer class is sometimes honoured with a zeffeh; but is generally conducted to the bath merely by a group of female relations and friends, who, wanting the accompaniment of musical instruments, only testify their joy by “zagháreet:” in the same manner, also, she proceeds to the bridegroom’s house; and she is there married by a priest; as the expenses of lighting and otherwise preparing the church for a marriage fall upon the bridegroom. Many of the Copts in Cairo, being possessed of little property, are married in a yet more simple manner, before mentioned. To be married by one of their own clergy, they must obtain a licence from the Patriarch; and this covetous person will seldom give it for less than a hundred piasters (or a pound sterling), and sometimes demands, from such persons, as many riyáls (of two piasters and a quarter each): the parties, therefore, are married by a licence from the Kádee; for which they usually pay not more than two piasters, or a little less than five pence of our money.

The newly-married wife, if she observe the approved rules of etiquette, does not go out of the house, even to pay a visit to her parents, until delivered of her first child, or until the expiration of a year, if there appear no signs of her becoming a mother. After this period of imprisonment, her father or mother usually comes to visit her.

A divorce is obtained only for the cause of adultery on the part of the wife. The husband and wife may be separated if she have committed a theft, or other heinous crime; but in this case, neither he nor she is at liberty to contract another marriage, though they may again be united to each other.

One of the most remarkable traits in the character of the Copts is their bigotry. They bear a bitter hatred to all other Christians; even exceeding that with which the Muslims regard the unbelievers in El-Islám. Yet they are considered, by the Muslims, as much more inclined than any other Christian sect to the faith of El-Islám; and this opinion has not been formed without reason; for vast numbers of them have, from time to time, and not always in consequence of persecution, become proselytes to this religion. They are, generally speaking, of a sullen temper, extremely avaricious, and abominable dissemblers; cringing or domineering according to circumstances. The respectable Copt, to whom I have already acknowledged myself chiefly indebted for the notions which I have obtained respecting the customs of his nation, gives me a most unfavourable account of their character. He avows them to be generally ignorant, deceitful, faithless, and abandoned to the pursuit of worldly gain, and to indulgence in sensual pleasures: he declares the Patriarch to be a tyrant, and a suborner of false witnesses; and assures me that the priests and monks in Cairo are seen every evening begging, and asking the loan of money, which they never repay, at the houses of their parishioners and other acquaintances, and procuring brandy, if possible, wherever they call.

Many of the Copts are employed as secretaries or accountants. In every village of a moderate size is a “M’allim”[^[642]] who keeps the register of the taxes. The writing of the Copts differs considerably from that of the Muslims, as well as from that of other Christians residing in Egypt. Most of the Copts in Cairo are accountants or tradesmen: the former are chiefly employed in government offices: among the latter are many merchants, goldsmiths, silversmiths, jewellers, architects, builders, and carpenters; all of whom are generally esteemed more skilful than the Muslims. Those in the villages, like the Muslim peasants, occupy themselves chiefly in the labours of agriculture.

The funeral-ceremonies of the Copts resemble, in many respects, those of the Muslims. The corpse is carried in a bier, followed by women, wailing in the same manner as the Muslim′ehs do on such an occasion; but is not preceded by hired chanters. Hired wailing-women are employed to lament in the house of the deceased for three days after the death (though this custom is disapproved of by the clergy and many others; being only a relic of ancient heathen usages): and they renew their lamentations there on the seventh and fourteenth days after the death; and sometimes several weeks after. The Copts, both men and women, pay regular visits to the tombs of their relations three times in the year: on the ’Eed el-Meelád, ’Eed el-Gheetás, and ’Eed el-Kiyámeh. They go to the burial-ground on the eve of each of these ’eeds; and there pass the night; having houses belonging to them in the cemeteries, for their reception on these occasions: the women spend the night in the upper apartments; and the men below. In the morning following, they kill a buffalo, or a sheep, if they can afford either; and give its flesh, with bread, to the poor who assemble there: or they give bread alone. This ceremony, which resembles the “kaffárah” performed by the Muslims on the burial of their dead, is not considered as any expiation of the sins of the deceased; but probably originates from an ancient expiatory sacrifice: it is only regarded as an alms. As soon as it is done, the mourners return home. They say that they visit the tombs merely for the sake of religious reflection. In doing so, they perpetuate an ancient custom, which they find difficult to relinquish; though they can give no good reason for observing it with such ceremonies.

I shall close this account of the Copts with a few notices of their history under the Muslim domination, derived from El-Makreezee’s celebrated work on Egypt and its Metropolis.[^[643]]

About seventy years after the conquest of Egypt by the Arabs, the Copts began to experience such exactions and persecutions, notwithstanding the chartered favours and privileges which had at first been granted to them, that many of them rose in arms, and attempted to defend their rights; but they were reduced, after sustaining a great slaughter. The monks, for the first time, had been subjected to an annual tribute of a deenár[^[644]] each. The collector of the tribute branded the hand of each monk whom he could find with a stamp of iron; and afterwards cut off the hand of every person of this order whom he detected without the mark; and exacted ten deenárs from every other Christian who had not a billet from the government to certify his having paid his tribute. Many Monks were subsequently found without the mark: some of these were beheaded, and the rest beaten until they died under the blows: their churches were demolished; and their crosses and pictures destroyed. This took place in the year of the Flight 104 (A.D. 722-3), at the close of the reign of the Khaleefeh Yezeed Ibn-’Abd-El-Melik. A few years after, in the reign of the successor of this prince (Hishám), Handhal′ah Ibn-Safwán, the Governor of Egypt, caused the hand of every Copt to be branded with an iron stamp bearing the figure of a lion, and greatly aggravated their misery: so that many of those residing in the provinces again rebelled, and had recourse to arms; but in vain; and a terrible persecution followed.

From the period of the conquest until the reign of Hishám, the Jacobites (or almost all the Copts) were in possession of all the churches in Egypt; and sent their bishops to the Nubians, who consequently abandoned the Melekite creed, and adopted that of the Jacobites; but in the reign of this Khaleefeh, the Melekites, by means of a present, obtained the restoration of those churches which had formerly belonged to them: these, however, soon after returned to the possession of the Jacobites; and in aftertimes, were now the property of one sect, and now of the other, being purchased by presents or services to the government.

It would be tiresome to detail all the troubles of the Copts under the tyranny of Muslim princes; but some particulars in the history of the persecutions which they endured in the earlier ages of the Arab domination may be here mentioned. The Copts are a people of indomitable presumption and intrigue; which qualities render them very difficult to be governed. They have often incurred severe oppression by their own folly; though they have more frequently been victims of unmerited persecution under tyrannical rulers, and through the influence of private fanatics.[^[645]]

In the year of the Flight 235 (A.D. 849-50), the Khaleefeh El-Mutawekkil ordered several degrading distinctions to be adopted in the dress of the Copts: the men were obliged to wear “honey-coloured” (or light brown) hooded cloaks, with other peculiar articles of dress; and the women, garments of the same colour: and they were compelled to place wooden figures (or pictures) of devils at (or upon) the doors of their houses.

One of the bitterest persecutions that they ever endured, and one which was attributed to their pride, and their display of wealth, and contemptuous treatment of Muslims, befell them during the reign of that impious wretch the Khaleefeh El-Hákim, who acceded to the throne in the year of the Flight 386 (A.D. 996-7), and was killed in 411. Among the minor grievances which he inflicted upon them, was that of compelling them to wear a wooden cross, of the weight of five pounds, suspended to the neck, and garments and turbans of a deep black colour. This seems to have been the origin of the black turban worn by so many of the Christians in the present day. As the distinguishing dress and banners of the Khaleefehs of Egypt were white, black, which was the colour that distinguished their rivals, the ’Abbásees, was, in their eyes, the most hateful and ignominious hue that they could choose for the dresses of the despised Copts. I find no earlier mention than this of the black turban of the Christians of Egypt. At the same time that the Copts were compelled thus to distinguish themselves, the Jews were ordered to wear a round piece of wood, of the same weight as the crosses of the Christians, and suspended in the same manner. All the churches were given up to be destroyed and plundered, with all the property appertaining to them; and many of them were replaced by mosques. Finally, a sentence of banishment to Greece was pronounced against all the Christians of Egypt, and the Jews; but so strong was the love which they bore to their native country amid all their miseries, and so much were they actuated by that common but absurd disposition, which most sects possess, of hating most bitterly those differing least from them in faith, that a multitude of Copts thronged round the great palace of the Khaleefeh, and implored and obtained a revokement of this sentence. Many Copts, during this and other persecutions, embraced the faith of El-Islám.

In the month of Regeb, 700 (A.D. 1301), happened an event which, for the first time, as well as I can learn, occasioned the Copts to be distinguished by the blue turban, as they mostly are at present. A Maghrab′ee ambassador, approaching the Citadel (of Cairo), saw a man handsomely attired, wearing a white turban, and riding a mare, with many attendants walking by his stirrups, paying him great honours, asking favours of him, and even kissing his feet; while he turned aside from them, and repulsed them, calling to his servants to drive them away. The Maghrab′ee, informed that this person was a Christian, was so enraged that he was about to lay violent hands upon him; but he refrained, and, ascending to the deewán in the Citadel, related to some of the Emeers there present what he had just seen, with tears in his eyes, drawn by his pity for the Muslims. In consequence of his complaint, the chief persons among the Christians and Jews were summoned to the deewán: and orders were given that the Christians should wear blue turbans, and waist-belts; and the Jews, yellow turbans: and that no person of either of these sects should ride horses or mules. Many Christians, it is added, embraced El-Islám rather than wear the blue turban.

On Friday, the 9th of Rabeea el-A′khir, 721 (A.D. 1321), in the reign of Mohammad Ibn-Kalaoon, all the principal churches throughout Egypt, from Aswán to the Mediterranean, sixty in number, and twenty-one of these in the metropolis and its neighbourhood, were destroyed through a plot formed by some fanatic Muslims. This havoc was accomplished chiefly during the period of the congregational prayers of the Muslims, at noon. At the close of the prayers of the Sultán and his court, in the mosque of the Citadel, a man, in a state of apparent frenzy, cried out in the midst of the congregation, “Destroy ye the church which is in the Citadel!” Another man, a fakeer, in the great mosque El-Azhar, before the appearance of the Khateeb (or Preacher), seemed to be affected by an involuntary trembling, and cried out, “Destroy ye the churches of the presumptuous and infidels! Yea, God is most great! God give victory and aid!” Then he shook himself, and cried, “To the foundations! To the foundations!” Some members of the congregation said, “This is a madman:” others said, “This is an indication of some event.” On their going out of the mosque, they saw that the act which he had urged had been commenced: numbers of persons were pressing along the streets with the plunder of the churches, many of which were reduced to mere mounds of rubbish. The Sultán threatened a general massacre of the people of El-Káhireh (now Masr, or Cairo) and El-Fustát (or Old Masr) for this outrage; but was diverted from his purpose by the revenge which the Christians exacted. Refraining from the execution of their plot for the space of a month, that they might be less liable to suspicion, they set fire, on different days, to a vast number of mosques, houses of Emeers, and private dwellings, both in El-Káhireh and El-Fustát. Several of the incendiaries were detected; and some burnt alive; and a number of Muslims also were put to death, most of them hanged, along the principal street leading from the southern gate of the city of El-Káhireh to the Citadel, ostensibly for insulting an Emeer, whom they accused of favouring the Christians; though there was no proof that they were the persons who committed this offence: they had been arrested without discrimination, to atone for the injury, and to be made examples to their fellow-citizens. The Sultán, however, alarmed by the clamours of a tremendous mob, was afterwards constrained to grant licence to his Muslim subjects to plunder and murder every Christian whom they might chance to meet. The Christians at that time had reverted to the habit of wearing the white turban; and the Sultán caused it to be proclaimed, that every person of this sect, who was seen wearing a white turban, or riding a horse, might be plundered and killed; that they should wear the blue turban; that they should not ride horses nor mules, but only asses, and with their face to the animal’s tail; and should not enter a bath unless with a bell suspended to the neck. At the same time, the Emeers were forbidden to take any Christians into their service; and all of this sect who were in the service of the government were displaced.

After having suffered frequent and heavy exactions and other oppressions, a vast number of the Christians both in Upper and Lower Egypt, in the year of the Flight 755 (A.D. 1354-5), embraced the faith of El-Islám. The number of proselytes in the town of Kalyoob alone, who changed their faith in one day, was four hundred and fifty. Most of the churches of Upper Egypt were destroyed at the same time; and mosques were built in their places.

From the period just mentioned, the Copts continued subject to more or less oppression, until the accession of the present Básha of Egypt, under whose tolerant though severe sway nothing more is exacted from the Christian than the Muslim, excepting an inconsiderable tribute, which is more than balanced by a remarkable immunity, not conferred by favour (it is true), but not on that account the less valued and envied; I mean the exemption from military service.