CHAPTER II
HOW TO CONSTRUCT AND DELIVER ORATIONS
the application of the means
The previous chapter was used to show what means orators employed in constructing their oratory, and this chapter will be devoted to showing students how to adopt and use those means. It would be of little use to tell students of oratory how others made their effects unless they are shown how they can produce equal results; therefore this chapter will be a chapter of hows. It will consider the proper arrangement of all the forms of creating and delivering the oratorical message, and deal at length with the conveying of the thought by means of the putting together of words and interpreting it through an understanding and an application of inflection and emphasis. It has been shown that oratory, through all its existence, has been created by means of the effective use of negative and positive words, phrases, and sentences; correct application of apposition and opposition; proper grouping of words and phrases in the form of series; the driving home and clinching of points; and many other ways of conveying thought by means of speech, and that these means have been passed from Gorgias to Isaeus, from Isaeus to Demosthenes, from Demosthenes to Cicero, and from these masters of old transmitted to Webster, Clay, Lincoln, Roosevelt, Bryan, Watterson, and the other able and careful public speakers of our day. Not only will the arrangement of words be thoroughly considered, but their utterance will receive much attention, the aim of the author being to show how, by the inflection, emphasis, and tone of the living voice, thought can be interpreted, and an impression made by the speaker on the minds and actions of others by means of the spoken word. Attention will also be given to getting the mentality into the voice, making the soul of the speaker shine through the medium that is to make the thought apparent to the listener.
inflection
What is inflection? Inflection is a bending of the voice.
How many inflections are there? Two. The rising and the falling.
What does the rising inflection signify? The rising inflection, in the main, signifies uncertainty. Whatever is uncertain, negative, qualified, conditional, incomplete, or continuous, requires the rising inflection; as,
Uncertainty. A government having at its command the armies, the fleets, and the revenues of Great Britain, might possibly hold Ireland by the sword. . . . But, to govern Great Britain by the sword—so wild a thought has never, I will venture to say, occurred to any public man of any party.
—Macaulay
In this example the first sentence is uncertain because Ireland might possibly be held by the sword, but it is not certain that it could be. The second sentence is assertive, and requires the falling inflection.
Negative. He have arbitrary power! My Lords, the East India Company have not arbitrary power to give him; the King has no arbitrary power to give him; your Lordships have not; nor the Commons; nor the whole legislature. We have no arbitrary power to give, because arbitrary power is a thing which neither any man can hold nor any man can give.
—Burke
Here is a splendid string of negatives, not demonstratively spoken, but given in the form of clear argumentation, and for that reason every member requires the rising inflection. The opening exclamation, “He have arbitrary power,” should be given the falling inflection because it is a positive denial of his right to possess it. Were this extract spoken vehemently instead of argumentatively, it would take the falling inflection on all its members; but it is clearly intended to be negatively spoken, because the orator immediately follows it with positive statements, thus denoting a contrast. Therefore the exclamation alone is given the falling inflection.
Exception. It should be remembered that only while the thought is negative should the words be given the rising inflection, and that whenever emphasis is placed on the negative word it removes the negative quality and makes the thought positive, thus necessitating the use of the falling inflection. Consequently, whenever a negative is used in the sense of a contradiction it should be given the falling inflection, because it is just as positive to deny the assertion of a speaker as it is for the speaker to make the assertion; as,
I am charged with being an emissary of France. An emissary of France! and for what end? It is alleged that I wish to sell the independence of my country! and for what end? Was this the object of my ambition; and is this the mode by which a tribunal of justice reconciles contradictions? No! I am no emissary.
—Robert Emmet
The positive statement is, “I am charged with being an emissary of France”; and the contradiction, “No! I am no emissary.” Emphasis being placed on the negative word “no” necessitates the falling inflection being used in order to make the contradiction positive.
Qualified Negative. A negative is qualified when it is restricted in any manner by the use of such words as “only,” “alone,” “merely,” etc., such words receiving the inflection and being negatived; as,
In reading great orations one not only learns something of the methods and style of the orator, but obtains an epitome of the history of the times.
—William Jennings Bryan
Mr. Bryan here states that by means of reading one learns something of the methods and style of the orator, and also gains an epitome of the history of the times; and that he does not only learn the former, but that he also gains the latter. In this sentence everything is positive except the negatived word “only,” this being the only word in the sentence that is acted upon by the negative word “not,” because the reader learns something of the methods and style of the orator, but not only this, because he obtains an epitome of the history of the times as well. “Only,” being the negatived word (the word upon which the negative acts), it should be given the rising inflection, while the balance of the sentence, being positive, should be given the falling inflection.
Qualified. I believe in the doctrine of peace; but, Mr. President, men must have liberty before there can come abiding peace.
—John M. Thurston
The phrase, “I believe in the doctrine of peace,” is qualified by the concluding statement, “men must have liberty before there can come abiding peace”; and any expression that is qualified should be given the rising inflection. In this example Senator Thurston states that he believes in peace, provided peace can be had with liberty; but that if the loss of liberty is the price exacted for peace, then he prefers war. In order to convey the meaning of this example, the first phrase should be given the rising inflection and the last phrase the falling; the qualified taking the rising, and the concluding the falling inflection.
Conditional. If ye love wealth better than liberty, the tranquility of servitude than the animating contest of freedom, go from us in peace.
—Samuel Adams
Here we have two conditional phrases and one concluding phrase. All expressions that are conditional in character require the rising inflection, and the clause that concludes the sentence takes the inflection that interprets the thought. Therefore, if the concluding clause is positive, as in this example, it should be given the falling inflection; but if negative, it should be given the rising inflection. There is no exception to the conditional clause taking the rising inflection, because it is always uncertain in character, and whatever is uncertain should always be given the rising inflection, but the concluding clause, whenever it is negative, is given the rising inflection; as,
So, on the other hand, if I take the life of another, without being aware of any intended violence on his part, it will constitute no excuse for me to prove that he intended an attack upon me.
—Sargent S. Prentiss
Continuity. Whenever the thought is continuous the rising inflection should be employed until a conclusion is reached; as,
In speaking to you, men of the greatest city of the West, men of the state which gave to the country Lincoln and Grant, men who preëminently and distinctly embody all that is most American in the American character, I wish to preach, not the doctrine of ignoble ease, but the doctrine of the strenuous life, the life of toil and effort, of labor and strife.
—Roosevelt
The thought here is continuous and incomplete until we come to the phrase “the doctrine of the strenuous life,” and in order to obtain an unbroken flow of speech the rising inflection should be used until the close of the negative phrase “not the doctrine of ignoble ease,” but from there to the end of the sentence the falling inflection should be used because of its positive character and the fact that the thought is practically complete with the utterance of the phrase “but the doctrine of the strenuous life,” all that follows being merely an amplification.
questions
How many kinds of questions are there? Two.
What are they called? They are called direct and indirect.
What difference is there between these two kinds of questions? The direct question may be answered by either yes or no; the indirect question is answered by a statement or explanation. Usually there is uncertainty as to the answer to the direct question, and therefore the question should generally be given the rising inflection, but as soon as uncertainty ceases to exist as to the answer to a question, it should be given the falling inflection. Therefore, if the speaker knows that the answer is sure to be yes, or if he knows that the answer is sure to be no, the question should take the falling inflection, for then there would be no uncertainty as to the reply to the question. On the other hand, if, for any reason, the quality of uncertainty exists in the indirect question, it should be given the rising inflection. The general supposition regarding questions is that they usually require the rising inflection, but the reverse of this is the fact. A question should only be given the rising inflection when the speaker is not sure as to whether the answer will be yes or no, or when an indirect question is expressive of the uncertainty of the speaker; as, What did you say? Direct questions, whenever the answer is anticipated, or the question repeated with marked emphasis, or spoken with earnestness in the shape of an appeal, should be given the falling inflection; as,
Immortal spirits of Hampden, Locke, and Sidney, will it not add to your benevolent joys to behold your posterity rising to the dignity of men, and evincing to the world the reality and expediency of your systems, and in the actual enjoyment of that equal liberty, which you were happy, when on earth, in delineating and recommending to mankind?
—Samuel Adams
The falling inflection should be given this direct question because the anticipated answer is yes.
The falling inflection should be given a direct question such as,
Has the gentlemen done? has he completely done?
The reason the falling inflection is here used is that the question is repeated with marked emphasis, and whenever a question is so repeated it should be given the falling inflection on the repetition.
The falling inflection should also be given all direct questions that are earnest appeals; as,
Will you please forgive me?
Direct Question. Undoubtedly the world is better; but would it have been better if everybody had then insisted that it was the best of all possible worlds, and that we must despond if sometimes a cloud gathers in the sky, or a Benedict Arnold appeared in the patriot army, or even a Judas Iscariot among the chosen twelve?
—George W. Curtis
Indirect Question. When, O Catiline, do you mean to cease abusing our patience? How long is that madness of yours still to mock us? When is there to be an end of that unbridled audacity of yours, swaggering about as it does now?
—Cicero
A direct question is sometimes used in the form of a statement; as,
The constitutional question is: Has Congress the power, under our Constitution, to hold in subjection unwilling vassal states?
—George F. Hoar
This is a direct question, but because it is a statement put forth to be argued it should be given the falling inflection. If a request is made of a presiding officer for information regarding what question is then before the body, and the officer replies with a direct question, he should give it the falling inflection, because he does not speak it as a question but as a statement in reply to the member’s question as to what is then before the meeting.
What does the falling inflection signify?
The falling inflection, in the main, signifies certainty. The arrival at a result, commands (whether negatively or positively constructed), and all positive words, phrases, and sentences, require, as a rule, the falling inflection.
The Arrival at a Result. We are all born in subjection, all born equally, high and low, governors and governed, in subjection to one great, immutable pre-existent law, prior to all our devices, and prior to all our contrivances, paramount to all our ideas, and all our sensations, antecedent to our very existence, by which we are knit and connected to the eternal frame of the universe, out of which we cannot stir.
—Burke
The result here is not reached until we come to the final phrase “out of which we cannot stir,” and although this is a negative phrase, so far as the construction goes, it requires the falling inflection because it closes the thought and is positive in its nature.
Commands. These things I command you, that ye love one another.
—St. John, xv., 17
This is a commandment given by Jesus to His disciples, and both phrases require the falling inflection. It makes no difference whether the command is to do or not to do a certain thing, all commandments, of whatever nature, require falling inflection; as,
Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth.
—Exodus, xx., 4
Also, Honor thy father and thy mother: that thy days may be long upon the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee.
—Exodus, xx., 12
Positive. To the cant about the pharisaism of reform there is one short and final answer. The man who tells the truth is a holier man than the liar. The man who does not steal is a better man than the thief.
—George W. Curtis
All positive words, phrases, and sentences require, as a rule, the falling inflection, the only exception being when the words or phrases are arranged in the form of a series. This point is fully brought out and developed in the treatment of series in another part of this chapter.
Qualified Positives. The words “only,” “alone,” “merely,” etc., when not qualified by the negative word “not,” generally qualify some other word or phrase; as,
Every thing around was wrapped in darkness, and hushed in silence, broken only by what seemed, at that hour, the unearthly clank and rush of the train.
—Edward Everett
Here “only” qualifies what the silence was broken by. The meaning being that it was broken by but one thing, and that was “the unearthly clank and rush of the train.” “Only,” in this example, requires the falling inflection because it is positive.
Apposition. By means of the addition of words or phrases of like natures, we illustrate and explain; as,
The hardest chemist, the severest analyzer, scornful of all but the driest fact, is forced to keep the poetic curve of nature, and his result is like a myth of Theocritus.[1]
—Emerson
“The severest analyzer” is employed to explain what “the hardest chemist” is, therefore the two phrases are in apposition. This form of construction is often used in explaining who persons are; as,
I, Henry V, King of England, etc.
All these terms are in apposition and should receive the same inflection, because identity of inflection conveys similarity of thought. Here is another good example of apposition:
Identity of law, perfect order in physics, perfect parallelism between the laws of nature and the laws of thought exist.
—Emerson
emphasis
What is emphasis? Any impressive utterance that arrests the attention of the listener.
Is it placed merely on single words? No. It may be placed on individual words, phrases, or sentences.
Does it consist of force alone? No. Emphasis consists of time, pitch, force, quality, and location.
Time. By time is meant the rapidity of utterance; as,
With noiseless foot he paces the lonely hall, half lighted by the moon—he winds up the ascent of stairs, and reaches the door of the chamber.
—Daniel Webster
The idea is here brought out by means of the slow, measured manner in which the murderer is described noiselessly passing through the lonely hall and winding up the stairway. If this passage were quickly and violently spoken, a mis-interpretation would be given it. Time, in this instance, gives emphasis to the thought.
The light of the newly kindled sun, indeed, was glorious. It struck upon all the planets, and waked into existence their myriad capacities of life and joy. As it rebounded from them, and showed their vast orbs all wheeling, circle beyond circle in their stupendous course, the sons of God shouted for joy.
—Horace Mann
This passage is also made emphatic by the time employed. It requires rapidity of utterance in order to express the ideas of the awakening of life and the joy of man.
Pitch. By pitch is meant the tone of voice employed—its height or depth; as,
With simple resignation, he [Garfield] bowed to the divine decree.
—James G. Blaine
The words “With simple resignation” require simplicity of voice, but the phrase “he bowed to the divine decree” should be spoken in a low, impressive tone, the better to express the feeling of reverence. The idea is here conveyed as much by the pitch of the voice as by the words themselves.
People of Hungary! will you die under the exterminating sword of the savage Russians? If not, defend yourselves! Will you look on while the Cossacks of the far North tread under foot the bodies of your fathers, mothers, wives, and children? If not, defend yourselves! Will you see a part of your fellow citizens sent to the wilds of Siberia, made to serve in the wars of tyrants, or bleed under the murderous knout? If not, defend yourselves! Will you behold your villages in flames, and your harvests destroyed? Will you die of hunger on the land which your sweat has made fertile? If not, defend yourselves!
—Louis Kossuth
This example must be spoken in an inspiring tone; the oft-repeated phrase, “If not, defend yourselves,” should be given a gradual rise in pitch on each repetition until the final one is spoken almost in a shout. It is this gradual change in pitch that increases the emphasis on this important phrase each time it is spoken.
Force. By force is meant the loudness of voice; as,
For my part, whatever anguish of spirit it may cost, I am willing to know the whole truth; to know the worst, and to provide for it.
—Patrick Henry
By means of the force placed upon the words “whole,” “worst,” and “provide,” the thought is driven home with earnestness, and as the words grow in importance the force of the voice should increase. It is mainly by means of this gradual increase in the force of the voice that an ascending series is marked; as,
Our petitions have been slighted; our remonstrances have produced additional violence and insult, our supplications have been disregarded; and we have been spurned, with contempt, from the foot of the throne!
—Patrick Henry
The earnestness and force of the speaker’s delivery should grow with each succeeding phrase, until it bursts out with its greatest power and expression on the final one. Care should be exercised to go from one phrase to another by a gradual increase of force, culminating on the concluding phrase.
All important or significant words require emphasis by means of force; as,
It must be confessed, it will be confessed; there is no refuge from confession but suicide, and suicide is confession.
—Daniel Webster
Quality. By quality is meant the kind of voice—whether it is smooth or rough, rich or poor, large or small, expressive or non-expressive of the many emotions which the human voice is capable of producing. A tone may be raucous, because it is held in the throat; it may be nasal, through being held in the head; it may be breathy, through a waste of breath; or, on the other hand, it may possess those qualities of clearness, smoothness, and richness that come only from a properly developed and correctly used vocal mechanism. The quality of the voice may be pure, aspirated, or whispered; as,
Pure Quality. This uncounted multitude before me and around me proves the feeling which the occasion has excited. These thousands of human faces, glowing with sympathy and joy, and from the impulses of a common gratitude turned reverently to heaven in this spacious temple of the firmament, proclaim that the day, the place, and the purpose of our assembling here made a deep impression on our hearts.
—Daniel Webster
This example should be spoken in a clear, ringing, buoyant voice; and, if so spoken, the quality would be pure.
Aspirated Quality. Gracious God! In the nineteenth century to talk of constructive treason!
—William Pinkney
The words, “Gracious God!” are expressive of repressed indignation and should be uttered in a tone that is only partly vocalized; and, when so spoken, the quality is aspirated. An aspirated tone is one that is surrounded with breath, only a portion of which is vocalized.
Whispered Quality. The whisper is seldom used by the orator, but is often employed by the actor. Whispered speech is speech that is produced by the articulation of breath without that breath being converted into voice. For instance, when Hamlet sees the ghost of his father he articulates, but does not vocalize, the following:
Angels and ministers of grace defend us!
—Shakespeare
Hamlet is so awed by the presence of the spirit of his father as to be deprived of the use of his voice, although he retains the ability to speak, and when one produces speech without voice he is using the whispered quality. The whisper is articulated breath, but not vocalized breath. It is speech, but not voice.
Location. By location is meant the position that the word or phrase holds in the sentence. If the emphasis is properly built up, the speaker will move from the weaker to the stronger, from the lesser to the greater; as,
Here, then, are the three liberties: liberty of the producer, liberty of the distributer, liberty of the consumer. The first two need no discussion—they have been long, thoroughly, and brilliantly illustrated by the political economists of Great Britain, and by her eminent statesmen; but it seems to me that enough attention has not been directed to the third, and, with your patience, I will dwell on that for a moment before proceeding to other topics.
—Henry Ward Beecher
Mr. Beecher states that his intention is to speak on the liberty of the consumer; therefore, in enumerating the three liberties, he places the one he intends to discuss in the vantage position—the last.
When a word, phrase, or sentence is set against another word, phrase, or sentence, both members of the opposition require emphasis; as,
Law and arbitrary power are in eternal enmity.
—Edmund Burke
The placing of “law” against “arbitrary power” requires that the opposing words should be made emphatic by means of emphasis as well as by inflection. All words or thoughts that are contrasted (single, double, or triple opposition) should be emphasized by the application of force, and the contrast brought out through the proper placing of the inflection. It is by means of inflection and emphasis that all contrasts in delivery are marked.
The repetition of a word or phrase requires that the repetition should be made more emphatic than the first utterance by means of greater force; as,
They have answered then, that although two hundred thousand of their countrymen have offered up their lives, there yet remain lives to offer; and that it is the determination of all, yes, of all, to persevere until they shall have established their liberty, or until the power of their oppressors should have relieved them from the burden of existence.
—Daniel Webster
A series of emphatic words requires that there should be a general increase in force on all the members of the series; as,
The universal cry is—let us move against Philip—let us fight for our liberties—LET US CONQUER OR DIE.
—R. B. Sheridan
Where a word is used to qualify another, the qualifying word should be emphasized; as,
They planned no sluggard people, passive while the world’s work calls them. They established no reactionary nation. They unfurled no retreating flag.
—Albert J. Beveridge
The fathers planted a people, established a nation, and unfurled a flag; but they did not plant a sluggard people, establish a reactionary nation, nor unfurl a retreating flag. It is by means of placing the emphasis on the qualifying words in this example that the meaning is instantly interpreted.
Some years ago a critic,[2] in commenting on E. H. Sothern’s reading of the line from The Love Chase, “The cause of causes, lady,” justly criticised him for emphasizing the unimportant word of, but the critic himself fell into as great an error as the actor when he cited the following as correct placing of emphasis: My heart of hearts, the man of men, great among the greatest, mightiest in the mightiest, and cause of causes. The meaning in each instance is best brought out by placing the principal emphasis on heart, man, great, mightiest, and cause, and secondary emphasis on hearts, men, greatest, mightiest, and causes. The ideas being that it is in the very center of the heart, that he towers above all others, that it is stronger than all others, and that it is the creator of creatures. Therefore the phrases should read: My heart of hearts, the man of men, great among the greatest, mightiest in the mightiest,, the cause of causes.
The same critic, a little further on in the same book,[3] takes Julie Marlowe to task for reading the following lines from Romeo and Juliet thus:
Deny thy father and refuse thy name.
He states it should be read:
Deny thy father and refuse thy name.
In the opinion of the author, both the actress and the critic are half right and half wrong, the scene requiring that emphasis should be placed on the four words; thus,
Deny thy father and refuse thy name.
This reading clearly denotes what Juliet desires shall be done with both the father and the name; the other readings do not.
Daniel Webster, in his reply to Senator Hayne, used this striking arrangement of words to express his idea of the unity of liberty and union:
Liberty and union, now and forever, one and inseparable.
In most readers the passage is marked, liberty and union, thus making the important connective and, which has practically nothing to do with conveying the thought, all-important, and sinking into insignificance the thought words of the orator. Webster distinctly says that “liberty” and “union” are “one and inseparable,” whereas by putting the emphasis on the word and the speaker distinctly states that they are two. Webster undoubtedly intended “liberty” and “union” to be synonymous—“liberty” meaning the same as “union,” and “union” the same as “liberty”—what constituted the one being exactly the same as what constituted the other. Therefore, like emphasis should be placed on both words.
Every sentence contains at least one thought; and in every group of words conveying a thought some particular word carries that thought to the mind. Such words are the thought words. This can be best illustrated by examples. In her plea for mercy Portia says:
The quality of mercy is not strain’d;[4]
In this line, strain’d is the word that conveys the idea. It is not quality nor mercy that Portia desires to impress on the mind of Shylock, but the fact that mercy is not strain’d. Antonio had confessed the bond, Portia had stated that nothing but the mercy of the Jew could save him from paying the penalty, and in making this statement she had used the word must. Shylock replied by saying: “On what compulsion must I?” In other words, how are you going to compel me? And it is this thought of the Jew’s to which she replied.
In the same speech Portia says:
. . . we do pray for mercy,
And that same prayer doth teach us all to render
The deeds of mercy.
The thought words, as the author sees them, are here italicized, but his reading of the lines differs from any he has heard from the stage or seen marked by critics. The great tendency is to come down hard on the word deeds, whereas it is one of the least important words in the entire sentence; it might be omitted without injury to the thought or the sense. Mr. Alfred Ayres, from whose work, Acting and Actors, the author has before quoted, advises the laying of the stress on the word all; but there is no better reason for emphasizing that word than there is for placing the stress upon deeds. The passage in the prayer to which Portia refers is: “Forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors,” this being a clear statement of the supplicant’s understanding of the necessity of his forgiving his debtors if he is to entertain the hope of having his debts forgiven by the heavenly Father. The verse following the Lord’s prayer more clearly brings out this idea: “For if ye forgive men their trespasses, your heavenly Father will also forgive you.”[5] The words “pray” and “render” are, therefore, the thought words—by means of their contrast they bring out the idea—and for this reason they require the emphasis. A paraphrase will demonstrate the correctness of this statement: We ask for mercy, and that prayer tells us to give mercy. The receiving of mercy being contingent on the granting of it.
combined use of inflection and emphasis
Inflection and emphasis, as before stated, are two of the principal means at the disposal of a speaker for the interpretation of thought. By these two means of expression, and the use of the proper color-tone in the voice, the thought can be clearly conveyed. By inflection and emphasis, words, phrases, and sentences are contrasted, and by means of contrast the mind of the listener is directed to the point that the speaker wishes him to see; as,
I propose, then, in what follows to make some remarks on communion with God, or prayer in a large sense of the word; not as regards its external consequences, but as it may be considered to affect our own minds and hearts.
—Cardinal Newman
The speaker states that he does not intend to discuss prayer so far as its external consequences are concerned; and if he stopped there, we should know what he intended not to discuss; but when he adds the positive, “but as it may be considered to affect our own minds and hearts,” we know exactly what he intends to avoid and what he intends to take up, and this double knowledge is imparted to us by means of the contrast that the Cardinal uses. It is very well to tell a person not to do a certain thing, but it is much stronger and more comprehensive if he is also told what to do. It is all well and good to be told what will not justify action on one’s part, but it is far better to be told what will; as,
It is the apprehension of impending harm, and not its actual existence, which constitutes the justification for defensive action.
—Sargent S. Prentiss
Here we are told that both the existence and apprehension of bodily harm will justify defensive action, and the point is, therefore, placed beyond misunderstanding by means of contrast.
How many forms of contrast are there? There are three: the single, the double, and the triple.
What is the single contrast? The single contrast is where one word, phrase, or sentence is contrasted with another; as,
Helen was not a sinner, but a sufferer, and our feeling for her should not be one of hatred, but of compassion.
—Gorgias
The sentence gives two examples of the single contrast, “sinner” being opposed to “sufferer” and “hatred” opposed to “compassion.”
What is the double contrast? The double contrast is where two words or phrases are contrasted with a like number of words or phrases; as,
In fact it is a universal law, not that the stronger should yield to the weaker, but the weaker to the stronger; that the stronger should lead, and the weaker follow.
—Gorgias
In this example, “stronger,” the first time it is used, is contrasted with “weaker” the second time it is used, and the first “weaker” with the second “stronger.” In the second phrase, “stronger” is contrasted with “weaker,” and “lead” with “follow.”
The double contrast requires, as a rule, that the first member should be given the falling inflection, the second the rising, the third the rising, and the fourth the falling, thus bringing the first and the third, the second and the fourth, in contrast; as,
For it is equally wrong and stupid to censure what is commendable, and to commend what is censurable.
—Gorgias
This is a good illustration of the double contrast. “Censure” is contrasted with “commend,” and “commendable” with “censurable.” When the double contrast is contained in two phrases, the first phrase being positive and the other phrase negative, the first member should be given the rising inflection, the second the falling, the third the falling, and the fourth the rising. In this way the contrast will be clearly shown and the negative and positive qualities retained; as,
Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth, where moth and rust doth corrupt, and where thieves break through and steal; but lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where thieves do not break through nor steal.[6]
—The Bible
In this example, “Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth” is contrasted with “but lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven,” and as the former is negative, it requires the rising inflection, while the latter requires the falling inflection, because it is positive; “where moth and rust doth corrupt, and where thieves break through and steal” is contrasted with “where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where thieves do not break through nor steal”; therefore the former, being positive, should be given the falling inflection, while the latter, being negative, should be given the rising inflection.
In the triple oppositions the inflections alternate, the first member receiving the rising inflection, the second the falling, the third the rising, the fourth the falling, the fifth the rising, and the sixth the falling; as,
She loved me for the dangers I had passed,
And I loved her that she did pity them.
—Shakespeare
“She” is contrasted with the second “I,” “me” with “her,” and “dangers” with “pity.”
What is the triple contrast? The triple contrast is where three words or phrases are contrasted with three other words or phrases; as,
Both parties deprecated war; but one of them would make war rather than let the nation survive, and the other would accept war rather than let it perish.
—Lincoln
The triple contrast is between “one” and “other,” “make” and “accept,” “survive” and “perish.” This is a splendidly constructed sentence, and contains more information than many paragraphs made up of numerous sentences. It is because of the masterly arrangement of contrasts that so much is stated in so small a space.
How are the contrasts to be brought out? By means of inflection and emphasis. The single contrast requires that when both members are positive the first should be given the rising inflection and the second the falling; as,
The human mind is the brightest display of the power and skill of the Infinite mind with which we are acquainted.
—John Todd
The contrast is between the words “human” and “Infinite,” and as both of them are positive, “human” is given the rising inflection and “Infinite” the falling, thus marking, by means of the different inflections, the difference between the words. All words that are contrasted are given emphasis as well as inflection.
Whenever the words or phrases that are contrasted consist of negatives and positives, the former should be given the rising inflection and the latter the falling inflection, irrespective of their location; as,
They fell and were buried; but they never can die.
—George W. Curtis
In this example the positive statement that the heroes “fell and were buried” requires the falling inflection, while the negative one that “they never can die” should be given the rising inflection in order to mark the contrast.
parenthesis
What is a parenthesis? A parenthesis is a secondary idea that is interjected into a main idea in order to amplify or explain it; as,
He who has a memory that can seize with an iron grasp and retain what he reads—the ideas, simply, without the language, and judgment to compare and balance—will scarcely fail of being distinguished.
—John Todd
The main idea is, “He who has a memory that can seize with an iron grasp and retain what he reads, will scarcely fail of being distinguished”; the secondary, or parenthetical, idea being, “the ideas, simply, without the language, and judgment to compare and balance.” This is a long and important parenthesis. It contains two thoughts, “the ideas, simply, without the language,” “and judgment to compare and balance,” which materially amplify the main thought and at the same time qualify it.
What is the use of the parenthesis? It is of great use to the extempore speaker in that it permits him, after he has started his sentence, to explain or amplify his thought before coming to a conclusion; as,
A whole family, just, gentle and pure, were thus, in their own house, in the night time, without any provocation, without one moment’s warning, sent by the murderer to join the assembly of the just.
—William H. Seward
Seward starts with the idea of stating that a whole family were foully murdered, but after commencing to express his thought, he desires to qualify it, so he halts it to interject the fact that this whole family were “just, gentle, and pure.” Were it not for the use of the parenthesis, he would have been compelled to use another sentence. Care should be exercised in using parentheses, as they tend to confuse the listener unless properly spoken.
How should a parenthesis be spoken? In order to show that the speaker has left the main idea and taken up a secondary one, he should change the pitch of the voice on leaving the main idea, or while speaking the parenthesis, and immediately resume the original pitch on resuming the main idea.
The following is a striking example of the use of parenthesis. It is a long, loose sentence, but full of information that may be better expressed in this manner than by a number of short sentences:
This great nation, filling all profitable latitudes, cradled between two oceans, with inexhaustible resources, with riches increasing in an unparalleled ratio, by agriculture, by manufactures, by commerce, with schools and churches, with books and newspaper thick as leaves in our forests, with institutions sprung from the people, and peculiarly adapted to their genius; a nation not sluggish, but active, used to excitement, practiced in political wisdom, and accustomed to self-government, and all its vast outlying parts held together by a federal government, mild in temper, gentle in administration, and beneficent in results, seemed to have been formed for peace.
—Henry Ward Beecher
The main thought consists of the short sentence, “This great nation seemed to have been formed for peace,” and all that explains its situation, its resources, and its government is parenthetical. This illustration is not cited as a good example for speakers to follow, but it is merely given to show one of the means employed by Mr. Beecher, an eloquent speaker, in expressing his ideas. The subject of the construction of sentences is dealt with at length in the chapter on Composition.
pause
Pauses should be regulated by the sense and not by grammatical punctuation. A pause is sometimes required where no mark of punctuation is placed and at times a mark of punctuation should be passed over quickly in order to not retard the conveyance of the speaker’s thought. The pauses used by the speaker, but note employed by the grammarian, are called rhetorical pauses and are used for emphasis; as,
Go, forget that you have a wife and children, to ruin, and remember only—that you have France to save.[7]
the series
What is a series? A series is a group of three or more important positive words or phrases, of different meanings, yet so closely related as to be capable of being welded into one thought; as,
Let old issues, old questions, old differences, and old feuds be regarded as fossils of another epoch.
—Alexander H. Stephens
The group that constitutes the series is composed of “old issues,” “old questions,” “old differences,” “old feuds,” which, united should all “be regarded as fossils of another epoch.”
What use is the series? The series allows a speaker to gather many forces, amalgamate them, thus uniting the feeble powers of the number into the powerful strength of the one, and to direct the united force to one point; as,
We are among the sepulchres of our fathers. We are on ground distinguished by their valor, their constancy, and the shedding of their blood.
—Daniel Webster
The orator tells the assembly that they are on ground distinguished by the valor of their fathers, but he does more: he tells them that the ground was also distinguished by their constancy and the shedding of their blood. The series enables the speaker to weld together “valor,” “constancy,” and “blood,” thus combining the three virtues shown by the fathers, and this arrangement, the blending of the three reasons, gives the one strong reason, the patriotism of our fathers, for honoring the ground upon which the people were gathered. Cicero thus clearly defines a series and tells what it accomplishes: “For there is such an admirable continuation and series of things that each seems connected with the other, and all appear linked together and unified.” This is exactly what a series is: Words or phrases that are closely connected with one another and are all linked together; as,
We welcome you to the immeasurable blessings of rational existence, the immortal hope of Christianity, and the light of everlasting truth!
—Daniel Webster
How many kinds of series are there? Two, the commencing and the concluding.
What is a commencing series? A commencing series is always an incomplete one, so far as the sense is concerned, as it requires something more than the series to complete the sense. It generally commences a sentence; as,
It is only when public opinion, or the strong power of government, the formidable array of influence, the force of a nation, or the fury of a multitude is directed against you, that the advocate is of any use.
—James. T. Brady
The series ends with “or the fury of a multitude,” and the sense is made complete by “is directed against you, that the advocate is of any use.”
A series is often composed of qualifying words; as,
What though it breaks like lightning from the cloud? The electric fire had been collecting in the firmament through many a silent, calm, and clear day.
—Orville Dewey
The words “silent, calm, and clear” qualify the word day and constitute a commencing series, because they require the word day to complete the thought.
What is a concluding series? A series is considered a concluding one when the series is complete with the close of the series. It generally concludes the sentence; as,
The remarkable people of this world are useful in their way; but the common people, after all, represent the nation, the age, and the civilization.
—Henry Ward Beecher
The series consists of “the nation,” “the age,” “the civilization”; a group of three important things which the common people represent.
Here is a good example of a concluding series of phrases:
With such consecrated service, what could we not accomplish; what riches we should gather for her; what glory and prosperity we should render to the union; what blessings we should gather into the universal harvest of humanity.
—Henry W. Grady
A series constitutes sometimes a parenthesis; as,
For no cause, in the very frenzy of wantonness, by the red hand of murder, he was thus thrust from the full tide of this world’s interests, from its hopes, its aspirations, its victories, into the visible presence of death—and he did not quail.
—James. G. Blaine
This example opens with a commencing series which ends with “by the red hand of murder,” the sense of which is completed by “he was thrust from the full tide of this world’s interest into the visible presence of death,” but the thought is interrupted by the orator to interject the parenthetical clause “from its hopes, its aspirations, its victories,” and as what completes the sense, “the full tide of this world’s interest,” precedes the series, it is a concluding series.
Is there any difference as to how the two series should be spoken? Yes. The commencing series requires the falling infection on every member except the last, which should be given the rising inflection; as,
From the very beginning I chose an honest and straightforward course in politics, to support the honor, the power, the glory of my fatherland.
—Demosthenes
The series is embraced in the words “the honor, the power, the glory,” and as the sense is incomplete with the close of the series, requiring “of my fatherland” to complete the sense, it is a commencing series. The proper delivery of this series requires that “honor” should be given the falling inflection, “power” the falling, and “glory” the rising.
The concluding series requires the falling inflection on every member except the next to the last, which should be given the rising inflection; as,
He thinks the whole world sees it in his face, reads it in his eyes, and almost hears its workings in the very silence of his thoughts.
—Daniel Webster
This is an excellent example of a concluding series of phrases. The first phrase, ending with “face,” requires the falling inflection; the second, ending with “eyes,” requires the rising inflection; the third, ending with “thoughts,” requires the falling inflection.
series of contrasts
What is a series of contrasts? A series of contrasts is where there are at least three contrasts arranged in the form of the series; as,
Ask, and it shall be given you; seek, and ye shall find; knock, and it shall be opened unto you.[8]
—The Bible
The series consists of three phrases, and the series must be brought out by giving the first phrase the falling inflection, the second phrase the rising inflection, and the third phrase the falling inflection; and as there are three contrasts, “ask” being contrasted with “given,” “seek” with “find,” and “knock” with “opened,” we must, in order to retain the concluding series, give “ask” the rising inflection, “given” the falling, “seek” the falling, “find” the rising, “knock” the rising, and “opened” the falling.
If the contrasts form a commencing series, the inflections should be applied according to the rules regarding the series; as,
Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and heart to this vote.
—Daniel Webster
“Sink” should be given the rising inflection, “swim” the falling, “live” the rising, “die” the falling, “survive” the falling, and “perish” the rising, for by so doing the contrasts will be marked and the series retained. The series consists of “sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish,” and as it requires “I give my hand and heart to this vote” to complete the sense, it is a commencing series.
modulation
What is modulation? Modulation, in a broad sense, is coloring the voice so as to make it explain by its tones the meaning of the spoken words. It consists principally of inflection and pitch, but the elements of emphasis also enter into it. By means of modulation action is given to the voice—it rises, it falls, it glides, it leaps, it bounds; all sounds are described—the moaning of the winds, the rush of waters, the tramp of marching armies; all emotions are expressed—the shout of joy, the cry of pain, the huzzah of victory. The inflection of the voice interprets its meaning—whether it is negative, positive, conditional, etc., the pitch of the voice expresses the emotion—whether it is joyous, sad, indifferent, etc. The speaking voice is divided into three registers, the medium, the upper and the lower. The tones of the middle register are the customary tones of the voice, and they are used for giving expression to anything that is ordinary. They are expressive of unemotional thoughts; as,
Some persons, for example, tell us that the acquisition of knowledge is all very well, but that it must be useful knowledge—meaning thereby that it must enable a man to get on in a profession, pass an examination, shine in conversation, or obtain a reputation for learning.
—Arthur James Balfour
This is a plain, simple statement, spoken without emotion of any kind, and therefore should be pitched in an ordinary key. The matter need not necessarily be unimportant to be spoken in the medium register, but it must be simple in its character and unimpassioned in its nature, and for these reasons it is spoken in the ordinary tones of the voice.
The lower register is expressive of solemnity, sorrow, and all deep-seated emotions; as,
If the spirits of the illustrious dead participate in the concerns and cares of those who were dear to them in this transitory life, Oh, ever dear and venerated shade of my departed father, look down with scrutiny upon the conduct of your suffering son, and see if I have, even for a moment, deviated from those principles of morality and patriotism which it was your care to instil into my youthful mind, and for which I am now to offer up my life!
—Robert Emmet
The upper register is used for expressing the emotions of a light and joyous nature; as,
Advance, then ye future generations! We would hail you, as you rise in your long succession, to fill the places which we now fill, and to take the blessings of existence where we are passing, and soon shall have passed, our own human duration. We bid you welcome to this pleasant land of the fathers. We bid you welcome to the healthful skies and the verdant fields of New England. We greet your accession to the great inheritance which we have enjoyed. We welcome you to the blessings of good government and religious liberty. We welcome you to the treasures of science and the delights of learning. We welcome you to the transcendent sweets of domestic life, to the happiness of kindred and parents, and children. We welcome you to the immeasurable blessings of rational existence, the immortal hope of Christianity, and the light of everlasting truth!
—Daniel Webster
Some of the stronger emotions, such as anger, defiance, and grief, when not deeply felt, are expressed on the upper register; as,
We do not come as aggressors. Our war is not a war of conquest; we are fighting in the defense of our homes, our families and posterity. We have petitioned, and our petitions have been scorned; we have entreated, and our entreaties have been disregarded; we have begged, and they have mocked when our calamity came. We beg no longer; we entreat no more; we petition no more. We defy them.
—William Jennings Bryan
The following vivid description of the delivery of the Blind Preacher, by the orator William Wirt, is a splendid example of modulation in a comprehensive sense, because it depends on the distinctive colors that are placed in the voice, as well as on inflection and emphasis, for its effective presentation.
It was some time before the tumult had subsided, so far as to permit him to proceed. Indeed, judging by the usual, but fallacious, standard of my own weakness, I began to be very uneasy for the situation of the preacher. For I could not conceive how he would be able to let his audience down from the height to which he had wound them, without impairing the solemnity and dignity of the subject, or perhaps shocking them by the abruptness of the fall. But, no! the descent was as beautiful and sublime as the elevation had been rapid and enthusiastic.
The first sentence, with which he broke the awful silence, was a quotation from Rousseau: “Socrates died like a philosopher, but Jesus Christ, like a God.”
I despair of giving you any idea of the effect produced by this short sentence, unless you could perfectly conceive the whole manner of the man, as well as the peculiar crisis in the discourse. Never before did I completely understand what Demosthenes meant by laying such stress on delivery. You are to bring before you the venerable figure of the preacher; his blindness, constantly recalling to your recollection old Homer, Ossian, and Milton, and associating with his performance the melancholy grandeur of their geniuses; you are to imagine that you hear his slow, solemn, well-accented enunciation, and his voice of affecting, trembling melody; you are to remember the pitch of passion and enthusiasm to which the congregation were raised; and then the few minutes of portentous, death-like silence which reigned throughout the house; the preacher removing his white handkerchief from his aged face (even yet wet from the recent torrent of his tears), and, slowly stretching forth the palsied hand which holds it, begins the sentence, “Socrates died like a philosopher,” then, pausing, raising his other hand, pressing them both clasped together with warmth and energy to his breast, lifting his “sightless balls” to heaven, and pouring his whole soul into his trembling voice—“but Jesus Christ, like a God!” If he had been indeed and in truth an angel of light, the effect could scarcely have been more divine.
In this chapter and the one preceding are given some of the mechanical means of constructing speeches and delivering them, and in thus telling the student of oratory the specific way of accomplishing results, this book differs from the many that treat, or profess to treat, of oratory. Demosthenes says: “To censure is easy for any man; to show what measures the cause requires is the part of a counsellor.” This is a nugget of wisdom, and in adopting it the author has used the injunction do instead of issuing a number of don’ts, as is the custom of many teachers. He tells primarily what to do and how to do it, and only in a secondary manner does he use the negative way of instruction. In this chapter, students are shown what means were employed by those who succeeded in mastering the art of vocal expression and how they may adopt them in aiming to accomplish the same results; and the author has no hesitancy in stating that if the student will properly qualify himself to become an orator by a diligent study of the method therein contained, he will rise to eminence in a field of labor that repays with honors and renown all who toil in it. This chapter treats of the mechanical means of producing oratory and making orators, but the psychological, or mental, means, which must be used in conjunction with the mechanical in order that there may be life in the production, will receive due attention in later chapters. Unless the mentality enters into the work of the orator, it will be devoid of action, and consequently not oratory; for, in the words of Demosthenes: “All speech without action appears vain and idle.”
FOOTNOTES:
[1]A Grecian pastoral poet who lived in the third century.
[2]Alfred Ayres in “Acting and Actors,” page 128.
[3]Page 157.
[4]The Merchant of Venice, Act. IV, Scene I.
[5]St. Matthew, vi:14.
[6]Matthew, vi:19–20.
[7]Spoken to D’Aguesseau by his wife when he went to confront his enraged King. Quoted by Wendell Phillips in his address on “Idols.”
[8]St. Matthew, vii:7.