THE BOX KITE
The cellular kite is made in several forms. The rectangular box variety is perhaps the most common, and with the bridle attached is shown in [Fig. 51]. The standard dimensions are: length a b 79 inches, width a c 78 inches, depth of cell c d 32 inches, and width of cloth covering c e 25 inches. A very convenient size is obtained by dividing approximately by two, making length and width 40 inches each, and depth 16 inches.
Fig. 51. Kite details
Mr. H. H. Clayton, of the Blue Hill Observatory, has patented one form of this kite known as the "Blue Hill Naval Box Kite," so the amateur must confine his use of it to experimenting. Other forms of cells which have been used are shown at 2 3 4 5. These all possess the advantage—that each plane is a lifting surface, whereas in the rectangular form the vertical planes have only a rudder action, tending to hold the kite parallel with the wind.
When launching a box kite, the assistant stands in front of and under it, while with the Malay he stands behind it and lets go at a given word. About a hundred yards of line should be run out before launching, and only a few steps backward by the boy at the string should be necessary. Running is only required when the line out is insufficient.
Fig. 52. The tetrahedral kite
The tetrahedral form invented by Dr. Graham Bell is unique and interesting. Based on the geometrical figure, it has a remarkable strength of frame, and possesses a surprising lifting power. The principal difficulty in the construction is in fastening the sticks, as three of them meet at every point. The frame consists of six pieces of equal length. Drill a 1⁄32-inch hole in each end of all the pieces, about 1⁄4 inch from the end. Place the pieces on the floor as shown at 1. Pass a piece of soft iron or brass wire through the three holes at a and bind lightly. Do the same at angles b and c. Now raise loose ends d e f until they meet over the centre, as at 2. Join with wire and tighten all the joints with a pair of pliers. ([Fig. 52].)
Each face of the frame is an equilateral triangle, and the covering is to be on only two sides, as shown at 3. The shape of the piece to be cut is shown at 4. This forms a single cell, and the large sizes are broken up into many small tetrahedral cells. The line may be tied at c or d.
The designing of fancy figure kites is a fascinating occupation, but unless certain fixed principles are kept in mind may end in much experimenting and many disappointments. The question of steadiness or stability seems to be summed up in the mathematical expression—"dihedral angle."
A kite having a stiff, flat surface presented to the wind will often cut up queer antics, while the same frame covered with a more flexible covering will fly beautifully. The reason is that the flexible covering will be bowed back by the wind, forming an approximate "dihedral angle."
In the triangular box and tetrahedral kites this bowing back is not so necessary, because the dihedral angle is provided in the construction.
In these kites, when a sudden gust of wind presses harder on one side than on the other, the first side is pressed back, reducing the resistance, and the other side is brought forward until both sides receive equal pressure, or the kite is in equilibrium, facing the wind; and the shifting of the breeze is constantly provided for. The bowing back of the covering of an Eddy kite takes care of sudden changes in the same way. Double Malay kites or two tetrahedral kites, fastened together, tandem fashion, will be found stable, especially if the rear one be slightly smaller than the forward one. ([Fig. 53].)
Fig. 53. Double kites
Geometrical forms like the hexagon, six-pointed star, and even the circle are used, but these generally require a tail.
A butterfly design may be used, provided the body is designed as a keel and the two wings are tilted backward to provide the required angle. In some of the Chinese kites, in the form of insects, the wings have split bamboo frames, flexible enough to bend backward and provide the necessary stability. A flexible lower end on the frame also has a good balancing effect.
[XI]
CHIP CARVING AND KNIFE WORK
"Making moving toys is a form of dissipation," said Ralph. "It is very fascinating and interesting, but the making of many toys will never make one an expert woodworker. The accuracy and skill required can be developed only by actual constructive work. I suggest that we take up a form of decoration which can be done with the knife.
"There are two ways of making an article in wood pleasing to the eye. One is by varying the outline, as we did in our match scratchers, and the other is by some kind of surface ornamentation. There are many ways of decorating surfaces—carving, pyrography, staining, polishing, etc., and very often several of these methods are combined.
"As we have started to learn the possibilities of knife work, I propose to teach you a form of carving which can be done with the knife alone. Very elaborate work is done with the regular carving tools. This requires a great deal of time and skill, but with the knife alone a wonderful variety of beautiful work can be done even by small boys.
"It is very important to approach it properly, so I am going to give you a few simple exercises and the elaborate designs will come along naturally.
"The work is not new, and evidently grew out of the still older art of notching. Primitive peoples probably saw in it a way to improve the appearance of their various wooden implements. Not only could the edges be notched, but the cutting could be done on flat surfaces as well."
Fig. 54. First cuts in carving
[Fig. 54] at a shows one of the earliest designs. It is simply a border of triangular cuts, and while this may be done with the whittling knife, [Fig. 55] shows two knives which are better fitted to do accurate work.
Fig. 55. Two good types of knife for carving
The positions for carving are shown in [Fig. 56]. Hold the knife in an upright position, with the cutting edge away from you, and the point on the apex of the triangle. Press the knife down and then away from you along one of the sides of the triangle. Place it in position again, and repeat the motion along the other side of the triangle, always directly on the line. This brings the deep part of the cut at the apex of the triangle, and it remains to take out the triangular chip. This can be done in either of the two ways shown in [Fig. 56], by cutting away from you or toward you. It is well to practise both ways, as in complicated designs the direction of the grain makes it necessary to cut sometimes in one direction, sometimes in another.
The rest of this border is a repetition of the same stroke, and the more elaborate designs are simply different arrangements of triangular cuts.
In Fig 54, b shows two rows of these same shaped cuts, one row inverted, to produce a diamond-shaped border; c shows a border in which the drawing is similar to b, but vertical triangles are cut instead of horizontal ones, as this gives a cut across the grain of the wood instead of parallel to it, and is a trifle harder.
Fig. 56. Positions for holding carving knife
Our boys practised on these simple borders for awhile, using knife a and 1⁄4-inch basswood. The work proved fully as fascinating to Harry as the making of toys, and it was decided that from that time onward the outlines of their woodwork should be simpler, and the decoration should be in the form of chip carving.
Fig. 57. A simple picture frame with carving
While Harry was practising on these simple borders Ralph made the basswood photograph frame shown in [Fig. 57], and drew the carving design, as shown, with an H pencil.
To carve this was simply to repeat border b. This was so satisfactory that Ralph decided to try his pupil on finer work, and the design shown in [Fig. 58] was tried. In each case Harry found that he was making triangular cuts, and removing triangular chips, just as in the first border, only the triangles were in different positions. Ralph suggested that they begin to decorate some of the things they had already made, and the little basswood box shown in [Fig. 33] was brought out, and the design shown in [Fig. 59] drawn and carved upon it.
Fig. 58. A more elaborate picture frame
There followed a number of "backs," which Ralph explained could be used as thermometer backs, match scratchers, calendars, key racks, and in other ways. In each case, the design was drawn carefully on paper, and thence transferred to the surface of the wood with the same care that it had been done on paper. The designing required considerable thought.
Figs. 59 and 60. Designs for box covers
Where a border continued around four sides, the corner became the most difficult and interesting part of the design, and was worked out first. ([Fig. 61].)
Fig. 61. Straight line designs for thermometer backs
Very soon the boys found that it was necessary to draw only half the design on paper, and in many cases a corner or quarter sufficed.
The next step was to initiate Harry into the mysteries of curved cutting, a departure from triangular cutting.
He was informed that the cuts were still three-sided, one or two of the sides being but slightly curved.
Fig. 62. Curved cuts.
[Fig. 62], used as an enrichment of a "back" in 3⁄8-inch gum wood, was Harry's first effort in curved chip carving. The edges of the blank piece were bevelled with a plane and Ralph showed his pupil how to do this by holding the blank against a bench hook. The long sides were bevelled first, the ends last, to avoid breaking off the corners.
Fig. 63. Key rack
The key rack ([Fig. 63]) gave an opportunity to use centre pieces inside a border, diamonds of the flat surface being left uncarved for the placing of the screw hooks.
A pencil box for school followed, the various pieces being shown in [Fig. 64]. The two sides and ends were made in one strip 11⁄4 inches wide, and afterward cut to length. To secure this strip of uniform width, the shooting board shown in Fig. 65 was used, the plane being laid on its side, giving the 1⁄4-inch piece of gum wood a perfectly square edge.
Fig. 64. The pencil box
Ralph was having his own troubles as a teacher about this time, for he wanted to reserve Harry's education in the use of bench tools until later on, when he should have exhausted the possibilities of the knife; but this method of using the plane was necessary if Harry was to produce blank forms fit for decoration.
The six pieces being squared up, a 1⁄4-inch margin was left on all sides of the pieces to be carved—the top, front, and two ends.
This 1⁄4-inch space was for the brads.
Fig. 65. Use of shooting board
The assembling was not done until the carving had been finished, and it consisted of fastening the long sides to the ends with 5⁄8-inch brads, with a little glue on the end grain of the end pieces. The bottom was put on with brads, and the top hinged to the back by two small nickel-plated hinges. A little hook and eye from the hardware store were put at the front to hold the cover on, and two small cleats were glued to the under side of the cover to keep it from warping.
The time spent on this pencil box was several hours, but the result was a box the like of which could not be bought.
Fig. 66. Carving designs for pencil box
Pencil boxes became the rage with our boys, and although they made several of the same size, in each case the design was different. ([Fig. 66].)
[XII]
CHIP CARVING: Continued
Among the many useful articles which can be made with the knife in thin wood, with carving as enrichment, are the numerous desk accessories, such as envelope holders, letter racks, stamp and pen boxes, pen trays, blotting pads, etc. The boys, after exhausting the subject of pencil boxes for school use, took up the design and construction of letter racks. These, they decided, should be in two compartments for answered and unanswered letters. This called for three uprights, or partitions, and a base. They decided to make them of about uniform dimensions, as shown in the blank form ([Fig. 67]). The problem of the outline was somewhat affected by the fact that the front was to be carved. This called for a simpler outline than would have been the case had they expected to leave the surface plain. Some of the designs they worked out are shown in [Fig. 68].
The form marked a was selected as a beginning, the three partitions cut out exactly alike, and the front piece carved as shown in Fig. 69. The middle partition and back piece were left with plain surfaces.
Fig. 67. Parts of letter rack
The cutting of the grooves in the base was a new problem, and Harry was allowed to try his skill with a chisel. The method used was first to make the drawing shown at a, [Fig. 67]. The long side lines of each groove were scored with the point of the knife, going over each line several times, to make the cut as deep as possible. An under cut was then made, as shown in the figure.
Fig. 68. Boys' designs for letter racks
The wood in the centre was removed with a 1⁄4-inch chisel, and the process continued until a uniform depth of 1⁄4 inch was reached. After all three grooves had been cut, the edges of the base were bevelled with the plane. This bevelling could have been done readily with the knife, but much time was saved by using the plane, always doing the long sides first.
In all the letter racks shown in the illustrations the construction was the same. First, the three blank partitions were made, then finished in their outlines with knife and sand-paper. The carving was always drawn carefully on the surface of the front piece. Third, came the making of the base, and last, the gluing of the partitions into the grooves. To increase the strength of a letter rack, 3⁄4-inch brads can be driven from the bottom into the partitions, but where this is done it is safer to draw pencil lines on the bottom directly under the centre of each partition. Place the point of the brad exactly on the line before hammering.
Fig. 69. Form "A"
Although the forms of the letter rack are endless, the one which our boys found most interesting was based on the ellipse. It called forth a very instructive drawing lesson. Ralph showed Harry first how the figure could be drawn by a string, with two pins to represent the foci of the ellipse. The figure has two dimensions called the major axis and minor axis. ([Fig. 70]).
Fig. 70.
The combined length of the two lines drawn from any point on the ellipse to the two foci must always be the same and equal to the length of the major axis. This is readily seen with the two pins and string. ([Fig. 71].)
Fig. 71. Drawing the ellipse with string and pins
The pencil point as it traverses the ellipse represents any point, and the string remains the same length. Where it is required to draw an ellipse of definite size, say two by three, it becomes necessary to find the foci before the string can be used, and as it requires considerable skill to get the string the exact length, Ralph showed the boy another way, called the trammel method. ([Fig. 72].)
Suppose the problem is to construct an ellipse 6 inches × 21⁄2 inches. First draw the two lines a b and c d at right angles, intersecting at the exact centre. Take a straight piece of paper, lay it along a b with one end at a. Make a dot on the edge of the paper where the lines cross, and mark it x. Next, lay the same strip of paper along c d, with the original end at c, and again mark a point where the lines cross. Mark this point y. At any position of this strip of paper when the points x and y touch the two axes a b and c d, the end of the paper strip will be on the ellipse. By shifting this paper trammel and keeping the two points on the axes a series of points may be made at the end of the paper. Connecting this by a pencil line will complete the ellipse. This is a very simple method and a very accurate one.
Fig. 72. The trammel method
Fig. 73. The ellipse used in carving designs
Our boys drew this figure, 6 × 21⁄2 inches, with a trammel and then worked out the design from it shown in [Fig. 73]. It made a very satisfactory form for the letter rack, and gave an elliptical space for carving, a new problem in chip carving design.
Fig. 74.
Two more of these elliptical designs are shown in [Fig. 74].
Another feature of this rack was a change in the middle partition; the form is shown at [Fig. 75]. The making of the base and gluing into the grooves were similar to the earlier designs.
The next design was characterized by an outline composed largely of straight lines.
The middle partition was lower than the front and back pieces, as shown in [Fig. 75].
Fig. 75. A neat design for a letter rack
The boys found a great deal of pleasure in working out a decorative scheme for the carving. Having discovered how easy it is to carve the long flowing curves, they introduced them wherever possible. The general shape of the carved section must of course conform to the outline of the wood, but while filling in these flowing curves they soon learned to sketch them in free-hand.
Fig. 76. A letter rack decorated with the veining tool
To a person who has not tried this work or who has not begun with simple cuts it appears very difficult, but when it is remembered that only one cut can be made at a time and that each chip is a triangle, even if its sides are slightly curved, it actually proves very easy, and within the power of any normal boy to accomplish.
Fig. 77. The pen-holder
Harry was introduced at this time to the use of the veining tool, a fine gouge with a cross section almost V-shaped. This was used to emphasize the outlines of the designs by simply pushing ahead directly on the lines. When veining straight lines, it may be guided by a ruler or other straight edge, but for curves, a free-hand movement is necessary. A very good practice piece is the design shown at [Fig. 76]. This may be applied to the front of the letter rack design. ([Fig. 69].)
The pen-holder shown at [Fig. 77] is one of a large number which were made by the boys. The pieces were cut out with a knife to the blank forms shown. On all pieces like these, afterward to be assembled, the edges were made straight and square on the shooting board, and the carving done before assembling. This pen-holder was put together with 3⁄4-inch brads with the exception of the front, which was glued, as it was thought best not to have nails showing on this important side. ([Fig. 78].)
Fig. 78. Pieces composing pen-holder
Photograph by Arthur G. Eldredge
Using the Veining Tool.
[XIII]
CHIP CARVING AND KNIFE WORK (See [31], [109])
"I like this new work better than anything we have ever done," said Harry one day when he and Ralph were up to their ears in carving, whittling, and designing.
Ralph smiled as he remembered Harry's intense interest in making moving toys. "As I told you once before," he replied, "this is not new but old. The people of northern Europe have done it for centuries, and the reason is not hard to find. In Norway during the long winter it gets dark very early, in some places at three o'clock in the afternoon, and does not become light again until nine o'clock in the morning. The result is very, very long evenings, when it is much more comfortable to work indoors.
"At an early era the people developed this beautiful art of carving, and spent their long evenings in working at it. They became very skilful and as most of the household utensils were of wood, it was not at all unusual to see the household furniture, even to their bread boards, beautifully carved."
"By the way," said Harry, "can't I make a paper knife now? You know you said I could after I had learned to use the knife!"
"Yes, I think you might try your skill on something of that character now. It will be quite a change from this flat work we have been doing. It will require a harder wood, however, than you have been using, as a paper knife must be thin and strong at the same time.
"The Swedish carvers use apple wood a great deal for their paper knives, but as this is rare with us, suppose we try rock maple. It is white in colour, close grained, and hard."
As usual, they worked up their design on paper first and sketched in the carving shown in [Fig. 79].
A piece of rock or sugar maple was first squared up and laid out in pencil as shown at B. In order to get the outline to conform exactly to the drawing, the form was cut out of paper and traced on the face of the wood. The blank form was then whittled out to the pencil line, and sand-papered smooth as shown at c.
Maple proved to be a hard wood to whittle.
Notches were cut at d d after drawing the edge view on front and back edges. The blade and handle were then whittled down to lines e and f.
Fig. 79. Two designs for paper knives
"Whew!" exclaimed Harry, "don't ever give me any maple to whittle again."
"Well, you wanted to make a paper knife, didn't you? A paper knife that would break when it fell on the floor wouldn't be of much use, and you are not through yet. The blade must be cut down to a fairly sharp edge on both sides now."
This was done by bevelling the edges as shown in h and the bevel gradually cut back to the centre line, as shown at i and j. Harry concluded that this was the hardest work that he had ever done.
Fig. 80. Key rack designs
"Now you understand," said Ralph, "why I couldn't allow you to make a knife at first. All the training I have given you was necessary before you had the requisite skill and control of your hands. The carving will be easy for you because of all this practice. Skill is something which comes that way. Why, if I should give you the problem of making that first key rack over again, you would do it in about one third of the time, and very much better than at your first attempt. You have been gaining skill without knowing it.
"Just to show you how much you have advanced, I will give you one or two key rack designs to be decorated with chip carving. When they are finished, take them into the house and compare them with the first you made. I think you will be amused at the difference. That original piece of which you were so proud will seem a very crude affair now."
"All right," said Harry, "but I should like to make one more paper knife first if you don't mind."
"Very well; make up a new design, because no artist ever duplicates his work," said Ralph with a mischievous smile.
The smile was premature, however. The boy had not been designing woodwork for nothing. The design is shown at No. 2, [Fig. 79], and even Ralph, severe critic though he was, had to admit that it was "pretty fair."
"Looks like a table knife," he said seriously. "However, it is your own design, so go ahead and make it. Try a piece of cherry this time. It makes a good wood for carving, and is not quite so hard to whittle as maple."
The different steps in the process of cutting this out were the same as in No. 1, [Fig. 79].
Fig. 81. The blotter pad
The key rack shown in [Fig. 80] was comparatively easy after making paper knives. The bevelling of the curves at the ends was the only new feature of the knife work.
Fig. 82. Method of using the spokeshave
The making of presents went rapidly onward from this time. The next article to engage our woodworkers' attention was the blotting pad, made of two pieces of black walnut fastened together with the screw handle. ([Fig. 81].) The blotter is bent around the curved face of the lower part, and the ends gripped between the two parts by tightening the screw. These handles with screw attached are of brass, and can be obtained at any hardware store.
The upper piece was bevelled, and a circular space in the centre left plain to provide for the handle, the rest of the space being carved.
The making of the curved face on the bottom was too difficult for the knife, so the boy worked it out with the plane and spokeshave shown in ([Fig. 82]).
When these blotter pads are finished with the brass handle, coloured blotter and hand-carved top, they are very attractive, and make acceptable presents.
Toilet boxes were next in order, and there seemed no end to them; glove boxes, collar boxes, handkerchief boxes, boxes for storing away photographs, etc. Those for collars were square, viewed from the top, while glove boxes were made long and narrow.
The construction of these called for the use of carpenters' tools, and Ralph was not ready to start his pupil on this branch of woodwork yet, for several reasons.
In the first place, it meant a halt in the fascinating work of carving, and they had not yet exhausted the possibilities of knife work. So they tried the plan of buying ready-made boxes from the stores. This was not entirely satisfactory, as most of them were of basswood, soft, and easily carved, but so white that it became soiled too readily. This difficulty finally led to a unique scheme. They stained the wood a dull ebony, and found that the design showed very clearly in gray pencil lines, easily carved.
The carving came out white on a black background, and proved quite satisfactory for the coarser designs. The finer work, however, did not show to advantage, and the method was adopted of leaving certain portions of the surface plain.
One of the glove box designs is shown in [Fig. 83].
The lines made in this black and white carving by the veining tool are very effective.
Fig. 83. Design for glove box
The boys had just gotten nicely at work one afternoon when Harry remarked very seriously: "On what subject shall our lecture be this afternoon, professor?"
A block of white pine hurtled across the shop, but Harry ducked and no one was hurt.
"No," said Ralph, "you can't start a discussion to-day. I've been thinking that you will have to take up the use of bench tools pretty soon, because you are really doing this work backward."
"What do you mean?"
"Why, you should never decorate anything which you haven't actually made."
"Well, haven't I made everything we have carved so far?"
Fig. 84. Double photo frame
"All except the boxes. When we bought those boxes, that was a signal that it was time for you to begin constructive work. It has been a big problem to give you carving to do on articles in the flat that you could make with the knife. We will make a few picture frames, carve them, and then leave our carving until you can construct anything in wood. You will always be able now to design carved work for any given space; one of these picture frames, however, is going to be a rather severe test of your skill."
[Fig. 84] shows the first photograph frame they took up, a simple design in one piece.
The openings for the pictures were cut out with coping saw and knife and bevelled. The bevels on the outer edges of the frame were planed.
Fig. 85. Carved picture frame
[Fig. 85] shows a problem in designing for irregular spaces, and the design is a typical Swedish form. In both of these frames it was necessary to provide a method of holding the photo on the back.
This was accomplished by tacking on two strips of 1⁄8-inch basswood on each side, and the bottom as shown in [Fig. 85], the narrow strip being 1⁄4 inch wide, and the top one 1⁄2 inch wide, making a groove 1⁄8 inch deep to receive the picture. If it is designed to have glass in front of the photo, the narrow strip must be 1⁄4 inch thick in place of 1⁄8 inch.
The problem of polishing carved work is rather a difficult one. Ordinary varnish or shellac cannot be used to advantage, as on flat surfaces, because it fills up the spaces and ruins the effect. Perhaps the best method is to dissolve a small quantity of beeswax in turpentine, and rub in with an old tooth or nail brush, which is comparatively soft. This will not injure the carving, and will protect it from dampness and dust, as the wax hardens. It should be put on when about the consistency of soft putty.
Fig. 86. Palette photograph frame
The photo frame shown ([Fig. 86]) was the last form our boys attempted in the flat.
It has the advantage of simplicity, only one kind of cut being used; but the long flowing lines, which must be first drawn on the wood free-hand, require all the patience and skill one can command.
The form in outline is the artist's palette, and the opening for the picture an ellipse.
All the lines in the carving converge to a point to the left of the centre of the opening.
[XIV]
THE SHOP
The man who is most successful is the one who is best prepared for his work. In beginning to learn how to use woodworking tools, the average boy is very often hampered by the lack of facilities. The place he is to use for his shop should at least have good light. Many of the lines he uses are knife lines, which are harder to see than pencil lines, so that light at least is an essential.
The tools should be as good as he can obtain. This does not mean that it is necessary to have elaborate sets of chisels, gouges, etc., but the cutting tools should be of well tempered steel. It is far better to have a few very good tools than an elaborate equipment of poor ones, such as the boy's ready-made tool chest often contains.
A good workman is one who can do a large variety of good work with a few well-selected tools.
One reason for our having given so much space to knife work was to illustrate this very fact. Very often the carved pieces described in previous chapters are salable at good figures, and from the money thus obtained a supply of bench or carpenters' tools can be bought.
Next to a well lighted place in which to work, a fairly good bench is essential. This can be made by the boy himself, if he cannot secure one already built, but as the construction of a bench presupposes some previous practice with tools, we will assume that our readers receive their first tool practice on a bench already built, just as Harry did.
Several forms of benches on the market are shown in [Fig. 87].
The bench to be of any use must have a vise of some description, as very often both hands are required to guide the tool, and the wood must be held rigid.
The old-fashioned screw vise is cheap, and a cheap vise may be made at a cost of half a dollar, by purchasing the screw and nut and making the jaw and guides by hand, but this again calls for the use of a bench. So taken all in all it will pay the young woodworker to save his money and buy a good vise even if the bench is home-made.
This is just where our boys had their first argument; Harry wanted to begin by building a work bench.
Fig. 87. Types of work bench
"That is where you are wrong," said Ralph. "Perhaps you remember that you wanted to begin knife work by making a paper cutter, and as a matter of fact it was very nearly the last thing I gave you to do. It required all your skill and previous practice to accomplish it. It will be just the same with the bench and vise. You will be able to construct them, but only after considerable experience with tools. You might as well insist on making all your tools before starting to use them or you might insist on going into the woods, cutting down trees and ripping out your own planks for stock. Just wait a minute."
He went into the house and came out with a pamphlet on lumbering, which he opened at the picture shown in [Fig 88]. It represents the old style of sawing out planks by hand before the coming of the saw-mill.
The man in the pit is called a pit man, the one on the log, the sawyer. This method of cutting lumber was in vogue up to about fifty years ago.
"This," said Ralph, "is what your line of reasoning would lead us back to, so if I am to be your instructor you must leave these things to my judgment, and my advice is to start work with a good bench having on it a good vise."
Fig. 88. The old way of getting out lumber
To let you into a family secret, the boys' work in carving had been admired by several friends and they had worked up quite a trade in making and selling their carvings. From the money they had saved they purchased the bench shown in [Fig. 89]. It was very well built, having a heavy top of 3-inch maple and a modern quick action vise. The seven drawers underneath were not really necessary, but the boys found them very handy for storing tools, nails, screws, unfinished work, etc.
Fig. 89. Bench with quick action vise
The space under a bench is very apt to become a catch-all and a nuisance, so as time went on they concluded that the extra cost of this bench was justified, although at the time the price seemed very high. Some of the cheaper benches they looked at are shown in [Fig. 87].
The quick action vise was a great time saver, as it could be pulled wide open or pushed back without turning the handle, as in the old screw vises.
A dozen of these quick action vises are on the market, and may be had at hardware stores for from four dollars upward.
This flat topped bench had no tool rack, and could consequently be worked on from any side. At first, the owners kept most of their tools in the large drawer at the top, but later on they made a good sized tool cabinet, which was fastened to the wall and will be described later.
The iron bench stop also proved a valuable feature, as it could be fastened at any desired height by a set screw, or dropped down out of the way below the level of the bench top. When planing thin wood, one end of the board is braced against the bench stop. Ralph found that starting with a new bench had another advantage. It helped his pupil to take good care of the bench. Harry was very careful not to saw or cut it as he might have done with an old bench, and to foster this spirit of carefulness, Ralph gave him for his first problem the making of a bench hook. ([Fig. 90].) The tools used in its construction were:
| 24-inch rip saw | Brace and 1⁄4-inch bit |
| 20-inch cross cut saw | Countersink bit |
| Marking gauge | 11⁄2-inch flat head screws |
| Try square 6 inches | Piece of maple, planed to 7⁄8-inch |
| 15-inch jack-plane | thick, 12 inches long, 10 inches wide |
Fig. 90. The bench hook
The maple board was first laid out as shown at a, a pencil line being drawn 2 inches from one edge. The piece was placed in the vise horizontally, and both long edges planed straight and true and tested with the try square.
The block was then placed upright in the vise, and the ends planed square with the block plane. This required much explaining and practise, as the block plane has a bad habit of breaking off the farther corner.
Ralph showed Harry how to use this tool safely by planing only part way across the end and then finishing from the other side. Both ends were tested with the try square.
The piece was now sawed in two by using a rip saw on the pencil line, the wood being held in the vise in an upright position.
This made two pieces of stock 12 inches long, one 2 inches wide, the other 8 inches nearly, as the saw cut had removed some of the wood.
The 2-inch piece was laid out as shown at b. The marking gauge was set at 13⁄4 inches and from the joint edge—that already planed—a line was gauged on each flat face, and the sawed edge planed to these lines as at b.
It was then laid out as shown at c, two knife lines being squared around the four sides 1⁄8 inch apart. The piece was then sawed apart carefully between these two knife lines, and the ends block planed and tested.
Fig. 91. Method of using the bench hook and back saw
Two 1⁄4-inch holes were bored, as shown at d, in each piece, and countersunk with the countersink bit. This makes a place for the screw heads, so they will be below the surface where they cannot be in the way of tools or scratch the bench.
The wide piece was next planed on its sawed edge, and the blocks screwed on. That the bench hook might always be handy and have a definite place of its own, a half-inch hole was bored as shown in the illustration, and it was hung on a nail, set in the end of the bench.
The bench hook is designed to protect the bench from saw marks and the cuts of chisels, gouges, etc. The method of using it with the saw is shown in [Fig. 91]. Wherever possible, it should be made of hard wood.
[XV]
THE EQUIPMENT FOR A SHOP
Nothing is so necessary to the saving of time and energy as an orderly shop. Our boys had bought a quantity of white pine to begin operations and it was lying in a pile on the floor where it was always in the way.
To cut a piece of stock from one of these 12-foot boards it was necessary to use two kitchen chairs for trestles, so it was decided to construct two saw horses, and as soon as they were finished, to build a lumber rack against the wall where their little supply could be stored out of the way.
"We will carry out our regular practice by first making a drawing," said Ralph. "We know from experience that it saves time."
[Fig. 92] shows the proportions of the trestle at a, and the mechanical drawing with all dimensions at b.
The body of the trestle was built up of four pieces, two long and two short ones. The open space in the centre, Ralph explained, would make a convenient tool rack where hammers, chisels, etc., could be placed while they were working, especially at outdoor work, instead of being dropped on the ground. The body then called for two pieces 3 feet long by 4 inches wide, and two pieces 10 inches long by 4 wide.
These were sawed from a rough plank with the rip saw by using the chairs as trestles. A pencil line was laid out 31⁄4 inches from one edge, and the saw cut made directly on the line, 8 feet long.
The cross cut saw was used to cut the strip off and this strip was then sawed with the same saw into four pieces of equal length for the legs. Another strip 41⁄4 inches wide, 7 feet 8 inches long, was ripped out and taken off with the cross cut saw, for the body, and divided into two pieces 3 feet 10 inches long, for convenience in planing.
Harry now had his first real experience in planing. All the pieces were of 1-inch rough lumber, with sawed edges, and had to be planed down to 7⁄8 inch in thickness.
To plane six pieces of stock straight and true, with squared edges and of definite size, was no easy task.
"How do you like manual labour?" asked Ralph, mischievously.
"I like it all right," replied the perspiring boy, "but we won't need any gymnasium work for exercise while we are doing this."
Fig. 92. The trestle or saw horse. By permission of Carpentry and Building
"Wouldn't you like to make a bench in hard wood right away?" asked Ralph.
"No, I guess you were right after all."
Ralph showed him the proper way to stand, and how to hold the jack-plane so as to get the best results. He promised to show him how to sharpen and adjust the plane as soon as the lumber was stored away on the lumber rack.
Harry's business was to dress down one of the flat faces of each piece till it was smooth, straight and true both with the grain and across it. He tested it by his eye and the edge of his plane and when he thought it was about right, passed it over to Ralph for criticism.
Ralph was a very exacting instructor, but made allowance for the boy's inexperience. He was making the second trestle at the same time and it was exasperating to Harry to see the ease with which he turned out his work.
"Never mind," said Ralph, "you can do as good carving now as I, and in a few weeks you will be able to do just as good joinery or carpentry. The first day is always the hardest. You are all impatience and want to get through right away. After a while you will learn by experience that you can only do one thing at a time, and will not rush so."
Photograph by Helen W. Cooke
Using the Jack Plane.
Finally, one face on each of the six pieces was pronounced finished, and the next step was to "joint" or "dress down" one edge straight, smooth and square with the working face—the first planed surface. This seemed easier after the experience of making the bench hook, and Harry knew how to test for squareness with the try square.
Working on the two long pieces for the body, both edges of each were squared up, a 10-inch piece was marked off on one end of each with pencil and try square, and sawed off with cross cut saw.
It was decided to leave the inner faces rough, as they would be inside the trestle, and out of sight. These four pieces forming the body were now nailed together with 21⁄2-inch wire nails, as shown in a.
The four pieces for the legs were dressed on all four sides, and it only remained to cut the angle at top and bottom.
This brought into use a new tool, the bevel. The angle x was found by laying the bevel on the mechanical drawing, and fixing it at the angle by tightening the set screw provided for the purpose. The line was carried across the face by means of the try square, and the bevel used on the farther edge. When this laying out was finished, the piece looked like c, the triangular piece y being removed by sawing directly on the pencil lines.
After the four legs were laid out in this manner and cut, they were nailed to the body with 3-inch wire nails.
The saw horse was now complete with the exception of the two braces, and the final truing up.
The braces were made by holding a piece of stock 4 inches × 7⁄8 inch in position and marking the slope with a pencil, sawing to pencil lines and nailing in position d.
The final process of truing up was an interesting one to Harry, and he used it many times afterward in finishing pieces of furniture, such as tables, tabourettes, etc.
The horse was placed on the bench, and a pair of dividers set as shown at e.
A line was scribed on each leg wherever the compasses point touched it, holding the latter upright and going around all four sides of each leg. By sawing to the lines made in this way, the trestle was found to stand on the floor perfectly true. This is a method much used in truing up articles that rest on three or more legs, and it overcomes any inaccuracies that may have arisen in the process of assembling; but it is very important that the surface on which this truing up is done shall itself be perfectly true. The bench used in this case was new and had not yet warped at all, but an old bench might not have been suitable. This can be ascertained by testing the surface in several directions with a long straight edge.
The facts of warping and shrinkage in wood must always be taken into consideration.
The saw horse is an important part of every shop equipment, and the boys now relegated the clumsy chairs to the kitchen, where they belonged, and were prepared to saw out stock from their longest boards.
[XVI]
BUILDING A LUMBER RACK
Ralph had painted two signs and fastened them in prominent places on the wall. One read: "One thing at a time"; the other, "A place for everything, and everything in its place."
"Those are very old-fashioned," he said, "but they are none the less absolutely true. Many boys fail to accomplish anything in tool work because they do not heed the first, and more time is wasted than we ever realize, particularly among mechanics, by failing to observe the second. It often seems a waste of time to put a tool or piece of stock away in a definite place, but, on the other hand, one often spends ten times as many minutes in looking for a thing as he would putting it in its place where it could be found instantly."
"What's the answer?" said Harry absent-mindedly.
"The answer is that we will make a rack for our lumber before we do anything else.
"It need not be very fine work, but it will make our shop much neater, if the surfaces of the wood are planed instead of being left rough, and to give you practice in planing and to develop your muscles, I am going to let you do most of the planing, while I lay out the work."
The rack as finally constructed is shown in [Fig. 93]. The shop was not sheathed on the inside, the framework or studding being exposed. The short cross pieces were nailed to the studding with ten-penny wire nails, but where they joined the uprights they were let into the latter to a depth of 1⁄2 inch before being nailed. Harry wanted to know what this was for, and Ralph explained that if the cross pieces were simply nailed to the uprights, all the weight would be carried by the nails. By letting or "gaining" them part way into the uprights, the weight was carried by the latter without so much strain on the nails.
"Then why don't you let them into the wall studs too?" asked Harry.
"Because the studs are in position and we couldn't saw them out without breaking through the outside of the building; therefore we are obliged simply to nail them on."
Fig. 93. The lumber rack
Four of the uprights were spaced three feet apart, and held in place at top and bottom by blocks nailed to the ceiling and floor. A carpenter would have simply "toe-nailed" them by driving nails at an angle through the ends of the uprights into the floor, but the boys were not yet skilled in carpenters' methods. An ideal lumber rack is made of galvanized iron pipe. It is indestructible, fire-proof, rather expensive, and the joints are regular pipe fitter's joints, elbows, tees, crosses, and floor plates.
This was beyond our boys' pocket-book, as it would have required the services of a pipe fitter.
One of the uprights laid out and partly cut is shown at a, the openings having been taken out with cross cut saw and chisel.
On one of the upper tiers the cross pieces were made eight inches longer than the others, and where they extended beyond the front of the rack pieces of pine 6 × 2 × 7⁄8 inches were nailed to the ends, making a convenient hook for hanging hand screws, which are always in the way on the floor. It also made a very convenient shelf for storing narrow waste strips of lumber, which should not be destroyed, as one can never tell when they will be needed.
In the case of a rack made of iron pipe, the ends of these long cross pieces need be only ordinary pipe elbows.
The labour of building a lumber rack was much heavier than anything the boys had done before, but it brought the larger muscles into play, seemed like real carpenter work, and was an excellent preparation for the finer tool work to follow. A boy who has never carried out a piece of large work successfully cannot realize the satisfaction of looking at a really good piece of construction and being able to say, "I made that all myself!"
Fig. 94. First wind vane
Ralph suggested that one or two things more were needed to make their equipment ship-shape—one was a tool cabinet, and another was some arrangement for storing small pieces of stock; but as both of these required considerable tool practice, they were recorded in a notebook as among the things to be done later on.
It was agreed that the shop needed a vane to show the direction of the wind, and the boys' design for this is shown at Fig. 94. It included a weather vane and windmill.
The whole combination required five pieces of wood. The two short pieces, 7 inches long by 1 inch square, were first dressed to size, cut out and halved together as shown. They were then taken apart and cut to the lines shown, with a knife, making propeller blades similar to those made for the aeroplane. When both were finished, they were again put together, and a hole drilled through the centre a trifle larger than a flat-head wire nail 21⁄2 inches long. This nail is to hold the mill to the horizontal piece. The nail is to be tight in this horizontal piece, but the windmill must revolve freely about the nail. It is for this reason that the hole in the mill must be slightly larger than the diameter of the nail.
The horizontal piece is bevelled on one end with the knife and has a 1⁄4-inch slot sawed out at the other. The slot is to receive the wind vane. The vane was sawed out of 1⁄4-inch wood, fitted into the slot and nailed with brads.
When all these parts were assembled, it was necessary to find the centre of gravity of the whole combination, as it is important that it be perfectly balanced.
To find the correct point, a light string was slipped under the horizontal piece and moved back and forth until the vane hung horizontally. The spot where the string touched the wood was marked with a pencil and a 1⁄4-inch hole drilled at this point for the pivot. A corresponding hole was drilled 3 inches deep into the bevelled end of the standard.
A piece of 1⁄4-inch maple dowel was used as a pivot, the upper end being sand-papered until the vane swung freely. The boys found that by placing a metal washer between the vane and its standard, much of the friction was removed. A wire nail driven into the standard through a hole drilled in the horizontal piece would have answered the same purpose as the dowel. When the centre of gravity is not found for the pivot, the vane is apt to tilt forward or backward and not only look badly, but bring considerable friction on one end, so that it will not revolve freely with the wind.
[XVII]
MILLS AND WEATHER VANES
The subject of windmills and weather vanes opened up a field that seemed inexhaustible, and for a while there was a perfect furore of designing and experimenting. As usual, Harry wanted to try great schemes that Ralph knew were impracticable, and it required all his diplomacy to keep the boy down to earth, on something simple and within his power to do successfully.
One of his earliest attempts was a scheme to make a windmill on the principle of a water-wheel, placed horizontally to catch the wind.
Ralph knew that it would not work, but after arguing for some time, he decided to let the youngster learn by experience. While Harry was working at his project, Ralph sketched out and made a vane which he considered an improvement on the first one. It is shown in [Fig. 95]; and it was made without a mill and composed of four pieces. The horizontal piece had an arrow head at the forward end. At the rear end, two pieces of 1⁄4-inch pine were fastened with two small bolts. From the point where they were bolted they curved outward as shown in the top view, and were held in that position by two small strips nailed on with brads, one on the upper and one on the lower side. The centre of gravity was found as before, and the vane pivoted to its standard.
Fig. 95. Second wind vane
In the meantime, Harry had found out to his own satisfaction that his water-wheel windmill would not work.
"What have you curved those ends out for?" he exclaimed on catching a sight of Ralph's vane.
"Why, to make it more sensitive to the slightest breeze. Those curves catch the wind quicker than flat surfaces; have you never noticed that on the weather bureau vanes they are always curved out like that?"
"No," said Harry. "By the way, do you know why my mill doesn't work?"
"I have told you about six times that a water-wheel receives the water on one side only, while your mill receives the same pressure on both sides of the centre. The two forces balance, so your mill can't very well turn. If you could cut off the wind from one side, it would go all right."
"Well, why can't I box in one side?"
"You can, but then you will have to shift it every time the wind changes. You could construct a combination mill and vane, and arrange it so that the box would be shifted by the vane, but honestly, I don't think it worth the trouble. It would be clumsy, top-heavy, and hard to balance. I have a scheme for a horizontal mill, but we will take it up later. In the meantime, let's make a happy jack windmill!"
"Happy jack?"
"That's what they call them, but we will try to be original and I propose an Indian with war clubs."
"Whew! That sounds interesting!"
Ralph's sketch of the Indian is shown in [Fig. 96]. The figure was sawed out of 1⁄2-inch pine, a 3⁄8-inch hole bored for the arms, and a 1⁄4-inch hole bored for the dowel pivot at the feet. The arms were made of a piece of dowel, six inches long, with 3⁄16-inch holes bored near the ends to receive the "clubs." These were whittled out of pine, each club being a propeller blade. When fastened into the dowel they formed a complete two-bladed propeller, but this was not done until the dowel had been inserted through the Indian's shoulders, and a brad driven through on each side of the body to keep the arms in place.
Fig. 96. Happy jack
Harry was so anxious to see it work that he came near spoiling it, and had to be restrained by the older boy, as in making these toys a well balanced figure is very important. When it was finally finished, and placed out in the wind, the antics of the Indian made Harry laugh till the tears ran down his cheeks.
"That's the finest thing we ever made," he said. Ralph smiled. It seemed that he had heard something like that several times before.
An athlete was suggested, and a bold figure with outstretched arms was sketched, as shown in [Fig. 97].
The Indian clubs he is supposed to be swinging were propeller blades, and to give them more uniform motion than in the case of the Indian, the hands were drilled and a piece of 1⁄4-inch dowel inserted. At each end of the dowel was fastened a blade which had been drilled to fit. Brads were driven through the dowel on each side of the hand to keep the clubs swinging freely.
Fig. 97. An athletic happy jack
The body and arms were cut from a piece of 1⁄2-inch pine and halved together across the chest, and after the joint was made the form of the body and the arms whittled out with a knife. The two parts were then fastened together with brads.
It was important that this figure face the wind, so into the space between the ankles was fitted the small end of a wind vane and the figure securely fastened to it with brads. The centre of gravity was then found and the whole combination pivoted on a generous piece of 1⁄4-inch dowel.
Fig. 98. The anemometer
This athletic weather vane is painted in bright colours, the clubs being gilded to make them realistic Indian clubs.
"What was that scheme of yours for a horizontal windmill?" asked Harry after he had watched the athletic club swinger until he was satisfied.
"Why, to make one on the principle of the anemometer," replied Ralph.
"How do you spell it?"
"Never mind the spelling, it's like this," and Ralph rapidly sketched out [Fig. 98].
"This is the wind gauge of the weather bureau," he explained, "and I figure we can use ordinary tin cups for the buckets. You go down to the hardware store and buy four small round bottomed tin cups while I start the woodwork."
Having secured the cups for five cents each, they cut the handles with a pair of tinners' "snips." The cut was made next to the cup at the lowest point and the handle straightened out even with the top of the cup.
Two pieces of pine, 16 inches long, 7⁄8-inch wide, and 5⁄8-inch thick, were halved together at the centre, where a 1⁄4-inch hole was bored straight through the joint.
A block of wood cut to the shape a was fitted over the joint, and fastened to the four arms with 1-inch brads. The 1⁄4-inch hole was now continued almost through this cap to give a long bearing for the pivot—a ten-penny wire nail with the head filed off. Two 3⁄16-inch holes were drilled through the handle of each cup and corresponding holes through the wooden arms. The cups were made fast by passing 3⁄16-inch bolts through cup handles and arms and tightening the nuts.
This made a very strong and rigid construction and on testing it by holding the pivot in the hand out in the breeze the instrument revolved rapidly.
Altogether it was one of the most substantial and satisfactory things that they had made, but Ralph was not yet satisfied.
"We might as well have a Coney Island of our own as not," he said. "You whittle out four propellers, 4 inches long and 1⁄2 inch across, and I'll show you something," he said.
While Harry was doing this, Ralph sawed out four wooden dirigibles shown at b, 8 inches long, 3 inches across at the widest part, and 1⁄4 inch thick.
A hole was drilled through the centre of each propeller and another in the flat stern of each air-ship. The pivots for the propellers were flat-head wire nails small enough for the blades to revolve freely, but driven securely into the air-ships.
These were now fastened at the ends of the arms of the anemometer by attaching two strips of basswood to each ship by wires. The strips were to hold the ships in the proper position facing in the direction of motion, which was always the same, no matter in which direction the wind was blowing.
The upper ends of these strips were brought together, and securely fastened under one of the bolts by wires.
As the anemometer revolved, centrifugal force sent the air-ships out as far as the basswood strips would allow.
Fig. 99. The Zeppelin wind vane
It was a very interesting fair weather toy, but the first gale, while having no effect on the anemometer other than to make it spin around at terrific speed, nearly wrecked the ships by slamming them against the standard. So the boys always took the ships off at night, and put them on again when they wanted to give an exhibition.
The propellers were gilded and the ships painted in bright colours.
A very simple vane may be made to represent a Zeppelin air-ship ([Fig. 99]) by cutting out a piece of white pine 2 feet long and 21⁄2 inches wide with the ends pointed to the shape of a Gothic arch. The hole for the pivot should be bored 2 inches deep and be placed well forward of the centre. To make the vane balance, the rear portion from the pivot to the stern should be planed thin and rounded with the spokeshave.
Fig. 100. A six-bladed mill
At the stern should be a small two-bladed propeller, pivoted on a flat-head wire nail. If the stern is still too heavy, the balance can be restored by driving into the forward point a round-headed screw, or by attaching another small propeller. In fact, if the hole in this propeller is made large enough, the screw can be used as the pivot; in any event, the vane must be balanced by adding some kind of weight at the bow.
These typical forms of wind vanes will suggest others and the young woodworker should try to be original, to design new forms, ships, submarines, air-ships, etc.
One form which the boys made was especially substantial and reliable. A six-bladed mill was constructed as follows:
First: a piece of 7⁄8-inch pine was cut to the form of a hexagon 2 inches across the points.
Second: a 1⁄4-inch hole was bored in the centre of each of the six edges and a 3⁄16-inch hole through the centre of the hexagon. ([Fig. 100].)
Third: six blades were formed from 1⁄2-inch pine 8 inches long, 2 inches wide, tapering down to 1 inch at one end.
Fourth: in the small end a 1⁄4-inch hole was bored at the centre, about an inch deep.
Fifth: the blades were tapered in thickness from 1⁄2-inch at the small end to 3⁄16-inch at the wide end, the tapering being done on one side only, that away from the wind, the side facing the wind being perfectly flat.
Sixth: dowel pins were glued securely into the holes in the hexagonal block and into the blades, the latter being turned on the dowels at an angle of about 30 degrees—1⁄3 a right angle—from the front face.
Seventh: after the glue had hardened over night, the whole mill was painted, special attention being given to covering the joint where the glue held, to prevent the rain from loosening it.
Eighth: two pieces of 1⁄4-inch white wood were cut out to the form shown at b. These were fastened to the square piece c by two small bolts.
The wide ends of the vanes were spread and fastened by two small strips of white wood, by brads as shown.
Ninth: last came the locating of the centre of gravity, after the mill had been attached by a ten-penny flat-head wire nail. The pivot was made of a similar nail into the standard, as on previous wind vanes.
[XVIII]
TOOLS: SAWS
The boys now took up the systematic study of tools, as Ralph suggested that they had spent time enough on toys and curiosities.
A cutting tool must be constructed with reference to the material it is to cut. In the machine shop, we find the angle of the cutting edge large—often 80 degrees—while a razor has a cutting edge of about 5 degrees. All cutting tools are wedges, whether saws, chisels, planes, axes, or knives, and the angle depends on the hardness of the material in which it is to work. The action of the tool may be a chisel action, a knife action, or both. In the rip saw, the teeth are really a series of chisel edges cut in one piece of steel, while in a cross cut saw we have a knife action for cutting the fibres, followed by a chisel action for removing the wood.
The side view of a rip saw is shown at a ([Fig. 101]), the end view at b.
The chisel-like edges are bent outward to right and left alternately. This is called the "set" of the teeth and its purpose is to make the cut wider than the body of the saw, to prevent friction. As the saw teeth pass through the wood, the fibres spring back against the saw blade or body, and the friction makes the work almost impossible without "set" to the teeth. All woodworking saws must be set, and special tools called "saw sets" are sold for the purpose of bending out the teeth.
Fig. 101. Teeth of rip saw
The rip or slitting saw should only be used for cutting with the grain. When used across the grain, the action is exactly like that of a narrow chisel, and it will tear the fibres instead of cutting them.
The teeth of a cross cut saw are shown in [Fig. 102]. At a is the side view, and at b the end view. The teeth are set and filed to a knife edge. This gives two parallel lines of knife-like teeth which cut the fibres in two parallel lines, while the body of the tooth cuts out the wood in the form of sawdust. All woodworking saws belong to one of these two classes, and the cutting angles of the teeth are shown in [Fig. 103].
Fig. 102. Teeth of cross cut saw
Photograph by Helen W. Cooke
Learning to Use the Cross Cut Saw.
Fig. 103
We are very apt to regard the saw not only as a very commonplace article, but as a fixed quantity which has always been the same and always will be. As a matter of fact, the saw has gone through a process of evolution the same as the electric motor, automobile, and aeroplane. New methods of its manufacture are constantly being invented and improvements made in its construction. Some of the steps in the process of making a hand saw are: rolling the steel plate of which the body is made, hardening, tempering, hammering or smithing, grinding, polishing, filing, setting, etching, handling, and blocking.
Fig. 104. Two methods of handling
The handling refers to the placing of the wooden handle and some idea of what it means is illustrated in [Fig. 104], showing two methods of attaching the apple wood handle.
Some idea of what the grinding means is shown by the tapers, or difference in the thickness of the steel, as shown at [Fig. 105], the thickness in one thousandths of an inch being given at the different points. It will be noticed that not only does the blade decrease in width from the handle out to the end of the saw, but the thickness decreases from the teeth to the top and also from the handle out to the end. This represents ideal saw construction, and it is found only in the good makes.
Fig. 105. Thickness of saw blade
Fig. 106. The back saw
The back saw, being strengthened by a heavy piece of steel along the top, is made of thinner material, and the tapers are not necessary, for the back piece gives rigidity. It removes less wood, but is limited in its action by the back. It is used chiefly by pattern makers, and for finer bench work, such as cabinet making, but should be part of every boy's outfit.
The compass-saw shown at [Fig. 107] is used for general purposes, but is not so necessary as the back saw. It is useful for cutting out small openings, though it is not as valuable for this purpose as the turning saw.
Fig. 107. The compass saw
One end of the turning saw can be released from the frame by removing a pin, passed through a small hole. This is fastened in the frame again and made to follow a curved line like a fret or coping saw.
Fig. 108. The turning saw
The number of teeth to the inch varies, and saws are rated as four-point, five-point, etc., according to the number of points or spaces to the inch. For very hard woods, a saw with small teeth, i. e., with more points than ordinary to the inch, should be used; but a boy who possesses one saw of each kind—a rip, a cross cut, a back saw, and a turning saw—has all that will be required for ordinary woodwork.
Fig. 109. Using the rip saw and trestles
In working with the board on trestles, the saw should be held at an angle of about 45 degrees to the surface. When sawing a board held in the bench vise, this is not so easily done, but the cut should at least be started with the tool in the correct position. ([Fig. 109]).
The hack saw is used for cutting metal, and while not essential for woodwork, is often valuable for cutting pieces of pipe, rivets, bolts, screws, and nails and should be added to the outfit when the finances will allow. ([Fig. 110]).
Fig. 110. The hack saw for cutting metal
In fact, there is no such thing as a set of tools. Good tools only should be bought, and the outfit at first should be simple; new ones can be added from time to time, as they are needed. In this way one learns the possibilities of his kit much better than by starting with an elaborate collection.
[XIX]
TOOLS: PLANES
A boy buying his tool outfit is often bewildered by the array in the hardware store. He is further confused by the advice of the salesman, and his own little store of money.
In selecting planes, only three are really necessary for ordinary work, and this number may even be reduced to two.
Wooden planes are still the favourite tools of some woodworkers, but iron planes have largely superseded them. A 15-inch iron jack plane, a 9-inch smoothing plane, and a block plane make a very good combination for a beginning.
Special planes can be added later, as the finances will allow.
The iron plane with its various parts is shown in [Fig. 111]. These refer to either the jack or the smooth plane.
In the block plane there is no cap iron, the cutter or plane iron being placed with the bevelled side up. There is frequently found on this tool an adjustment for changing the amount of opening in the mouth for hard or soft woods.
The plane iron and cap are fastened together with a set screw, and the cap is removed when it is being ground or sharpened on an oilstone.
Fig. 111. The smoothing plane
This set screw, which is loosened with a screw-driver, or the edge of the clamp used as a screw-driver, also allows the distance from the cutting edge to the cap to be changed for soft or hard woods. These two irons are fastened into the throat of the plane by the clamp.
Fig. 111b. The smoothing plane
The lever (1) is for straightening the plane iron, and the screw s is for adjusting the depth of the cut.
The difference between the jack and smooth planes, aside from the size, is in the shape of the "cutter" or "bit." In the jack plane, the bit is ground with a slightly curved cutting edge. This enables the tool to remove coarse shavings, but leaves a slightly corrugated surface which must be smoothed with the smoothing plane.
The jack plane also tends to straighten the work, owing to its greater length. The greater the length, the more does it straighten. The old-fashioned jointers were made several feet long for this very purpose.
If a boy can afford only one plane, it should be a jack plane, but the cutter should be ground straight to act as a smooth plane.
The block plane can be dispensed with better than any of the others, because the smooth plane can be used on a shooting board for truing up end grain, the original purpose of the block plane.
The latter plane has no cap, as it works on the ends of the wood fibres with a shearing or paring action. This is helped by holding the tool at an angle with the wood, a position not advisable with the other two tools.
By the Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art
Tools of the Seventeenth Century.
Showing how little progress has been made in tool construction. In this collection is a jointer plane, a smooth plane, rabbit plane, straight edge, dividers or compasses, a bench vise, hand vise, wrench, hacksaw and combination tool.
The proper position for planing is with the right side to the bench, the plane held flat on the work. Each stroke should, wherever possible, be the full length of the board, unless one part is higher than the rest of the surface. This may be ascertained by using the edge of the plane as a straight edge. High spots should be marked with a pencil, and then planed off, till the full length strokes can be made, and the edge planed straight and true. In surface planing, if the surface be warped, the amount of wind may be determined by placing two "winding" sticks—two straight pieces of the same size at the two ends—and sighting with the eye along their top edges. To take out wind, it may be necessary to plane diagonally across the grain from corner to corner. This defect is common in lumber not properly piled or seasoned, and is more noticeable in such woods as gum or chestnut.
The sharpening of plane irons is a very important part of one's knowledge of tool work, and of course applies to chisels, gouges, and all cutting tools.
Remember that the cutting edge or bevel is a wedge, the angle of a plane-iron bevel being from 25 to 35 degrees, the smaller angle for soft wood, the larger for hard. This angle is not measured by the woodworker often, but is a matter of experience. If the young mechanic will keep his tools ground to the same angle as he finds them at the time of purchase, he will not go far astray.
Fig. 112. The cutting angle
This angle should be a clean-cut one, however. [Fig. 112] shows some correct and some incorrect ways of grinding. At a is shown the right way, b is not an angle at all, and c is a waste of time and material. At d is shown the worst fault of all—a "back bevel." This occurs when the tool is carelessly turned over and ground on both sides, which renders it useless until all the steel in front of the dotted line has been removed; in other words, until the tool is reground.
This mistake is sometimes made in using the oilstone, by rubbing the tool on both sides instead of on one only. All the grinding and sharpening must be done on the bevelled side. As the plane iron is only a thin chisel, the sharpening of the latter tool is performed as in the case of the plane iron, and the same care should be taken to keep the bevel clean cut.
A good grindstone is a shop necessity, and, one might add, a household necessity, because every household uses knives, and the dull knife is an altogether too common nuisance.
Our boys hung up another sign at this stage, and it read, "Keep your tools sharp." This ought to go without saying, but it is a fact that many people make failures of their work and become disgusted with it because they do not keep their tools in order. The satisfaction of using fine, sharp tools cannot be explained; it must be experienced.
Like other things about the shop, there are many kinds of grindstones on the market. The old-fashioned stone with a wooden frame ([Fig. 113]) worked by hand or a treadle may be good—it depends on the stone—and the new one with a small stone, iron, or pressed steel frame is handy. The last stone is provided with a bicycle seat, and is worked by both feet, so that the hands are free to hold the tool. This stone has ball bearings, is noiseless, and occupies less space than the other.
A stone that is soft and gritty, rather than one that is hard like a piece of granite, should be selected.
In holding the tool against the stone, some common sense is necessary. The harder one presses, the quicker the grinding, but if there is not plenty of water on the stone, the tool may be "burned." When a black place appears, you have destroyed the temper, showing that there has been too much pressure, or too little water, or both.
Fig. 113. Two types of grindstone
The tool may be moved back and forth across the stone to keep its face true, but never up and down. This up and down motion is careless and gives the defective edge shown at b ([Fig. 112])—very bad grinding.
It is an easy matter to test your grinding by occasionally placing the blade of a try square on the bevel. If it is not straight, your grinding needs more care. Too much stress cannot be laid on the importance of this subject of grinding. It is the key-note of success. If you are careless in this particular, your work at the bench cannot be a success. "A good workman is known by his tools."
Fig. 114. The oilstone
A teacher of drawing once said, "I don't care to see your drawing; all I want is to see your pencil. I can tell just what kind of work you are doing by observing the care you give your pencil."
This is peculiarly true of the worker with tools. Find a man very particular about them, and you may be sure he is a careful workman.
After grinding comes sharpening. This is done by rubbing the bevelled side back and forth a few times on an oilstone, lubricated with a few drops of sperm or light machine oil.
Fig. 115. The action of the cap iron
The stone should be wiped off, afterward, and should never be saturated with the oil. If this is allowed to happen, the surface becomes gummed ([Fig. 114]) and loses its cutting edge. This rubbing will sometimes turn over a thin wire edge, which is removed by laying the tool with the flat side on the oilstone and drawing it toward you. The wire edge can be further removed if necessary by stropping on a piece of leather.
Before replacing the cutter in the plane, the cap iron is fastened on the flat side about 1⁄16-inch from the cutting edge; but this distance may be varied for different woods.
The object of the cap iron is to prevent a splitting action by bending the shaving forward, as shown in [Fig. 115]. At a is shown the effect when there is no cap, and at b the splinter bent over giving a shaving.
[XX]
SQUARING UP STOCK
Having prepared Harry for the serious work to come by his explanation of the plane and its operation, Ralph prepared to start his pupil on the most important and difficult problem in shopwork—squaring up stock.
"Anybody," he said "can hack away at a piece of wood with tools, and get some kind of result, but if this work is worth doing at all, it is worth doing well, and to be able to square up stock is perhaps the most important operation you will ever do. It is like mathematics, the answer is either right or wrong. When you finish, the stock is either square or not square.
"To square up stock means to reduce it to three definite dimensions, length, breadth, and thickness, with all adjoining edges or surfaces at right angles. It sounds easy.
"Suppose we want a piece 12 inches × 2 inches × 7⁄8 inch. First, saw out your stock about 121⁄4 inches × 21⁄4 inches × 1 inch. This allows something each way for the tools to remove in the process—for sawdust and shavings. It is considerably more than necessary, but on the first trial you waste more than later, when you have become skilled in this work.
"Second. Dress down one of the flat faces with the jack plane; follow with the smoothing plane and test, with straight edge, with the grain, across it, and diagonally across corners. When this face is finished it constitutes the foundation of the process, and is called the 'working face.'
"Third. Make a pencil mark on the working face near one of the edges. This is called a witness mark, and it indicates that the edge it touches is to be the next face dressed.
"Fourth. Dress down the edge, making it square with the working face, and testing its whole length with the try square. This is the 'joint edge' ([Fig. 116]).
"Fifth. Set the marking gauge, as shown in [Fig. 117], holding it in the left hand and the rule in the right, to two inches, the width of the finished piece. The reason for this is that the scale on the gauge stick is sometimes inaccurate.
"With the gauge block against the joint edge, gauge a line the entire length of the working face. In doing this, the gauge may be used in either hand, and in fact it is well to practise so as to be able to use either at will. The tool should always be pushed from you, and at the same time tilted from you, until the steel point makes only a fine line. If it is held upright, the point will try to follow the grain, which is very seldom parallel with the edge.
Fig. 116. Steps in the process of squaring up stock
"You have now laid out on the working face your first dimension—the width.
"Sixth. Plane down the edge opposite to the joint edge, almost to the gauge line just drawn. Remember that the tendency is always to take off too much, and when a piece is too small there is no way of making it larger, but if it is left a little too large, it is a simple matter to take off one more shaving. In other words, always be on the safe side, and take off too little rather than too much. Test this edge to see that it is square with working face before reaching the gauge line. Get into the habit of marking all high spots with a pencil, and planing out the marks.
Fig. 117. "Setting" the marking gauge
"Seventh. Set the gauge at the required thickness, in this case 7⁄8 inch—and with gauge block against working face, make a line full length on both of the squared edges.
"Eighth. Dress down the remaining rough face to or near both gauge lines just drawn, and test with straight edge, as in the working face. The stock is now to the second dimension—thickness.
"Ninth. Secure the last dimension—length. As near one end as possible make a line across the working face with a knife and try square, and continue it around the four sides back to the starting place. If it does not come out exactly at this point, the stock is not square.
"From this knife line, measure off the length on the working face, and square a knife line on the four sides, as on the first end. Block-plane both ends to the knife lines, and test.
Fig. 118. The shooting board
"If these nine successive steps are carried out accurately, the answer is correct," as Ralph remarked after Harry had worked faithfully throughout the whole explanation.
The boys realized that they needed a shooting board as a necessary part of their equipment, and after Ralph had worked out the drawing shown in Fig. 118, Harry was told to square up the four pieces of stock to be used in its construction.
"Now let me show you a new trick," said Ralph. "It is always a good plan after making a drawing to write out a bill of material something like this:
| 1 pc. pine 14 × 8 × 1⁄2 | 1 pc. pine 6 × 2 × 1⁄2 |
| 1 pc. maple 14 × 6 × 1⁄2 | 4 11⁄4-inch f. h. screws |
| 1 pc. pine 8 × 11⁄2 × 7⁄8 | 5 3⁄4-inch f. h. screws |
"There you have in a nutshell all the items needed for the shooting board, and you can proceed to square all your pieces to these dimensions without consulting the drawing until you are ready to assemble the parts. The five 3⁄4-inch screws are for fastening the maple pieces to the flat piece of pine, and the 11⁄4 screws to fasten the cleats. All the holes for screws are to be bored and countersunk."
"What's countersunk?" asked Harry.
This led to a talk on screws and boring tools, and as it is valuable to the young worker in wood, we will give it as fully as possible.
Fig. 119. The use of screws
"There are several kinds of screws," began Ralph, "but the two most commonly used are flat heads and round heads. ([Fig. 119]). Flat-head screws are those we generally think of, but unless the hole which has been bored or drilled is reamed out at the top, countersunk as we call it, the screw head will stand out from the surface ready to tear your clothes and to scratch anything it may come in contact with, so you can readily see the importance of sinking them below the surface.
"On the other hand, there are often cases where we have no desire to hide the screw. The round heads are used for such cases, and because of their shape they do not catch hold of things. These screws are usually blued—treated with acid to give them a dull, more artistic colour. Screws treated in this way do not rust as readily as the bright ones. You can buy brass screws in both flat and round head forms; in fact you can get tinned, Japanned, lacquered, bronzed, copper, nickel, and even silver plated screws—if you have the money.
"In buying them, you must always give two numbers—the length, in inches, and the diameter. This is the diameter of the wire forming the body and runs from 0 to 30, number 0 being about 1⁄16 inch.
"A one-inch screw No. 8 would be fatter or larger in diameter than a one-inch No. 6, which is of comparatively slight or thin proportions. They are sold in boxes containing a gross.
"In fastening two pieces of wood together, they should be prepared as shown at a ([Fig. 119]) for a flat head and as at b for a round head. The screw slips through the first board, and the screw threads engage only in the second in each case."
[XXI]
BORING TOOLS
"Boring tools are very interesting," said Ralph. The brace and bit for soft woods have practically taken the place of the old fashioned augers, gimlets, etc. The reason is not hard to find. An auger or gimlet could bore but one size of hole, while with a brace and set of bits almost any diameter can be secured. A little later on, I'll tell you about a Yankee invention along this line.
"The brace is a sort of universal tool holder, and any tool designed to fit into it is known as a bit, as for example a countersink bit, or a screw driver bit, and several varieties of drills.
"The shank, or part that fits into the brace, is usually square and tapering, and the part of the brace which engages this shank is called the 'chuck.' ([Fig. 120].)
Fig. 120. Gimlet bit and centre bit
"The centre bit, an old-fashioned form, had all the necessary features of a good boring tool but one. It had a sharp centre for accurately locating the hole, a knife edge for cutting the fibres, and a chisel for removing the wood, but it lacked the spiral screw thread of the modern tool, and had to be forced through the wood by main strength. On a modern auger bit, this spiral screw relieves the worker of a large part of the labour; all he has to do is to turn the brace and keep it straight, supposing of course that the bit is sharp. ([Fig. 121].)
"The auger bit is most commonly used by woodworkers. It has two knife edges and two chisels besides the spiral spur in the centre. A short form of this tool, called the dowel bit, has the advantage of bending less readily than the ordinary auger bit. The size in sixteenths of an inch is stamped into the metal shank, but if this number is not distinct or for any reason is missing, the diameter may be measured by holding the rule across the knife edges."
Fig. 121. The auger bit
"What's the Yankee invention you were going to tell me about?" interrupted Harry.
"Well, suppose you wanted to bore a large hole, say 21⁄2 inches in diameter, the probabilities are that you wouldn't have a bit that size. In fact, to have a full set of bits from 3⁄16 inch up to 3 inches would mean a very expensive lot of tools. This difficulty has been overcome by a very clever invention called the extension or expansive bit. ([Fig. 122]). On this tool the knife edge and chisel are part of a moving lip, which may be fastened at any desired point by means of a set screw.
"Besides being adjustable in diameter, the lip of the bit has a scale, and the body a single line engraved on it. By bringing this line to the various measurements on the scale, you can set it to a definite size without the trouble of measuring it.
Fig. 122. The expansive bit
"The tool has certain limitations, of course. It is made in two sizes; one will bore holes of any size from 1⁄2 inch up to 11⁄2 inches, and the other any size from 7⁄8 inch to 3 inches, while extra lips or cutters are made to bore as large as 4 inches, but if you ever try to bore a hole of this size you will want all your muscle."
The screw-driver bit is simply a screw-driver with a bit shank instead of a wood handle, and the countersink has a cone-shaped end with enough grooves cut in it to give one or more cutting edges. Its use was illustrated in making the bench hook and shooting board.
Fig. 123. The Forstner bit
The gimlet bit may be used for boring holes for screws. It is made from 2⁄32 inch up to 12⁄32 inch, and is valuable for preparing articles for the smaller-sized screws where the auger bit would be too large.
We find for sale drill bits for electricians, warranted to go through a nail if necessary, and dozens of special bits.
In working with thin wood, the auger bit is very apt to split it, especially brittle woods, like red gum. Even this contingency is provided for in the Forstner bit, which will bore a hole in a sheet of paper ([Fig. 123]), and is therefore very valuable for work in veneering or other very thin material.
The brace is represented by several styles and makers, but the beginner must look for the same qualities in the brace as he would in any other tool—good workmanship and material, simplicity and durability.
The old-fashioned Spofford brace was strong, simple, and reliable. For working in corners or any place where a full revolution of the tool is not possible, a ratchet attachment is necessary. This is found on most of the modern tools, and may be obtained at any hardware store. ([Fig. 124]).
Fig. 124. Common types of the brace
The hand drill ([Fig. 125]) is one of the most useful tools any one can have about the shop or the house. To be able to make holes in soft or hard wood, tin, zinc, brass, copper, or iron is certainly a great advantage, and some form of the tool should be in every establishment. Our boys found it useful in making moving toys, wind vanes, anemometers, and dozens of other pieces, and never regretted its cost. It may be bought for fifty cents and upward, a very good one costing about $1.50. The drills designed to be used with this tool vary by 1⁄64 inch, beginning with 5⁄64 inch up to 3⁄8 inch. Above this a larger chuck is required. They have round shanks instead of the ordinary square bit shank.
Fig. 125. The hand drill