THE STEEL SQUARE
Fig. 132. Steel square and rule
This simple but valuable tool, about which volumes have been written, is necessary for building construction, but is not needed in the making of furniture or cabinet work.
[XXIII]
MAKING NAIL BOXES
The boys now became very busy completing their shop equipment, and the first project was a box for holding different sizes of nails. This was to be kept on the bench where it could be reached conveniently, and it is shown in [Fig. 133].
After studying the sketch, Harry made out the bill of material:
| 2 pcs. pine 15 × 13⁄4 × 1⁄2 |
| 2 pcs. pine 3 × 13⁄4 × 1⁄2 |
| 2 pcs. pine 31⁄2 × 13⁄4 × 3⁄8 |
Fig. 133. The nail box
These six pieces were squared up, and the joints for the two partitions laid out by placing them edge to edge in the vise. Pencil lines were drawn across the faces at random, a. Ralph explained that by fitting these pencil lines they could at any time bring the two pieces together in the original position.
Fig. 134. Socket chisels
The four knife lines representing the edges of the grooves were next drawn, and squared half-way down on each edge, using the face with the pencil lines as a working face. The bottom of the groove was laid off with the marking gauge set at 1⁄4 inch. The wood inside the lines was removed by making a saw cut just inside the knife lines, and cutting out with a 3⁄8-inch chisel.
This led to a talk on chisels. Ralph explained that for fine work a "firmer" chisel was used, having a comparatively thin body.
There are two kinds of handles, known as "socket" and "tang." The chisels having "tangs" should never be hammered, as the tang acts as a wedge and splits the handle. Where blows are to be struck with the mallet, a socket handle should be used. ([Fig. 134].) For heavy work, where hard blows are to be struck, as in house-framing, and out-of-door work generally, the heavy framing tool should be used. The handle of this chisel has a heavy iron ring near the top to keep it from going to pieces.
Our boys' equipment at this time consisted of one half-inch and a one-inch firmer chisel with tang handles, a 1⁄8-inch and 3⁄8-inch socket firmer, and one 1⁄2-inch framing chisel. Later on they added a 1⁄4-inch firmer with tang handle.
The grooves for the nail box were cut with the 3⁄8-inch chisel without the aid of the mallet.
Ralph showed how, by inclining the tool at a slight angle, a paring action could be obtained, and by working from both ends of the groove no corners were destroyed.
When the four grooves were finished, the box was ready for assembling. This called for hammer and nails.
Wire nails are so cheap now that the old-fashioned cut nails have been largely driven from the market.
The nails used on the box were one-inch brads.
The holding power of flat-head nails is of course much greater than bung head, but in this case the box was to be squared up after nailing, exactly as if it were a solid block of wood. This meant planing the sides and ends, and as the nails would ruin the plane iron, they were all sunk below the surface with a nail set or punch. ([Fig. 135]). This is a useful tool, but not absolutely necessary, as for light work a wire nail, with the point ground flat on the grindstone, will answer the same purpose. A carpenter frequently uses the edge of a flat-head nail instead of the punch.
Photograph by Arthur G. Eldredge
The Correct Way to Hold the Chisel.
The box was assembled by nailing together the sides and ends. The bottom was next put on, holding the try square along one side and end to make sure everything was square, and last of all the two partitions were pushed down into their grooves, and tied in place by one brad from each side. Next, all nails were set, and the outside tested with the try square and trued up with the plane.
Fig. 135. Wire nails and nail sets
Fig. 135a Wire nails and nail sets
The cabinet of drawers shown in [Fig. 136] was next designed to keep the assortment of screws and nails, which the boys knew would soon accumulate. As far as possible, they were kept in their original paper boxes, on which the sizes were plainly printed.
The twelve drawers were simply boxes without covers or partitions, and Ralph suggested that it was not necessary to make them all at once, but that they could often fill in spare time that way, and gradually complete the dozen.
Fig. 136. Cabinet for nails and screws
After making the nail box with partitions, this was a simple job, it being only important that they all be of the same size.
The construction of the cabinet, however, brought new problems. The shelves, being short, did not require any vertical support except at the ends, where they were gained into the sides, and to give Harry practice the top and bottom were to be "rabbeted" into the sides. The sides then were the most important parts. All six pieces were first squared up to the dimensions called for in the drawing. The list of material was as follows:
| 4 pcs. 245⁄8 × 12 × 1⁄2 shelves |
| 2 pcs. 14 × 12 × 1⁄2 ends |
| 1 pcs. 251⁄8 × 14 × 1⁄4 back |
"The grain must run the long way," said Ralph, "so the grooves will be across the grain."
The four grooves were laid out with knife and try square, and the lines scored as deeply with the knife as possible.
Then another cut was made with the knife inside of the first, and with the knife held at about 45 degrees, cutting out a V-shaped groove, as shown at a.
In each of these grooves a cut with the buck saw was made down to the line, and the wood removed with the 3⁄8-inch chisel. There are special planes, called rabbet planes, and plows for doing this kind of work, but it is good practice for beginners to use the chisel.
The grooves finished, the cabinet was put together with 11⁄2-inch brads, except the back. This being of thin material, and having no special strain on it, was nailed on with 1-inch brads. The total width of the drawers in each tier was 1⁄8 inch less than the space. This gave clearance, so that they could be moved in or out easily.
Later, when all twelve drawers were finished, the boys bought a dozen simple drawer pulls, and screwed one in the centre of each box.
The centre was found by drawing the diagonals in light pencil lines. The front and ends were sand-papered, and given two coats of dark-green stain, and the cabinet was placed on a shelf against the wall.
[XXIV]
BIRD HOUSES
The boys felt that they were ready for business, and Ralph suggested that they had provided enough weather vanes and windmills, but had made no provisions for the birds.
The cat, that arch enemy of the native birds, had driven the robins, martins, and wrens all away. Each year some of these brave little birds started homes in the trees near the house only to have their families devoured as soon as they were hatched.
A bird house to be attractive need not be very pretentious, but it must absolutely be cat-proof, or the birds will inspect it carefully from all points of view and leave it severely alone. A nest well hidden in the tree foliage or shrubbery is not nearly so conspicuous as a brightly painted house fastened to the limbs of a tree. The side of a barn or outhouse, far enough down from the roof so that the cat cannot reach it, or a tall pole covered on the upper part with tin, so that the feline bird hunter cannot gain a foothold, are about the only safe places for a house which the birds will actually adopt. The first house our woodworkers manufactured is shown in [Fig. 137].
This was a single or one-family house, and its construction was very simple.
The list of material follows:
| One pc. 1⁄2 -inch pine or white wood 10 × 61⁄2 ins. | |
| Two pcs. 1⁄2 -inch pine or white wood 71⁄2 × 3 ins. | |
| One pc. 1⁄2 -inch pine or white wood 91⁄2 × 5 ins. | |
| One pc. 1⁄2 -inch pine or white wood 91⁄2 × 41⁄2 ins. | |
| Two pcs. 1⁄2 -inch pine or white wood 51⁄4 × 41⁄2 ins. |
The first piece, 10 × 61⁄2 inches, was simply squared up for the bottom. The two pieces for the sides, 71⁄2 × 3 inches, were squared up, and one edge of each planed to a 45-degree bevel, to engage with the roof boards.
The latter were squared up, and nailed together at right angles with 11⁄4-inch brads.
The two ends, 51⁄2 × 41⁄2 inches, were carefully laid out as shown in the drawing, sawed, and planed to the lines with square edges.
In the end which was to contain the circular door a hole 13⁄4 inches in diameter was bored with its centre two inches from the bottom line. This required the services of the extension bit, and, to avoid splitting the wood, as soon as the spur of the bit showed on the further side, the wood was turned about, and the hole finished from the other side.
The house was next turned upside down, and fastened in the bench vise. Holes were drilled along the sides of the bottom piece 3⁄4 inch in from the edge—three on each side—countersunk, and the piece fastened to the sides with 1-inch No. 8 screws. The top pieces already nailed together were now nailed in position on the sides and ends with 1-inch brads.
Fig. 137. One family bird house, and house for high-hole
The pole they used was 13 feet long and about 3 inches in diameter at the small end. It was rounded at this end by using a draw knife. ([Fig. 138]). A block of 7⁄8-inch pine was bored out, and fitted snugly over the end of the pole. This block was then removed, and four holes bored through it for screws.
Fig. 138. The draw knife
Before replacing the block on the top of the pole a cut was made across the end of the pole about two inches deep, by means of the rip saw.
The block was replaced, and wooden wedges driven into the saw cut. This fastened the block securely on the end of the pole, and after making sure that it was level, the bird house was fastened to the block by four 11⁄4-inch screws from the under side.
A piece of sheet tin was wound around just under the house to discourage pussy, and the pole set into the ground about three feet, bringing the under side of the house ten feet above the ground.
A double or two-family house of similar proportions was built next, as shown in [Fig. 139]. The list of material called for:
| One pc. 1⁄2-inch wood 181⁄2 × 61⁄2 (bottom) | |
| One pc. 1⁄2-inch wood 181⁄2 × 51⁄2 (roof) | |
| One pc. 1⁄2-inch wood 181⁄2 × 41⁄2 (roof) | |
| Two pcs. 1⁄2-inch wood 151⁄2 × 3 (sides) | |
| Three pcs. 1⁄2-inch wood 51⁄4 × 41⁄2 (ends and partition) |
The construction was the same as before, each end having a door, and the partition of course being solid. The block for supporting the house on the pole was larger, being 8 × 5 × 11⁄4 inches, and called for six 11⁄2-inch No. 10 screws, to secure it to the under side of the floor. Harry wanted to make it more complete by adding a small wind vane, but Ralph said it might frighten the birds, so it was omitted.
Of course larger and more ornamental houses may be built, but where there are too many families in such close proximity there is apt to be trouble, while houses that are too conspicuous do not appeal to the beautiful American wild birds that we want to attract. With the English sparrow it does not matter so much. For these birds, a tenement house against the side of a barn may be built easily, in the form shown in [Fig. 139].
This may be made any length, each door leading to a compartment separated from the others by partitions. Make as many pieces plus one as there are to be compartments, apartments, or flats; have the bottom project as shown in side view for a perch and walk, and have the roof also project to shed rain.
If not fastened from the inside of the barn by stout screws, this house must be secured to a shelf, or by brackets.
Fig. 139. Two family house and tenement
The side view shows a simple shelf made of a back piece secured to the side of the barn by screws or nails, a plain shelf nailed to this back piece, and two wooden brackets. If iron brackets are used, both the shelf and back piece may be omitted, the brackets being fastened to the under side of the bird house and to the siding of the barn by screws.
For birds like the high-hole, or flicker, a piece of hollow log, or an elongated box fastened securely to the side of a pole, made cat proof, is very acceptable. This should not be painted, but should be provided with a door on the side and a perch. ([Fig. 137].) The opening should be about three inches for these large birds, and the location should be as secluded as possible. Any number of devices will suggest themselves, but always remember the cat, and study the location from the bird point of view. The martins and swallows are especially to be encouraged, as they are wonderful destroyers of insects.
Fig. 140. The bird bath
One device, especially grateful to these feathered friends in hot weather, is a pan of water, in a place where they can drink and bathe without being eternally on the watch for that crouching enemy, who is always stalking them—Tabby.
A pedestal with a platform about four feet above the ground will do nicely, and it can be placed so close to the house that you can watch them, and enjoy their ablutions almost as much as they do. ([Fig. 140].)
The construction is too simple to require an explanation.
[XXV]
SIMPLE ARTICLES FOR HOUSEHOLD USE
The boys thought it was about time to pay some attention to the wants of the family, who had been clamouring for weeks to have this article or that for the kitchen, dining room, and in fact for every part of the house.
Ralph was a wise teacher, however. He knew that the cause of ninety out of every hundred failures was due to the young mechanic's trying some problem too far advanced.
It seems strange that people cannot learn this lesson. We have seen hundreds of boys led along, say in carving, from one simple lesson to another, until at the end of five or six carefully graded exercises, these boys could carve beautifully any design given them.
On the other hand, we have seen boys start in on their own hook, without any direction from older people, and ruining everything they tried, simply because they wanted to do the most difficult thing first, before they had developed any skill.
Ralph was determined that his boy should be an expert and successful user of tools, so he paid no attention to the clamours of the family, and allowed Harry to make only those things which were within his power to do well. Each time a piece of work was finished, and inspected by the family, the universal chorus was something like this:
"Well, if he can make such a fine bird house, I don't see why he can't make half a dozen picture frames for these water colors," or, "If he can make such a fine pen tray, I don't see why he can't make a new stool for the piano!"
In vain Ralph explained that these things could be made in due time, that a picture frame required much more skill than a bird house, etc.
Their household articles commenced with a bread board for the kitchen. ([Fig. 141]). This gave Harry his first experience in planing a broad surface. He used jack and smoothing planes for the working face, and squared the rest of the board as he had smaller pieces. This required some time. The wood about the semi-circular top was removed with saw and chisel, the board held for the chiselling flat on the bench hook. After getting this curve as true as possible with the chisel, it was finished with a sand-paper block. A 1⁄2-inch hole was bored at the centre of the semi-circle to hang it up by, and the two lower corners were rounded with chisel and sand-paper. No sand-paper was used on the flat surface, as Ralph explained this was a board for cutting bread, and the grit from the sand-paper would become more or less embedded in the wood, and it would spoil the bread knife. Sand-paper is made of ground quartz, and it soon dulls the edge of a cutting tool.
Fig. 141. The bread board
The knife and fork box ([Fig. 142]) brought new problems. The list of material was:
| 1 pc. 111⁄2 × 31⁄4 × 1⁄2 | 2 pcs. 7 × 11⁄2 × 1⁄2 |
| 2 pcs. 14 × 11⁄2 × 1⁄2 | 1 pc. 12 × 61⁄2 × 1⁄4 |
It was made of white wood, and, after being assembled, was stained a rich brown by receiving two coats of bichromate of potash. This is a chemical, which may be bought at a paint or drug store in the form of crystals. These are dissolved in water, until the solution looks like pink lemonade. It can be applied with a brush, but each coat must be allowed to dry completely before the whole is sand-papered smooth with No. 0 sand-paper. A deeper brown can be obtained by adding one or two extra coats of stain.
Fig. 142. Method of using hand screws in the construction of a knife box
The middle partition containing the handle was made first. The drawing was laid out on the wood after it had been squared up, and two holes 1 inch in diameter were bored out at a a. The wood between was taken out with a key-hole saw, and finished to the line with chisel and knife. A turning saw can be used to advantage on this handle, but it is not absolutely necessary. Spaces b b were removed in the same way, but a knife was used in the concave part of the curve. If it is handy, a small spokeshave can be employed on the whole upper line of this handle.
Anything in the nature of a handle should be rounded to fit the hand. Edges c c were therefore rounded with the knife, and finished with coarse, followed by fine, sand-paper.
The two sides were laid out together as in the nail box, and the groove cut with back saw and 1⁄8-inch chisel.
The end pieces were made in a similar manner, and the bottom piece squared to 1⁄16-inch of finished size. The assembling consisted of first gluing together the sides and ends. Two hand screws were used to hold them. This was Harry's first attempt at using hand screws, and Ralph showed him the importance of keeping the jaws parallel.
The box remained in the hand screws over night, and the next day it was found to be securely fastened. The most convenient kind of glue for boys is the liquid sold in cans. It is always ready for use, and very handy where only a moderate quantity is needed.
Dry glue in the form of flakes, or granulated, must be soaked over night, and then heated in a pot having a double bottom with water in the lower part.
It should be put on hot with a brush or a small flat stick. The best glue is none too good, yet a good quality has wonderful holding power and should last indefinitely.
After removing the hand screws, the unfinished box was placed in the vise, tested with the edge of the plane, and made perfectly true, top and bottom.
The 1⁄4-inch bottom piece was now put on with one-inch brads, the sides and ends made square, the handle partition slipped into the grooves, and fastened with two brads at each end.
Fig. 143. Tool box
This knife box was so satisfactory that our young carpenters resolved to have a large one for tools. Whenever they had a job to do in the house, they were constantly running out to the shop for something, so that a tool box became a necessity.
The construction was similar to the knife box; but this was larger and heavier, and the dado joints at the ends were replaced by a butt joint fastened with flat-head screws. ([Fig. 143]). The bottom and partition were also put on with screws, on account of the weight to be carried.
Fig. 144. Another tool box
These tool boxes are frequently made in the shape shown in [Fig. 144], with sloping sides and ends called the hopper joint; but aside from the tool practice it affords, it is doubtful if the shape has advantage enough over the other form to warrant the extra time it takes. Man is an imitative creature, however, and what one carpenter has, the others copy.
The principal features about this useful article should be size and strength, especially in the handle, which should be of about 5⁄8 or 3⁄4 inch stock.
[XXVI]
THE MITRE BOX AND PICTURE FRAMES
It seemed to Harry that the shop was fairly well equipped, but Ralph insisted that they must have a mitre box before making anything else for the house.
The mitre box is, or should be, an instrument of precision, and although simple in construction, must be perfectly accurate, or it is useless. ([Fig. 145].)
The illustration shows the common form, but elaborate affairs of iron and wood can be bought ready made. Every boy should make his own, for the practice, if for nothing else. The sides should be made of oak 7⁄8 inch thick, 18 inches long, and 31⁄2 inches high, the bottom of 7⁄8-inch pine or other soft wood, the same size.
When squared up, the two sides must be tested by standing them side by side; then reverse one end for end, to see if they are alike. If not, find where the trouble is, and correct it.
It is especially important that the edges of the bottom piece be square and the sides perfectly parallel. This test can be made with the marking gauge. Sides are fastened on by boring and countersinking for three screws on each. After assembling, the whole thing must be tested as if it were a solid block. Top edges must be true and parallel.
Fig. 145. The 45° mitre box and test pieces
Near one end—about two inches in—lay out across the top with try square a line 90 degrees with the sides. Carry the line down each side, square with the top edges. For 45-degree angles, lay out a square by drawing two pencil lines across the top, as far apart as the finished mitre box is wide. Draw the two diagonals and square lines from their ends down both sides, taking care that their position is not over the screw in the bottom; because as the saw cuts deeper it may reach this screw and ruin its teeth.
Make the three saw cuts directly on the lines laid out with a cross cut or back saw, with the utmost care. If this is not done accurately, all the labour of preparation is wasted. The blank end of the mitre box may have an additional 90-degree cut, or be left for new cuts in the future, as a mitre box of this description wears out and becomes inaccurate.
Other angles may be used, as 60 degrees or 30 degrees, but it is better to have these on another box as they are used less, and for special purposes. ([Fig. 146].)
The mitre box is not ready to use until it has been thoroughly tested. Prepare a strip of soft wood—pine or white wood—11⁄2 inches wide and 1⁄2 inch thick. Cut four pieces from it on the mitre box, using the back saw as shown at a, with only one of the slits. Place these four triangular pieces together to form a square. All the four mitre joints of this square must fit perfectly. If they do not, mark the slit "N. G.," and test the other slit in the same way. If all right, mark "O. K." It often happens that one may be perfect and the other inaccurate. If they are both O. K., the box is ready for use. If one slit is useless, lay out and cut another on the blank end of the mitre box in the same direction, and test again.
Fig. 146. 30-60-90 mitre box
In testing a 30-degree cut three pieces of the strip should be sawed out, and when placed together they should form a perfect equilateral triangle, while from a 60-degree cut, six pieces are needed to form a hexagon.
These angles are valuable in inlaid work, and for getting out geometrical designs.
The 45-degree cut is indispensable in making the mitred corners of picture frames and in cabinet work.
In making picture frames of simple cross section, it is first necessary to cut the rabbet ([Fig. 147]) with a rabbet plane. If this moulding is made by hand, the size of the picture should be measured, the length of all four sides added, and a liberal allowance made for waste.
Fig. 147. Making picture frames
In the figure, the triangles a a are waste, the rabbet being indicated by the dotted line. After the four pieces have been sawed out on the mitre box, they should be placed together on a flat surface, such as the bench top or floor, to see if the mitres fit perfectly. If they do not, one of them can be block planed to make a perfect fit, and the other three laid close together, as shown in the illustration.
The assembling is the hardest part of the operation, and many devices have been tried and some patented to hold the parts together while the glue is drying.
Perhaps the surest way is to drill a hole in one piece of each joint large enough for the passage of a wire bung-head nail.
The undrilled piece is placed vertically in the vise. The drilled piece, after receiving a thin coat of glue, is brought into position horizontally, and the nail driven home.
Theoretically, the nail should catch at the first blow, but the horizontal piece will sometimes slip, even with the best of care. It is wiser to place this piece about 1⁄16 inch above its final position, to allow for this slip.
A method sometimes used is to glue near the ends of each piece a triangular block of wood, as shown at d. These must be left over night to harden.
The next day the whole four pieces can be glued and held together by four hand screws, as shown, until the glue is thoroughly hard. This method, of course, can only be used with plain moulding or that which is square on the outside.
Our boys tried another way that is commonly practised. They nailed oblong blocks to an old drawing board, as shown at e e, and then placed the picture frame in the centre, after gluing the joints, and driving wedges in between the blocks and the frame. Paper placed under each joint prevented the frame from being stuck to the drawing board by the glue forced out by the pressure.
This paper plan was learned by experience, as the first frame the boys tried had to be pried up from the board, and in so doing they broke it at two of the joints, so that it had to be made again.
It is well to remember in gluing mitre joints that end grain absorbs more glue than a flat surface. A priming coat should be applied first, and allowed to remain a few moments to fill up the pores. The second coat should hold fast and make a strong joint, but an excess of glue should always be avoided, as it must be removed after hardening, and glue soon takes the edge from the best of tools.
Very fancy frames should be avoided. A bevel on the outside or inside, or both, is about all the young woodworker should attempt in the way of ornamentation. Depend on the natural beauty of the wood, as a fancy frame draws the attention from the picture, which after all is the main thing. We should admire the man, not his clothes, the picture not its frame, although the latter should be neat and well made.
The finishing and polishing of frames is taken up in [Chapter XLIX].
[XXVII]
MAKING TOILET BOXES
To make a wooden box sounds like a simple proposition; but in making the drawing, the questions of size, proportion, joints, hinges, etc., immediately come up.
The size of course depends on the purpose of the box. If it is for ladies' gloves, it should be long and narrow; if for collars or handkerchiefs, square or nearly so. The height is nearly always made too great. In fact, the whole question of proportion is one which can hardly be taught; it must be felt, and different people have different ideas as to what constitutes good proportion.
Some hints, however, may be given: A box perfectly square does not look well. Again, dimensions that are multiples do not look well. A box 4 × 8 × 12 inches would not be nearly so pleasing as one 3 × 51⁄2 × 12 inches.
The proportions are also affected by the constructive details. Is the box to be flat on the sides and ends or is the top to project? etc.
Our boys argued and sketched and finally drew the design shown at [Fig. 148]. This was to hold ties. The top was to project and have a bevel, or chamfer, also the bottom. No hinges were to be used, but the cover was to have cleats fastened on the under side to keep it in place, and to prevent warping.
Fig. 148. Dado joint used in box design
The next question was the manner of fastening the sides and ends. On unimportant work, a butt joint with glue and brads can be used, but for a toilet article, the holes made by the brads, even if they are filled with putty, are not satisfactory.
So it was decided to use the dado joint as shown at a. This meant more fine work, but, as Ralph suggested, it was to last a lifetime, and should be made right.
Sides and ends were squared up, and the grooves on the side pieces laid out as in the nail box. The rabbets on the end pieces were cut out with the back saw and chisel. After the joints had been carefully fitted, the four pieces were glued together and placed in hand screws over night.
While the glue was hardening, the two pieces for the top and bottom were squared up and bevelled with the smoothing plane on the long sides, the block plane on the ends.
The cleats for the top were next made, drilled and countersunk for the screws as at b.
A careful full-sized drawing of half of the top was made, and a chip carving design drawn for it. The cleats were not put on until the carving was finished and short screws had to be used so they would not come through and spoil the surface.
The next day the body of the box was removed from the hand screws and squared with a smoothing plane. The top and bottom were put on with 1-inch brads. These were "set" with a nail punch to prevent any possible scratching and the whole box was rubbed down with wax dissolved in turpentine.
For fine cabinet work, the dovetail joint makes the most satisfactory method of fastening, but Harry was not yet skilled enough to do the fine work it demanded.
The second box was for handkerchiefs, dimensions 8 × 7 × 3 inches outside, and no overhang at either top or bottom. The construction brought in several new features. Sides and ends were dadoed together as in the first box.
The top and bottom, after being squared, were rabbeted on all four sides until they fitted snugly into the opening top and bottom. They were glued in these positions and placed in hand screws over night. ([Fig. 149].)
"How are you going to get into that box?" asked Harry. "You've closed it up solid and glued the top on."
"Wait and see," was all the satisfaction he got.
Fig. 149. The handkerchief box
The next day the hand screws were removed and the box squared up exactly as if it had been a solid piece of wood. Ralph then made two gauge lines around the four sides, 3⁄4 inch from the top and 1⁄8 inch apart. Then he cut the box in two between these two lines with a rip saw, after slightly rounding all corners except the bottom ones with a plane and sand-paper.
By this method, the box and cover must be exactly alike in outline, and by planing to the gauge lines, they will fit perfectly.
It only remained to hinge the two parts together, but this operation proved to be no slight task.
The body was placed in the vise and the cover laid upside down on the bench top. The two parts were brought together as shown at c, and the four knife lines laid out as shown with knife and try square.
The distance between the lines at a and b must be equal to the width of the hinge, and the wood between these lines removed to a depth equal to half the thickness of the hinge at its joint when closed. If too much is removed, the box will be "hinge bound" and will not close in front. If too little is taken out, it will close in front and have an open joint at the back. In the former case, a thickness or two of paper placed under the hinge will often be enough to make it close in front. In the latter case, of course more material must be cut out. It is a delicate operation, as the depth of these cuts for 1-inch hinges is only about 1⁄16 inch. It is a question of accuracy, pure and simple.
Holes for the screws can be made with a brad awl.
The boys made several boxes of various sizes and styles, some plain, some decorated with carving. Pyrography, or burnt work, is frequently used for decoration, and the best wood for this purpose is basswood, because of its white color, softness, and freedom from pitch.
Other woods may be burnt, but pine, which has veins of pitchy sap, is not suitable.
Fig. 150. A box for drawing instruments
A box for drawing instruments is shown in [Fig. 150]. Its outside dimensions are 9 × 51⁄4 × 21⁄2 inches. Our boys made theirs of gum wood because of the beauty of its colouring and its suitability for carving. The joints used and the method of construction were the same as in the handkerchief box, but it was provided with a tray for the instruments. This was one inch deep over all, and rested on two thin strips fastened to the ends inside. These strips were 41⁄4 × 1 × 1⁄4 inches, and, by raising the tray one inch from the bottom, left a space convenient for holding triangles, protractors, pencils, etc. The cover was decorated with a border and centre piece in chip carving.
The making of dovetailed boxes is taken up in Chapter [XXXV].
[XXVIII]
BRACKETS AND BOOK RACKS
Brackets are often required about the house for many purposes, and their size, shape, and decoration are infinite. There is even more fun in designing them than in making them. Tastes differ in this respect, as in everything else, and, given the problem, no two people will bring out the same design unless they simply copy something they have seen, which is not designing.
When our boys started to make brackets in response to urgent demands from the family, Ralph blocked out the sketch shown in [Fig. 151] at a.
"There is a bracket," he said; "it consists of three pieces, and properly put together it will hold what it is designed to hold. It is not a thing of beauty, and we must improve it. How? By changing its outline without impairing its strength. In other words, we must 'design' a bracket constructed of three pieces of wood put together at right angles. There's your problem; now take paper and pencil and let us see what you can do."
Fig. 151. Designs for wall brackets
"Oh, in this case, I'll leave it to your judgment."
For fully an hour, no sound was heard in the shop but that of two lead pencils. Harry was getting experience.
"Let me give you a pointer," said Ralph. "Don't try to draw both sides alike, as it is very difficult where you have free-hand lines. Draw a vertical line representing the centre. Sketch one half of the design, and when you have it about right, fold the paper on this centre line and trace the other half."
Harry went to work again and at the end of another hour produced the sketches shown in [Fig. 151].
Ralph criticised them all rather severely, and as Harry was tired, this treatment made him sulky.
"Don't get mad," said Ralph kindly; "you know designing is hard work and the only way you can learn is to have me help you by pointing out your weak spots. Artists are obliged to pay for criticism; you know I'm not finding fault."
"All right," said Harry, brightening up, "which one shall I make?"
"I think the one marked x is the best. Work it up more carefully, design the shelf and bracket and put on all the dimensions."
"The bracket? Why, what is this I have drawn?"
"That's the back piece that goes against the wall; the bracket piece supports the shelf, and remember when you make it in wood, the grain must always run the long way of each piece."
"Why?"
"I'll show you," said Ralph.
He cut out two pieces of wood about 8 × 1 × 1⁄2 inches, one with the grain running lengthwise and on the other the grain running the one-inch way. Handing the first piece to Harry, he said, "Let me see you break it with your hands."
The boy tried and failed. Handing him the second piece he said, "Now try this."
It broke so readily that Harry was astonished.
"That's why," said Ralph, "and that's all."
The three pieces as finally drawn are shown in [Fig. 151] at x. They were all cut out of gum wood with a coping saw, finished to the lines with chisel, spokeshave and sand-paper block, and put together with 3⁄4-inch brads. The nails were driven through the back into the bracket, the latter piece being held in the vise in a horizontal position. It was then shifted to a vertical position with the back piece to the left of the vise and the shelf nailed to the bracket. Two brads were also driven through the back into the shelf.
Brackets may be ornamented in many ways; by chip carving, pyrography, or by staining, but the decoration should be put on before assembling.
Another form is shown at b in which the back piece is not carried above the shelf, the latter piece resting on the top of the back. From a constructive standpoint this is a stronger form than the other, as part of the weight is carried by the back instead of by the brads alone.
Corner brackets are sometimes used and may be made in the form shown at c. Here we have two wall pieces and a V-shaped shelf, the V being a right angle. Again, the form may be so long as to require two brackets and it may then be considered a shelf.
In fastening any of these forms to a plastered wall, considerable care must be taken in placing the nails or screws so that they will engage in a stud instead of just in the plaster. The location of the studs can be found by tapping on the wall with the knuckle or lightly with a hammer. A surer way, however, is to find the nails in the picture moulding or base board and plumb from either of these places with a small weight—such as a nail—on a string.
The designing and making of book racks offer an almost endless field for the imagination. The rack may have a fixed length or be adjustable and either of these forms may have fixed or folding ends, and again the shapes of the ends may be varied in form and decorated in several ways.
Fig. 152. Types of book racks
Perhaps one of the simplest forms of folding book rack is shown in [Fig. 152], at a. The ends are sawed out of the bottom piece, pivoted with two 1⁄4-inch dowels and when stood upright the lower part strikes against a cleat, which acts as a rest for the rack and a stop for the end piece.
The weakness of most book racks lies in the gradual weakening of the ends at the joint so that the weight of the books makes them lean outward. This should be considered carefully in working up the design. One of the weakest forms perhaps is shown at b. Theoretically, this is all right, but in practice the ends soon bend or lean out. A skeleton form, making use of the halved joint, is shown at c.
The two long sides and two short ends are squared up and halved as shown. All the ends are bevelled. Holes are bored for the pivots—1⁄4-inch dowels—a distance from the cross pieces equal to half the thickness of the folding ends. This is to insure the ends standing perfectly upright against cross pieces. If this distance is greater than half the thickness, the ends will lean out, and if less than half, the ends cannot be gotten in place. The bottom of the ends must be rounded, or they will not fold over.
The construction is very simple, and requires little material. Another very ordinary method is shown at d. It is as common and simple as it is weak and unsatisfactory. The ends are placed on the bottom piece and hinged. If a cheap and quick method is desired, it would be better to place the hinges as shown at e, because then the tendency to tilt out is prevented by the pressure against the bottom piece as long as the screws hold.
A far better method is to mortise the shelf through the end pieces and fasten it with a good, healthy pin or wedge, as shown at f; and a still better plan is to have two mortises and two wedges, as shown at g.
In constructive design, nothing is lost by honesty. The ends in this case are held in place by pins, so instead of hiding the fact, emphasize it by making these pins big and strong enough to do their work. The rack may be further strengthened by adding corner brackets at h.
Having decided on the construction, the form of the ends may be taken up. This is affected somewhat by the construction, but some of the outlines tried by our boys and suggestive to other boys are shown at 1, 2, 3.
They used two distinct kinds. One was characterized by straight lines. These they decorated with chip carving. The other style was distinguished by curved outlines, and decorated by outlines made with the veining tool, and by staining the figures in various colours.
The stains they used were oil colours thinned with turpentine so as to bring out the grain of the wood, rather than to hide it, as in painting, and care was taken to tone down these colours to dull reds, browns, greens, and grays. For staining and polishing, turn to [Chapter XLIX].
[XXIX]
CONSTRUCTION
Fig. 153
The study of construction includes many items such as strength, proportion, joints, etc. If we look at the roof timbers shown in outline at a ([Fig. 153]), the interesting parts of the construction are the three spaces enclosed by circles. The straight lines between these circles do not interest us very much, but the parts enclosed do. Immediately the question arises, how are the timbers fastened at these places? In other words, what kind of joint is used? The joint then is the critical part, or we might say the cream of the construction.
A very large number of joints are in use, but many of them are rare. Our grandfathers, who built their houses and barns from oak timbers hewn out with the axe, commonly used the mortise and tenon, fastened with a generous hard wood pin, and many of them are still standing after a century or two of hard usage. The fact that the beams were rough hewn, instead of sawed, did not in any way affect their strength, because they made good, strong joints.
Some of the more common joints are shown in the accompanying illustrations, and may be used for reference.
No. 1. A butt joint in which the two pieces are fastened together, end to end, by means of glue and dowels. It should be used only in cases where there is little strain in the direction of the two pieces.
No. 2. A dowel joint joining two pieces at right angles. One form of it is shown at No. 3 applied to the leg of a table.
No. 4. Shows two pieces fastened edge to edge by dowels. This joint is often made without the dowels; the two strips, after jointing or fitting, being glued and rubbed together—sometimes called a rubbed joint.
No. 5. A butt joint fastened by nails, brads, or screws, common in box construction.
No. 6. A butt joint where the pieces are not at right angles, owing to the slant. This is called the hopper joint and it is fastened with nails or brads.
No. 7. End lap. A joint much used in house framing.
Fig. 154. Joints used in construction
Fig. 154a. Joints used in construction (continued)
No. 8. Shows the lap joint used for splicing two pieces lengthwise. It needs to be nailed or bolted to prevent pulling apart.
No. 9. A middle lap joint.
No. 10. Dovetail lap or lap dovetail. This form resists pulling apart and is a combination of lap and dovetail joints.
No. 11. Shows a modification of the same, only one side being dovetailed.
Fig. 154b. Joints used in construction (continued)
No. 12. Halved joint. Both pieces are cut out to half their thickness, and a width equal to that of the other piece. The pieces may be at right angles or some other angle, as shown at No. 13.
No. 13. Halved joint at 45 degrees.
No. 14. Lock joint. This is a form of lap joint rarely used. It resists pulling apart, but should be glued on account of shrinkage.
No. 15. Notched joint; used where two pieces cross, and where full halving is not desirable, as in the sketch of pergola.
No. 16. Rabbeted or gained joint.
No. 17. Dado joint.
No. 18. Gained or housed joint.
No. 19. Through mortise and tenon, used in furniture construction and building.
Note—16, 17, 18 are often confused, and are named differently by mechanics. They are used in boxes, and cabinet work.
No. 20. Blind mortise and tenon, same as No. 19, except that the tenon does not go through and is invisible. These two joints may be fastened with glue, and are often strengthened by passing a dowel through at right angles to the tenon. Another method is to make two or more saw cuts in the tenon, and drive wedges into the cuts.
In door construction, where the rails meet the stiles, the tenon is often divided, as shown by the dotted line. The two parts fitted into separate mortises give the appearance of two distinct tenons on the edge of the door.
No. 21. Relished mortise and tenon or door joint, a form used at the corners of doors.
No. 22. End mortise and tenon. The tenon is seen on two sides. Used for frames of various kinds.
No. 23. The mitre joint, used in picture frames, picture moulding, interior finish of houses, etc.
No. 24. Lap mitre joint; a combination of end lap and mitre; rarely used.
No. 25. Stretcher joint; a combination of end lap, mitre, and end mortise and tenon; used by artists for frames on which their canvas is fastened. The stretching is done by driving wedges from the inside.
No. 26. Dovetail; used as a splice.
No. 27. Single open dovetail for two pieces at right angles. When two or more are cut in the same place, we have the open or box dovetail.
No. 28. Box dovetail; used in cabinet work and boxes.
No. 29. Half-blind dovetail. The dovetails are seen from only one side; used in cabinet work, especially in drawer construction.
No. 30. Blind dovetail. When the two pieces are together, the dovetails are invisible. This joint calls for very accurate work. It is used in special cases, where strength is required, and yet it is desirable to hide the form of construction.
No. 31. Trick dovetail; not used in construction, and only of interest as a curiosity. The four sides of this trick combination are apparently exactly alike. It seems impossible for them to have been put together, and to bring out the effect it is well to have one piece in light-coloured wood, the other dark. The method of laying out and cutting is shown in the illustration. The dovetails that appear on the surface are only oblique sections of dovetailed-shaped tongues and grooves running diagonally from face to face.
No. 32. Another trick. This at first sight appears like a lap dovetail, but the end view shows another dovetail, making it apparently impossible to put together. The construction is shown clearly in the drawing. It is of no value in constructive work.
No. 33. Splice or scarf joint; used in framing, occasionally; of little value to boys.
No. 34. Tongue and groove joint; used in flooring and for sheathing.
Scores of other joints might be shown, but they are seldom used, and are of no value to amateur mechanics.
[XXX]
THE USE OF THE GOUGE
"There is one tool you have not learned to use," said Ralph, one day, "and I think that it is about time you tried it."
Fig. 155. The gouge
"What tool is that?" asked Harry.
"The gouge ground or bevelled on the outside." ([Fig. 155].)
"What is it used for?"
"For cutting concave curves, especially those below the surface. Suppose you practise on a piece of white wood."
A piece of white wood was squared up, a foot long and 11⁄2 inches square. The lines shown in the figure were laid out with the pencil. The marking gauge is not suitable for this work, as it makes a sharp cut in the surface just where the edge is to come, so that after the gouge work is finished, it would show this edge split by the gauge mark. ([Fig. 156].)
Fig. 156. Practise cuts with the gouge
The two grooves from end to end were first cut, removing a quarter circle, the curve being drawn on the ends by a pair of compasses or dividers. This gave excellent practice in freehand work, calling for good control over the hands, and a constant watching of the grain to prevent splitting.
Fig. 157. An example of gouge work
The other two grooves or coves were next tried. Extra care had to be exercised here to prevent taking off the ends.
To give the boy further practice, the simple pen tray shown in [Fig. 157] was sketched out, and the stock squared up.
The gouge work in this exercise was entirely beneath the surface, and to make the tool work true to the drawing, a depth gauge was made as shown at a. This was simply a straight piece of waste wood with a brad driven into it, carefully, until the head was the same distance above the surface as the depth of the groove called for in the drawing.
By inverting the gauge and running the brad head along the bottom of the groove, the depth could be gauged accurately. The wooden strip must rest on the surface at both sides of the groove, and the brad head just touches the bottom at the same time.
After the gouge work had been carried as far as possible, the groove was finished by sand-papering, first with No. 11⁄2 and then with No. 0 sand-paper.
In laying out bevelled edges on a piece of this character, the same objection to the marking gauge holds as for gouged grooves. Ralph showed the boy a simple method of making a gauge for pencil lines to overcome this difficulty. He cut out a piece of white pine shaped as shown at b. The distance from the shoulder to the point of the V was equal to the width of the desired bevel or chamfer. The stock must be held in the vise, as both hands are required in the drawing of the lines. To make the width of the bevel greater, simply cut the shoulder further back with a knife, and to reduce the size, cut the V further in toward the shoulder. This is a very convenient and inexpensive device, quickly made.
A more pretentious project was tried next ([Fig. 158], a), which provides for a round ink bottle, and demands some nice chisel work. In the first pen tray the bevels had been all planed. On this second one, only three could be cut that way, as the one on the back had to be chiselled. The successive steps in the construction were as follows:
1. Square up stock.
2. Lay out the drawing on the wood.
3. Bore the hole for ink well half way through the wood with extension bit.
4. Smooth the bottom of the hole with chisel, holding it bevel down.
5. Gouge out the groove and gauge the depth.
6. Sand-paper the groove.
7. Cut out the outline of the back with the back saw and chisel.
8. Cut all the bevels, doing the back part—the most difficult—first.
9. Draw chip carving design.
10. Do the carving.
11. Rub down with wax dissolved in turpentine.
12. Insert ink well.
Design No. 3, shown at b ([Fig. 158]), called for molded edges, places for two square ink wells, and a simple carved design in the flat space between them. The process in this case was as follows:
1. Square up.
2. Lay out the work from drawing.
3. Cut out squares 1⁄4 inch deep with socket chisel and mallet.
4. Gouge groove.
5. Make moulded edges by first gouging the quarter circle shown in detail drawing, and doing the long sides with the grain first. Next remove the rest of the wood outside the curved outline with smoothing plane on long sides, block plane on ends. Sand-paper the groove and moulded edges.
6. Lay out and execute carving.
7. Rub down with wax or raw linseed oil.
8. Insert ink wells.
Fig. 158. Pen and ink trays
In place of carving this inkstand, an inlaid design could have been used, and the whole piece highly polished, but our boy had not yet had any practice in inlaying or polishing, so he used sweet gum wood and a chip carving design. Later on he made others out of black walnut and mahogany, and gave them a high polish. See [Chapter XXXVI] for inlaying and [XLIX] for polishing.
A very nice little problem in gouge work is shown in [Fig. 159], a pen tray pure and simple, with no provision for ink wells.
The only new feature is the under cutting of the outside. The steps for this are:
1. Square up.
2. Lay out from a centre line, drawn completely around the block lengthwise, and draw with compasses and rule both top and bottom.
Fig. 159. The pen trap
3. Gouge groove.
4. Plane the long sides to outline of top and bottom lines.
5. Cut ends with back saw and chisel to semicircles on top and bottom.
6. Round upper edge with spokeshave, chisel and knife.
7. Sand-paper with coarse, followed by fine, sand-paper.
8. Polish or wax finish.
Perhaps the most severe test for gouge work is the pin tray shown at [Fig. 160]. This is something which could be made more cheaply and in less time from metal, but a skilful and careful boy can do it successfully in a hard wood, such as maple. The process is similar to the pen tray. The drawing is laid out on the squared stock, and the bowl cut out with the gouge.
The outside is best executed with a template, or better, two—one for the lengthwise section and one for the width. A template is a form cut out of thin wood or metal; in this case 1⁄8-inch wood should be used. By frequently holding these templates to the work, it may be quickly seen where the material is to be removed.
Fig. 160. The pin tray. A fine test of gouge work
When the outside of the tray fits the templates, it is ready for sand-papering, and not before. To make the tray perfect, an inside template can be used. This template method is used in forming boat models.
[XXXI]
COAT HANGER AND TOWEL ROLLERS
The coat hanger is a convenient thing in every household, and also a good example of spokeshave work.
A soft wood, like pine, or white wood, is suitable, and after squaring up two faces and one edge, the design may be drawn on one or both of the faces with a sharp pencil. Cut close to the lines with a turning saw, and finish to lines with spokeshave.
Fig. 161. The coat hanger
The upper edge is next rounded with the spokeshave ([Fig. 161]), and finished with sand-paper to the cross section shown in the drawing. Bore a hole for the hook with a gimlet bit, and make the hook from strong brass wire, shaped by bending with a pair of pliers. For finishing, two coats of shellac can be used. The first coat after hardening is sand-papered flat with No. 00 sand-paper; the second may be treated in the same way, or rubbed down with ground pumice stone and linseed oil. (See [polishing chapter].)
For the kitchen, the towel roller is still used to some extent, especially in the country and suburbs. It consists of four pieces, a back, two brackets, and the roller. These essential parts are shown in [Fig. 162] and the back and brackets may be modified and improved as shown at b and c.
Carving can be used in a simple form on the ends, as shown at c. The back and ends are cut out with the usual tools, but it is wise, in cutting the outline of the ends, to glue them together with a piece of paper between, cutting both at the same time. This insures their being exactly alike, and when finished they may be easily separated by inserting the blade of a knife between them. The paper will split, half coming off on each piece.
After the paper and glue have been planed off, a hole is bored half way through each end from the inside. On one end it is necessary to cut a groove of the same width and depth as the hole, clear up to the top, so that the roller can be inserted after assembling, and a towel be put over it. The ends are fastened with two flat-head screws each, by boring through the back, and countersinking.
Two holes should also be bored through the back for fastening it to the wall.
The roller may be turned on a lathe or made at the bench by the following method:
1. Square up the stock to the diameter of the roller called for in the drawing.
2. Find the exact centre of each end by drawing the diagonals with a pencil.
3. Draw a circle on each end from these centres of full diameter.
4. Bore a hole at each of these centres 3⁄8-inch diameter, and about an inch deep.
5. Plane off the four corners down to the circle to produce an octagonal form.
6. Plane off the eight corners, using as a stop a small piece of wood fastened in the vise. Hold the roller against this stop, and allow the stock to rest over the open space in the vise. Continue to plane off the edges as long as they are large enough to see or feel.
7. Sand-paper with coarse, followed by fine, sand-paper.
8. Glue into the holes in the ends pieces of dowel long enough to project out about half an inch.
9. Allow the glue to harden over night, and saw off the dowels next day to the proper length. Cut a slight bevel on the end of each dowel with the knife.
If any carving is to be done on the ends, it must be cut before they are screwed to the back piece.
Fig. 162. The towel roller
This method of producing a cylinder without a turning lathe can be used in a number of ways. For example, boys living in the city, where a pull-up bar has to be located in the house, can easily make one in this way, and fasten it between the door jambs at a convenient height.
The blocks for supporting it can be made, as shown in [Fig. 163], three inches each way and 1⁄2 inch thick. Oak is the best wood for this purpose. It is strong enough, and can be stained to match the door frame.
Bore and countersink four holes for 11⁄4-inch flat-head screws.
Fig. 163. The pull-up bar
To prevent the bar turning, after it has been planed round and about 1⁄8 inch shorter than the space between the jambs, lay out a one-inch square on each end. Cut out with a back saw, and chisel until it just fits the square opening in the blocks. This bar can be taken out and stored in a closet, when not in use, and the blocks will never be in the way.
If the bar is so loose in the blocks that it has a tendency to spring out when you jump for it, a flat piece of oak can be screwed across the top, as shown in the illustration.
Fig. 164. The hatchet handle. An example of spokeshave work
This is an excellent, if limited, gymnasium for those who get little exercise and whose time and space are limited. Every boy ought to be able to "chin the bar" at least six or seven times without letting go.
Round objects with a taper, such as pointers and musicians' batons, can be made by this method, always getting the taper in the square form first, then planing off corners, etc. It is really work for a turning lathe, but one must work with such tools as he can afford to purchase.
Fig. 165. The hammer handle
Many useful articles of oval or elliptical cross section can be made at a bench which could not be made on an ordinary lathe. The hatchet handle shown in [Fig. 164] is a good example. The wood used should be strong and tough, such as hickory or maple. After squaring up the stock to the over all dimensions, the outline is drawn on both flat faces, and sawed close to the lines with turning saw, finished with drawing knife and spokeshave. The oval or elliptical forms are then drawn on the ends, the corners rounded with spokeshave to these curves, and the whole finished with sand-paper.
The hammer handle ([Fig. 165]) is made in the same manner.
Fig. 166. Sugar scoop
The woodworkers of Northern Europe make many household utensils in this way. The sugar scoop and the wooden ladle, shown in [Figs. 166] and [166 a], are familiar examples. In these two cases, the bowl is work for the gouge, while in rounding, some of the surfaces are done with the file. On general principles, it is not wise to get into the habit of using a file on wood, except in rare cases where the material is very hard, such as maple, beech, and similar woods.
Fig. 166a. Wooden ladle
The towel rack shown in [Fig. 167] is suitable for the bath or bed room, and can readily be made by any boy.
Fig. 167. The towel rack
The back piece is made with plane and chisel. The straight bevels are cut with the smoothing plane, and the curves with the chisel. The two openings or mortises should be laid out and cut before the ends are rounded. The wood is removed by boring several small holes within the lines, and finishing to line with a chisel and mallet. The two supports, or brackets, involve nothing new, and after being finished are glued into mortises.
The towel sticks may be ten inches or more in length, squared up to 7⁄8 inch × 1⁄2 inch. The taper begins two inches from the bored end, and from this point is planed in a straight line to 3⁄8 inch square at the small end. The rounding is done in the same manner as in the towel roller, the tips rounded with a knife, and the whole piece sand-papered smooth.
The three sticks are held between the two supports and a 3⁄8-inch dowel passed through the five holes, which should of course be in line.
The ends of this dowel can be split before they are placed, and then in the final position small thin wedges can be driven in with a little glue.
[XXXII]
CLOCK CASES
Among small articles for household use the clock case is a popular model, and the designs range from the mission style, characterized by straight lines and plain surfaces, up to elaborate attempts at imitating in miniature the old-fashioned tall "grandfather's clock."
While an ordinary alarm clock may be used for the clock proper, the small size nickeled clock, 21⁄4 inches outside diameter, is more satisfactory and very reliable. It costs about seventy-five cents.
In designing the frame, or case, structural items must be considered first. The clock needs a platform to stand on, there must be a circular opening just large enough for the face to fit, and the structure requires an opening in the back, so that the clock may be wound or removed.
With these facts as a basis, the form can be sketched out.
[Fig. 168] shows, perhaps, the simplest style, on the mission order. The design of the front becomes a matter of proportion, and the dimensions given are only suggestions which the young designer can modify to meet his own ideas, keeping in mind that on horizontal members, if there is any difference in size, the upper ones should be the smaller.
Simple as this design appears, if put together by mortise and tenon, with provision made for the panelled front and sides, it will call for fine work. As there is no great question of strength involved, the following method will do for making this case. It will be called heretical by expert woodworkers, but is practicable and easy from the boy's point of view.
Square up a piece of 1⁄4-inch stock 4 inches wide and 13 inches long. Saw out two pieces for the panels 21⁄2 inches long.
Clamp the front piece to a strip of scrap wood as a backing, and bore a hole for the clock face with an expansive bit. Fasten the front to the end pieces by 3⁄4-inch brads, as shown in a. In the same manner nail the top and bottom pieces to the front and ends, making a box of 1⁄4-inch wood, with the back open.
The legs, made 3⁄4 inch square with a 1⁄4-inch rabbet cut out as shown at a, may now be glued on and fastened with two 1-inch brads driven in from the ends. The horizontal rails are cut and fitted to the front and ends and glued in position.
Fig. 168. Mission style clock case
If brads are used, they must be set, and the holes filled with putty, coloured to correspond with the wood used. If the legs of the clock are too short to rest on the bottom, add a shelf, or glue on a block of pine thick enough to bring the clock to the proper level.
If the case is made of hard wood, polish it to a dead flat finish. This design, however, gives a splendid opportunity to ornament ends and front with chip carving, for which gum wood will be suitable.
A clock case which can be easily upset is to be avoided, and therefore these long low designs are to be recommended, when the clock is to stand on a mantel, shelf, or bureau. If the clock is to hang on the wall the designs immediately change. The cuckoo clock is a familiar example.
Our boys wrestled with the problem of a wall clock, and their efforts to create something new brought forth considerable mental perspiration. It is always an easy matter to copy something one has seen, but that is not designing.
The result of Harry's efforts is shown in [Fig. 169]. After drawing the circles with a pair of compasses, the rest of the figure was sketched out free-hand about a centre line.
When it was fairly satisfactory, the two sides of the lower half were equalized and traced for the upper half. It was then measured, and the main dimensions added to the drawing.
This drawing represented only the front. The back, or wall piece, had to be a duplicate of it as far as outline was concerned, and a plain box of 1⁄4-inch wood, to hold the clock, joined these two parts, as in previous models.
Fig. 169. The boys' first design for a clock case
This is the order of construction:
Saw out stock for front and back pieces 15 × 43⁄4 × 1⁄4 inches. Draw two centre lines, one the 4-inch way, the other the 15-inch way. At the point where they cross, bore the hole for the clock face, after drawing all the circles with the compasses.
Draw outline, or trace it from original drawing, upon the surface of the wood. Saw out close to outside lines, and finish to lines with spokeshave, chisel and sand-paper block.
Bevel the clock opening 1⁄8 inch with knife, and smooth with sand-paper. The curved lines inside of the outer edge are worked out with a veining tool.
The back piece is made in the same way, but the central opening is bored larger than the front one, to allow the clock to be withdrawn or wound. The square box, joined to these two main pieces by means of cleats, completes the structure. On account of the long overhang of the front beyond the box, two cylindrical supports of the same material as the case can be glued between front and back, to add strength.
Fig. 170. Pendulum form of clock case
Owing to the symmetry of the design, this case can be hung horizontally or vertically according to the wall space it is to occupy. The method of fastening should be a screw eye at the top of the case and screw hook or nail in the wall, as it will be necessary to remove the clock each time it is wound. If placed horizontally two hooks and eyes will be needed, one at each end. [Fig. 170] shows another wall design in which the clock forms the centre of the pendulum and rests in a box of hexagon shape. This is made from a strip two inches wide, the pieces cut on a 60-degree mitre box with back saw, each piece 11⁄4 inches long on the short side.
It will just hold a clock 21⁄8 inches in its largest diameter. When the face of this clock frame is bored, and the outline finished in the usual way, it is fastened to the hexagonal box by cleats.
In order to do this accurately, turn the face upside down on the bench, place the box in position, and mark with a pencil all around the hexagon. The cleats must be fastened on the back, close up to the pencil line, with glue and brads, so carefully that the brads shall not be long enough to come through to the surface in front. When dry, insert the box between the cleats, and make fast with glue and brads. The long part of the pendulum can be either carved or polished plain. The 3⁄8-inch hole bored in the upper part fits over a screw hook, which should project at least an inch from the wall. To have the clock hang perfectly plumb, this hook should project 23⁄8 inches.
Another form of mantel clock is suggested in [Fig. 171]. It is radically different from the others, and is characterized by a long, low, and massive base cut from a solid piece of wood 13⁄4 inches thick or built up of two 7⁄8-inch pieces of red gum, black walnut, or mahogany. The outline having been drawn on the planed surface, one must saw as close to the line as possible, and finish the line with chisel, gouge, file, and sand-paper. The circular piece, which is to enclose the clock, is cut from a block of the same material, two inches thick. Draw the two circles, and bore the inner one with an extension bit, unless a turning lathe is available. In that case the circular block can be turned with great accuracy. The outline can be cut with the chisel after being sawed close to the line, and finished in the same way as the base.
Fig. 171. Mantel clock
Glue this block in position, resting it in the semicircular opening provided in the base, and making it project 1⁄8 or 1⁄4 of an inch beyond the front surface of the base. Polish to a dead, flat finish.
As the clock is to fit snugly into the opening, the legs, and the handle at the top, must be removed.