MARC, OR POMACE—PIQUETTE.
Marc, or Pomace, is the residue remaining in the vat after the fermentation of red wine, or in the press, in making white wine. After being pressed, it is used in many parts of France to make a weak wine called piquette, for the use of the laborers. For this purpose are utilized all the soluble principles remaining in the marc, by the following treatment:
1. The Unfermented Pomace of White or of Red Wine not Entirely Fermented, is well broken and crumbled up so as to finely divide it, and introduced into tuns, which are then completely filled with water, or into a fermenting vat, adding double its weight of water. After giving it a thorough stirring and mixing, the first piquette is drawn off. After a maceration of three or four days, renewing the water several times, the saccharine matter and soluble salts which the marc contains are completely removed. Piquette is fermented in casks and cared for like new wine. The weakest is first consumed.
Or the marc may be pressed and put into barrels, keeping it in as solid a mass as possible; the surface is then covered with sand and the casks closed air-tight. Piquette may then be made as needed, using the marc of one cask, washing with water till it is exhausted.
2. The Fermented Marc of Red Wine is treated as follows: After pressing, it is immediately put into a large vat. Double its weight of water is added, and after a complete stirring, it is allowed to macerate one or two days at most. The first piquette is then drained off, and water is put in several times till the soluble matters are removed.
Pressed marc is also used for forage, mixing it with half the quantity of hay.
As for making wine from marc by adding sweetened water. (See [Watering and Sugaring Must].)
The following method of washing the marc is from an article on the Distillation of Marc, by J. Pezeyre, printed in Le Parfait Vigneron, Almanach du Moniteur Vinicole, 1881:
Six vats or barrels are set up side by side, each provided with a faucet, and a movable cover. The faucet is protected inside, as in the case of the ordinary fermenting vat.
To thoroughly exhaust the marc, it should be washed with six times its weight of water, or 100 lbs. of pomace require 72 gallons of water.
The vats being arranged, are charged with marc, which is pressed down till it fills the vat to within about ten inches of the top. The marc is kept submerged in the usual way, by a false, perforated head.
The first vat is filled with cold water, and left to rest for two hours. The liquid is then drawn off and filled into vat No. 2. No. 1 is then refilled with fresh water. When the liquid in No. 2 has remained for two hours, it is drawn off and put into No. 3. No. 1 is then emptied into No. 2, and filled with water a third time. The maceration in No. 3 having continued for two hours, its liquid is drawn off and poured into No. 4; No. 3 is filled from No. 2, and this from No. 1, which is filled the fourth time with water. No. 5 is filled from No. 4, and each vat is filled from the preceding one, until No. 1 has received in water six times the weight of the marc contained in it.
The liquid from No. 5 is poured into No. 6, and after two hours is drawn from this last vat into the still.
When the wine has been drawn from the last vat, the marc in No. 1 having been washed six times with its weight of water, is exhausted of all its alcohol. It is then refilled with marc, and becomes No. 6 of the series, and is filled with the liquid from No. 5. Each number is thereby carried around the circle, becoming successively No. 6.
In this way the pomace is, little by little, deprived of its alcohol, and the liquid coming from No. 6 is rich in spirit, and when delivered to the still is nearly equal in strength to the original wine.
When there is but little marc to operate upon, the liquid may be drawn off into buckets, and so filled into the vats; but time and labor may be saved by using a pump and hose.
CHAPTER XIX.
THE COMPOSITION OF WINE.
Generally.—Wine is not only composed of alcohol and water, which are the two most prominent ingredients, but a great number of other substances have been recognized, and others still are supposed to exist. Some substances which are found in one wine may not exist in another, or it may exist in a greater or less quantity. We know that alcohol, water, and acids exist in all wines, in varying quantities; that some are sweet, and contain sugar, and that others are dry, thoroughly fermented, and contain none. We also know that the alcohol in different wines may vary from 4 or 5 per cent. in piquette made by washing the pomace with water, to 20 or 25 per cent. in the more strongly fortified. And we know generally how a wine is modified as to its taste and effect on the system, by such substances as water, alcohol, sugar, and acid; but there are many substances whose effect is but little known, and others again only known by their effects. The science of chemistry has not yet been able to lay hold of them.
Substances Recognized.—The following table from Maumené indicates the different substances contained in different wines, the letter F indicating those produced by fermentation, the others existing in the juice of the grape. It will be observed that the amount of acid tartrate of potash (cream of tartar) mentioned is 5.5 grammes per litre at most, and this is the quantity contained in a new wine, old wines containing only one or two grammes per litre, and even less. This salt is contained in the grapes, and is soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol, and, therefore, the greater part of it is precipitated as the alcohol increases by fermentation, and is deposited with the lees. The Report of the University of California, Department of Agriculture, referred to in the preface, shows the amount contained in different California wines and their lees.
| Grammes. | ||||||
| Neutral Bodies. | Water | 9 volumes, | 900 to 891 | |||
| Common Alcohol (Absolute or Pure), | F. 1 volume, | 80 to 79 | ||||
| Other Alcohols (Butyric, Amylic, etc.) | F. | |||||
| Aldehydes (several?) | F. | |||||
| Ethers (Acetic, Butyric, œnanthic, etc.), | ||||||
| contributing principally to the bouquet | F. | |||||
| Essential Oils (several) | ||||||
| Grape Sugar (Dextrose and Levulose) | ||||||
| Mannite | F. | |||||
| Mucilage, Gum, and Dextrin | ||||||
| Pectin | ||||||
| Coloring Matters (œnocyanine) | ||||||
| Fatty Matters (and Wax?) | ||||||
| Glycerin | F. | |||||
| Nitrogenous Matters (Albumin, Gliadin, etc.) Ferments | ||||||
| Vegetable. | Acid Tartrate of Potash (5.5 grammes at most) | |||||
| Neutral Tartrate of Lime | ||||||
| ““Ammonia | ||||||
| Salts. | Acid Tartrate of Alumina (simple, or with Potash.) | |||||
| Acid Tartrate of Iron (simple, or with Potash.) | ||||||
| Racemates | ||||||
| Acetates, Propionates, Butyrates, Lactates, etc. | F. | — 20-30 | ||||
| Mineral. | Sulphates | |||||
| Nitrates | ||||||
| Phosphates | With a base of Potash, | |||||
| Silicates | Soda, Lime, Magnesia, | |||||
| Chlorides | Alumina, Oxide of Iron, | |||||
| Bromides | Ammonia | |||||
| Iodides | ||||||
| Fluorides | ||||||
| Free Acids.— | Carbonic (2.5 grammes at most) | F. | ||||
| Tartaric and Racemic (Gluco-tartaric?) | ||||||
| Malic | ||||||
| Citric | ||||||
| Tannic | ||||||
| Metapectic | F. | |||||
| Acetic | F. | |||||
| Lactic | F. | |||||
| Succinic | F. | |||||
| Butyric | F. | |||||
| Valeric? | F. | 1000-1000 | ||||
A few of the more important ones will be briefly noticed.
Alcohol is considerably lighter than water, and from the specific gravity of any mixture of alcohol and pure water, the quantity of spirit contained in it can readily be ascertained. (See [Table IV].)
Fig. 43.
French Still.
To Ascertain the Alcoholic Strength of Wine, if it consisted of a mixture of water and alcohol alone, it would only be necessary to learn its specific gravity; but as all wines contain other substances which affect the weight of the liquid, it becomes necessary to separate the alcohol from the other matters by distillation; then by adding water enough to make up the original volume of the wine assayed, we will have simply a mixture of alcohol and water.
Small stills are sold in the market, with the necessary instruments accompanying them, with which to perform the operation. In the accompanying figure [(43)], which shows a French still, L is a spirit lamp, B a glass boiler with a perforated stopper, S a worm, contained in the cooler D, which is kept filled with cold water, as a condenser; t is a rubber tube connecting the boiler with the condenser, tightly fitted to the stopper of the former, and also to the end of the worm. E is a small hydrometer-jar, of glass, with a foot, for measuring the wine to be distilled, and for catching the distillate as it runs from the worm. It has three marks—the upper one, m, indicating the height to which it is to be filled with the wine, and also a ½ mark and a ⅓ mark. Sometimes it is provided with a groove along one side to carry the thermometer. A represents the hydrometer, or alcoholometer, being a spindle, usually of glass, similar in form to the saccharometer (which see), except that the zero mark to which the alcoholometer sinks in distilled water, is at the lower end of the stem, and the degrees are numbered from zero to the upper end, each figure representing one per cent. of alcohol. T is a thermometer, in its place in the jar with the hydrometer; t′ is a small glass pipette to assist in filling the jar just to the mark.
To make use of the instruments, measure in the jar, E, the wine to be distilled, by filling it up exactly to the upper mark, m, using the pipette, t′, by which a little of the liquid can be sucked up, and let out, drop by drop, by increasing and diminishing the pressure of the finger applied to the upper opening. The wine so measured is poured into the boiler, B, draining out the last drop, or the little remaining may be rinsed out with a little water, which is poured into the boiler with the wine without affecting the result. The boiler is then placed over the lamp and connected with the condenser by means of the rubber tube, and the condenser filled with cold water. Light the lamp, and place the now empty jar under the lower end of the worm. The vapor of the alcohol first passing from the boiler through the rubber tube into the condenser, will there condense, and the liquid running from the worm into the test tube will be almost pure alcohol, but as the process goes on, more and more water comes out with the alcohol, till the spirit has all passed over. If the strength of the wine does not exceed 14 or 15 per cent., the alcohol will all have passed over when one-third of the wine has been distilled, as will be shown when the distillate reaches the ⅓ mark on the glass. If the strength exceeds the above limit, one-half of the wine should be distilled. If, therefore, on testing the wine, it is found to contain 16 per cent. or more of spirit, and only one-third was distilled, another quantity should be distilled, and about one-half allowed to pass over. It is always safer, unless the wine is very weak, to distil over a little more than a third. If you are operating on a wine which foams to such an extent that a portion may pass through the tube into the condenser, which would spoil the effect of the operation, this may be prevented by putting into the boiler with the wine a pinch of tannic acid. In operating on a wine which contains an appreciable amount of acetic acid—is pricked—the acid ought to be neutralized before distillation, as it is volatile, and will go over with the alcohol and effect the result. This is easily done by adding to the wine caustic soda in drops, till it completely changes color, red wine becoming blue, and white wine, brown. These precautions, however, are generally omitted in analyses for commercial purposes.
When the distillation is complete, add to the distillate sufficient pure water (distilled water if possible), to make up the exact volume of wine measured. To do this, take the jar containing the distillate and hold it perpendicular, with the upper mark on a level with the eye, and carefully let in the water, drop by drop, by means of the pipette. The surface of the liquid will be seen to curve upward, owing to the attraction of the glass, and the tube should be filled till the bottom of the curve touches the mark; and the same precaution should be taken in measuring the wine in the first place.
Now we have a mixture corresponding in volume with the wine, and containing all the alcohol originally contained in the wine, and a certain amount of water, and nothing else.
As the density of the liquid also depends upon the temperature, it becomes necessary to have a fixed standard at which the test is made, and this is 60° F. in this country, and I believe in all countries except France, where it is 15° C., or 59° F. As the temperature affects the volume, it is better to adjust it by cooling the distillate before adding the last few drops of water, which may be done by dipping the jar into cold water, or if it is too cold, by warming it with the hand.
The hydrometer used will be adjusted to a temperature of 60° F., or 15° C., which is generally shown by directions accompanying the still, or will be marked on the instrument. Let the hydrometer be perfectly clean and dry, no moisture on the stem. Take the tip of the stem between the thumb and forefinger and lower it into the distillate till it floats, press it down with the finger very slightly, and let it come to equilibrium. Place the eye on a level with the surface of the liquid, and see where it cuts the stem, and the mark shows the percentage of alcohol contained in the wine. Remember that the mark to be taken is the one corresponding with the general surface of the liquid, not the top of the meniscus, or curve. With care, a result can be obtained sufficiently accurate for all commercial purposes.
Fig. 44.
Monitor Still.
A table is usually sold with these stills, showing the corrections for different temperatures, so that by its use the reduction of the temperature to the standard may be avoided.
[Fig. 44] represents a still made in New York, called the Monitor Still.
Ethers are formed by alcohol in presence of the different acids contained in the wine, and they take names corresponding to the acids, occurring as compound ethers, the most common one being acetic ether. They have a powerful and characteristic odor, known as the etherous odor, which is somewhat disagreeable in the pure ether, but becomes agreeable and resembles the aroma of fruit and flowers when greatly diluted.
Among the important ethers contained in wine is Oenanthic ether, which is said to give to wine its characteristic vinous smell, which distinguishes it from any other fermented liquor.
Sugar is contained in many wines, especially sweet wines, and exercises an important influence upon the flavor.
To Estimate Sugar.—The quantity of sugar contained in a sweet wine may be estimated with sufficient accuracy, for commercial purposes, in the following manner. A certain quantity of wine is measured in the jar, and distilled in the same manner as in the estimation of alcohol (which see), or the wine may be placed in a shallow dish on a stove or over a lamp, and boiled slowly till the volume is reduced one-half, when the alcohol will be all evaporated; then the original volume should be restored by adding water. After it has rested for a day or so, the greater part of the salts will crystallize and be deposited, when the sugar strength can be ascertained by the use of the saccharometer, in the usual way ([see page 8]). One degree, however, should be deducted from the hydrometer reading.
Mannite, or the essential principle of manna, is produced in wine when sugar undergoes viscous fermentation. Its flavor is similar to that of sugar, and its composition is but little different from that of the same substance.
Mucilage.—The grand red wines of the Médoc, and of some other portions of the Gironde, and also the grand wines of Burgundy, says Boireau, preserve in aging a pronounced fruity taste, an unctuosity, a velvety mellowness, which, joined with their flavor and bouquet, make these wines in good years the delight of the gourmets. This velvety mellowness is found only in those seasons when the grapes ripen well. In poor years, when the grapes do not become completely ripe, the wines may have at times more or less distinctive flavor (séve), and sometimes even a little bouquet, but they are dry, and the mellowness is wanting.
Many ordinary wines possess while young, if they have been well made, and are produced in favorable years, a marked fruity flavor; but in the greater part of the wines of this kind, this mellowness does not last, and disappears gradually with age, while in the grand wines of good years, the unctuosity is more appreciable after the defecation of their lees than while they are new.
The substance which in a measure produces this quality is called mucilage by Maumené and some others. Others, again, have given it different names. Maumené says that it seems to be a sort of intermediary substance between cellulose and dextrin, and that its nature is not yet known, but that it is a near neighbor of sugar.
Mr. Boireau believes that the mellowness is produced by a modification of grape sugar, because, when not properly cared for, mellow wines undergo an insensible fermentation, especially if they are in their first and second years, and still contain ferments. Very often at the end of these secondary fermentations, the unctuosity has disappeared, and the wines have become dry. It seems, accordingly, that the substance is capable of undergoing the same transformations as sugar under the influence of ferments and heat.
Pectose is found in green grapes and other fruits, and by the acids is changed into pectin, which is the gelatinizing principle, is soluble in water, and may have some effect on the mellowness of wine. Alcohol precipitates it in the form of jelly.
Fatty Matters have been found in wine lees, which may be extracted from the seeds by long contact during fermentation, for it is known that the seeds yield such matters.
Glycerin is mentioned among fatty matters, but it is known to be produced by the fermentation of sugar, and is supposed to have its influence on the flavor of wine.
The Coloring Matter of red wine has received the name of œnocyanine. In its pure state it is blue, but is changed to red by acids. The yellow and brown color of some white wines is due to the oxidation of some of the matters contained in them. The change of color in red wines is also due to the oxidation of the tannic acid, thereby forming an insoluble compound, tannomelanic acid, which is precipitated, carrying down the œnocyanine, and the wine gradually becomes tawny.
Aldehydes are produced first in the transformation of alcohol into an acid by oxidation, acetaldehyde occurring between alcohol and acetic acid, as mentioned in Acetic Fermentation. When a weak wine is exposed to the air it is gradually converted into vinegar, or acetic acid. If free access of air is permitted, it may be converted at once into acetic acid, but if the access of the air is very limited, or if the wine is rich and strong, oxidation stops at the first stage, and aldehyde is formed. It is a colorless liquid of a very suffocating smell, having an etherous odor, and is supposed to have an important influence on the flavor and bouquet of various wines. The strong wines of southern countries which are kept in casks in ullage, exposed to the action of the oxygen of the air, develop a certain amount of aldehyde in time, and it is supposed that sherry owes some of its qualities to this substance.
Acids.—We can only allude briefly to the acids which have been recognized in wines. The principal one is tartaric acid, found in considerable quantities in grapes, and is contained in the argols, or crude cream of tartar, bitartrate of potash, which is deposited on the inner walls of the casks in which the wine is kept. This substance principally gives the acid taste to wine.
Malic Acid, or the acid of apples, is found; and of citric acid, or the acid of lemons, traces have been recognized; also pectic acid, derived from the pectose.
Tannic Acid is a very important ingredient in wine, and is frequently mentioned in this work. (See [Fining], [Tannin].)
Carbonic Acid.—It has been shown in the chapter on Fermentation that carbon dioxide is the gas produced by fermentation. This gas, CO₂, was known to the old chemists as carbonic acid, or carbonic acid gas, and the latter terms are frequently used in this work in the sense of carbon dioxide, in accordance with common usage. But modern chemistry teaches us that carbon dioxide, CO₂, is not an acid at all, but in connection with water it takes up a molecule of the latter, and becomes H₂CO₃, carbonic acid proper. The gas, however, as well as the acid, exists in all wines, and to the former, sparkling wines owe their effervescence. Its presence is important, exercising a preservative effect by preventing their oxidation, and also by keeping in dissolution substances which would otherwise cloud the wine. When the wine is first fermented it is saturated with carbon dioxide, and while it remains so, oxygen will not be absorbed, and hence its preservative effect. Mr. Maumené even recommends resort to artificial means to restore it, or to re-saturate the wine in case of its loss. If, however, the precautions heretofore indicated for keeping table wines are observed, the wine will be well preserved.
Acetic Acid is the result of oxidation, or acetic fermentation (which see), and lactic acid is derived from lactic fermentation, but is regarded as accidental in wine, probably not existing in the must, though it is found in some wines made from grapes which have been bruised and broken a long time before using.
Butyric Acid is the product of butyric fermentation.
Valeric Acid is supposed to exist in wine from the distinctive odor which is smelt in it under certain conditions.
Succinic Acid has been referred to as one of the products of alcoholic fermentation.
The Total Acids in wine vary a good deal, but four or five per mille is a fair average.
Space will not permit of more details on the various substances contained in wine, but those who desire further information are referred to the work of Maumené in French, and that of Thudichum and Dupré in English.
The Bouquet proper of wines is a perfume containing different odors, like that of a bouquet of flowers. It is very complex also in its origin, and the matters contained in the wine which give rise to it are but little known. It is variable, being different in different wines, and all the odorous matters doubtless contribute to its existence, such as œnanthic, and other ethers, the different alcohols, aldehydes, and perhaps even certain essential oils. The varieties of grapes, the season, and the soil, also have their effect, as well as the method of vinification. It is believed, however, that the bouquet is principally due to the ethers.
Artificial Bouquet.—In this connection, the experiments of Mr. Maumené will be found interesting. He prepared one litre of a liquid similar to wine, but without a sensible odor, by adding distilled water to the distillate from a red wine of Bordeaux.
One drop of aldehyde produced no appreciable odor.
Six drops of acetic ether produced no sensible effect.
Nor did crystallized acetic acid change the result.
He then added 5 grs. 5 of cream of tartar, 0 gr. 18 of succinic acid, and 20 grs. of glycerin, without producing any odor in the liquid.
On adding certain ethers a remarkable change was produced.
By adding two small drops of œnanthic ether (obtained by distilling fresh wine lees), the liquid instantly gave an odor of wine.
Then he added, drop by drop, one cubic centimetre (1000th part by measure) of essence of pears, that is, the following mixture:
- 1 volume of valero-amylic ether.
- 6 volumes of alcohol of 36 per cent.
The first drops developed a bouquet which belongs to certain wines; but by adding the whole amount mentioned, a pear odor was developed, by which the liquid could be easily distinguished from wine. So he prepared another litre of the liquid containing the same substances, and added only two or three drops of essence of pears. He then added two drops of ordinary butyric ether, and the bouquet resembled in a remarkable degree that of a good Bouzy wine, and several persons took it for a decolored wine. By varying the experiment, the bouquet of wines can be imitated in a remarkable manner.
For those who are curious in such matters, I translate the following from Boireau:
Artificial bouquets are produced by aromatic substances, or essential oils, whose aroma is extracted or dissolved out by the help of alcohol. The aromatic principle may be extracted either by a simple alcoholic tincture, by digestion or distillation, by dissolving the oils themselves, etc., and the process varies with the substance used.
The aromatic substances most frequently employed to produce artificial bouquets in non-fortified wines, commencing with those which form the base and whose aromas are more dominant, are: iris, strawberry, gillyflower, the flower of the vine, mignonette, nutmeg, bitter almond, fruit pits, sassafras, etc. The latter are rarely employed alone, and play a secondary part by mixing with the two first, iris and strawberry, whose aromas are quite distinctive.
Iris.—There are two varieties of this. The roots only are employed; they are white, of an average diameter of 0 m. 02 (¾ in.), and of a very irregular form. They are sold in pieces about 0 m. 05 (2 in.) long, with the rootlets removed. They are largely employed in perfumery.
The root of the so-called Florence iris, which grows in Italy and the south of France, has a pronounced violet odor. Another variety, which grows in the north of France and in Germany, is sold under the name of German iris. An experienced person can distinguish the two.
The perfume of the iris is with difficulty and incompletely extracted by distillation; it is obtained by infusing the roots in alcohol, after first reducing them to a powder by means of a grater. The operation is long, but indispensable. The powder occurs in commerce, but in that form the roots lose their aroma, and it is moreover liable to be adulterated.
The tincture is prepared in the following proportions: old spirit of wine of 85 per cent., 10 litres (2½ gallons); Florence iris, 1 kilogramme (2⅕ lb.), reduced to powder.
Bung or cork the vessel containing it, stir it about for a few minutes, and then put it in a place of at least 68° F., but which does not go beyond 95°. Shake it occasionally during two weeks, and then press and filter it.
The tincture has a pronounced violet odor, and a harsh, bitter after-taste.
It may be employed alone, in a very small dose, rarely exceeding 5 centilitres per hectolitre (13½ fluidrams to 26½ gallons). Oftener, however, a few drops of the essential oil of gillyflower, etc., are mixed with it.
Strawberry.—The preparation of an alcoholic infusion of strawberries is very simple. Take fully ripe berries, pick them over and hull them, and put them in a keg with a large bung. Ten kilogrammes of fruit to 12 litres of old spirits of wine of 85 per cent. (22 lbs. to 3⅛ gals.) are used. After macerating for twenty-four hours, the liquor is drawn off and filtered. It is a rose-colored liquor of a very pleasant aroma. Then the fruit is crushed, and brandy of 50 per cent. is added, and the whole is allowed to macerate for a month, and then the marc is pressed. The second tincture has an odor and flavor inferior to the first, and has more color. It is filtered, or what is better, distilled in a water bath. In the latter way spirit of strawberry is obtained. It is preferable to employ the liquor of the first infusion. This aroma is generally used alone, and is much employed in the manufacture of sparkling wines. Sometimes a small quantity of other aromatic substances are added, allowing the strawberry to predominate. It is the best modifier of the aroma of young wines.
The dose varies according to the degree of the aroma, from 2 to 10 centilitres per hectolitre (⅛ to ⅚ of a gill, or 5.4 to 27 fluidrams to 26.4 gals.)
Gillyflower, or Stockgilly.—The essential oil of this flower may be extracted by pressure, by maceration, or by distillation, and is found in commerce. To make the bouquet, the oil is used, or the concentrated essence, which is produced by the distillation of the bruised flowers with alcohol of 85 per cent., in the proportion of 300 grammes of the flowers to 5 litres of alcohol (10½ oz. to 5¼ quarts). In the absence of an alembic, the aroma may be extracted by infusion, as in the case of iris, by macerating 100 grammes of the bruised flowers to 1 litre of alcohol of 85 per cent. (3½ oz. to a quart) for eight days, and filtering. Gillyflower is rarely used alone; but by adding a very small quantity of it to iris, a good effect is produced, and the perfume becomes more intimately mixed with the wine, for the oil of gillyflower is heavier than water; but this aroma should never predominate, and is best for old wines without bouquet.
Vine Flowers are gathered and the petals infused in alcohol of 85 per cent., in the proportion of 100 grammes of flowers to 5 litres of alcohol (3½ oz. to 5¼ quarts). After macerating for eight days, it is distilled in a water bath. This aroma, which is very volatile, is used in the dose of 5 centilitres to a hectolitre (13.5 fluidrams to 26.4 gals.)
Mignonette.—The perfume of the mignonette, like that of many other flowers, is obtained by picking the flowers from their stems, bruising them, and placing them upon layers of cotton or pieces of linen impregnated with fresh oil, or other sweet fats; oil of ben is preferred. The flowers are renewed every four hours, till the cotton or the cloth is charged with perfume. The oil or fat is removed by pressure or otherwise, and the essential oil is dissolved out with alcohol of 85 per cent., which is afterwards separated from the fixed oil, and filtered. The extract of mignonette so obtained is employed in the proportion of 1 to 5 centilitres to a hectolitre (2.7 to 13.5 fluidrams to 26.4 gals.) but oftener it is mixed with other perfumes.
Nutmeg is employed in the form of spirit distilled from the nuts over the fire, 500 grammes of nuts to 10 litres of alcohol (1 lb. to 10½ quarts), or in the form of a tincture made with the same proportions of nuts and alcohol, or a small quantity of the essential oil is mixed with other aromatic substances. This preparation, particularly the tincture or the distilled spirit, has a good effect. Being heavier than water, it assists the mixture.
Bitter Almonds and Fruit Pits.—Their oil is found in commerce, and its aroma is due to the hydrocyanic (prussic) acid contained in it, which is poisonous, and therefore the oil should be employed in the smallest doses.
Sassafras.—The essential oil is extracted from the wood and bark by distillation, and can be purchased in the market. It is heavier than wine, and fixes the lighter perfumes. It is used only secondarily, and in very small quantities.
Other Aromas have been tried, but they can only be used as auxiliary to the three first named, iris, gillyflower, and strawberry, because their odors differ essentially from the natural bouquet of mellow wines.
Effects.—These preparations give wines a bouquet or aroma which partakes of the substances employed, but they do not give the distinctive flavor (séve) which characterizes fine wines, and the result only flatters the sense of smell. These perfumes are very volatile, and it does not require a very delicate or a much experienced palate to distinguish them from the natural bouquet of wine, and persons of delicate sensibilities are disturbed by them, if too pronounced.
When a wine has been artificially perfumed, it still preserves its taste and earthy flavor; it has simply changed its odor. Taste it without smelling, and its distinctive flavor will be recognized. Mr. Boireau says that, notwithstanding the contrary announcements of interested manufacturers, they are not preserved like the natural bouquets and flavors, but, little by little, they become enfeebled, and are volatilized with time.
He says that the trade is inundated with the announcements of pretended œnologists, chemists, etc., manufacturers of bouquets decorated with such pompous names as Médoc Flavoring (Séve du Médoc), Bouquet of Bordeaux, of Pomard, Bordeaux Extract, etc., and all these humbugs are advertised as giving the most ordinary wines the true Médoc flavor, etc., which, happily for the producers of Médoc, cannot be done.
It is better, as stated in the chapter on Cutting Wines, to improve wines by mixing them with those having expansible flavors and odors, rather than use these artificial bouquets.
CHAPTER XX.
GENERAL CHAPTER—MISCELLANEOUS.
The Proportion of Juice to Marc, as stated in Thudichum and Dupré’s work, has been found in various grapes as follows:
White Chasselas, stems removed, gave by strong pressure, 97 per cent. of juice; marc of skins and seeds, 3 per cent.
Black Pinot grapes, stems removed, gave 94.8 per cent. of juice, and 5.2 per cent. of marc.
Black Pinot, pressed with the stems, gave 91.8 per cent. of juice, and 8.2 per cent. of marc, including stems.
Black Pinot, fermented with the stems and then pressed, gave 69.6 per cent. of wine, and 30.4 per cent. of marc.
In the latter case much wine is absorbed by the stems, which cannot be removed by pressure.
In the first three cases the pressure must have been such as to reduce the marc to near dryness to obtain so high a percentage of juice.
In the report of the work done in the Viticultural Laboratory of the University, referred to in the preface, the following figures are found, and are extracted from Table No. 1 of the report. Omitting the two extremes—Feher Szagos, 203.2, and Lenoir, 118—we obtain the average of 157 gallons of grape juice per ton of 2000 lbs. in twelve white wines, and 174.8 gallons per ton in twelve red wines; the word “red” being used in the table to designate the product obtained by fermenting white grapes with the skins and seeds, as well as to designate “red wine” proper.
The report says: “The red wines, of course, produce very much less pomace, which consists largely of skins and seeds only. The white pomace has much more of the pulp of the grape, and consequently a much larger amount of water. During the fermentation the internal structure of the grape is destroyed, the sugar is fermented out, and only the fibrous structure remains; even this is to a great extent broken up, and runs out with the wine when pressed.”
| NAME. | Color of Wine. | Weight (pounds) of Grapes. | Pomace, per cent. | Stems per cent. | Air-dried Pomace per cent. | Gallons of Must. | Gallons of Must per ton of Grapes. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mission - just ripe | Red | 71.75 | 13.50 | 3.05 | — | 6.38 | 177.8 |
| “ fully “ | White | 106.50 | 18.30 | 3.75 | — | 9.20 | 172.6 |
| “ “ “ | Red | 101.00 | 11.63 | 3.96 | — | 8.98 | 177.8 |
| “ | White | 85.80 | 24.10 | 3.07 | 8.71 | 6.84 | 159.4 |
| “ | Red | 73.92 | 12.20 | 2.91 | 5.26 | 6.30 | 170.5 |
| Zinfandel | White | 84.00 | 27.30 | 5.75 | — | 6.20 | 147.6 |
| “ | Red | 126.00 | 13.40 | 5.55 | — | 11.00 | 174.6 |
| “ | White | 87.78 | 29.07 | 4.51 | 7.31 | 6.32 | 144.0 |
| “ | Red | 84.26 | 10.96 | 4.02 | 4.04 | 7.30 | 173.4 |
| Malvoisie | White | 116.00 | 18.10 | 2.58 | — | 9.90 | 170.6 |
| “ | Red | 151.00 | 10.92 | 2.65 | — | 14.30 | 189.4 |
| Charbono | White | 97.00 | 30.92 | 6.18 | — | 7.00 | 144.2 |
| Burger | White | 74.00 | 22.00 | .97 | — | 6.40 | 172.8 |
| “ | “Red” | 95.00 | 12.10 | 7.36 | — | 8.25 | 173.6 |
| Chasselas | White | 103.84 | 31.35 | 2.96 | 5.93 | 7.47 | 143.8 |
| “ | “Red” | 70.40 | 13.75 | 2.92 | 3.74 | 5.97 | 169.6 |
| Golden Chasselas | “Red” | 139.70 | 12.28 | 4.56 | 3.15 | 12.90 | 184.6 |
| Prolific | White | 95.04 | 23.15 | 3.70 | 7.76 | 7.54 | 158.6 |
| “ | “Red” | 86.24 | 11.73 | 3.57 | 4.24 | 7.30 | 169.2 |
| Black Prince | White | 108.24 | 25.60 | 5.18 | 9.01 | 8.13 | 150.2 |
| “ “ | Red | 103.40 | 15.74 | 4.46 | 5.21 | 8.54 | 165.2 |
| Feher Szagos | White | 92.40 | 25.95 | 2.14 | 4.89 | 7.47 | 161.8 |
| “ “ | Red | 77.99 | 9.01 | 2.28 | 2.55 | 7.93 | 203.2 |
| Mataro | White | 131.67 | 31.40 | 6.69 | 6.26 | 10.46 | 158.9 |
| “ | Red | 90.20 | 12.19 | 5.60 | 5.02 | 7.76 | 172.0 |
| Lenoir | Red | 33.00 | 17.30 | 6.00 | 8.50 | 1.96 | 118.7 |
This table contradicts the opinion held by some wine makers, that the Mission grape yields a larger percentage of stems than other varieties. The five lots of Mission grapes analyzed give an average of nearly 3.35 per cent. of stems, which is less than the yield of every other variety mentioned, except Malvoisie, Chasselas, and Feher Szagos.
The Proportion of Wine to Grapes.—It is generally said that it takes about 12 lbs. of grapes to produce a gallon of wine; some give the number of pounds as low as 10; the product, however, is must, or new wine, for nothing is taken into consideration for loss by evaporation, etc., while aging. Some wine dealers here consider that it takes about 17 lbs. of grapes to produce a gallon of wine ready for consumption.
At a meeting of the St. Helena Vinicultural Club, Napa Valley, in this State, the following facts were stated, as reported in the newspapers. Mr. Krug said that he had always thought that 14 lbs. of grapes would give a gallon of good wine at the time of the second racking in March, April, or May. Mr. Scheffler said he had made last year 135.6 gallons of wine and 8 gallons of brandy to the ton of grapes. Counting each gallon of brandy as equal to 5 of wine, it was equal to about 176 gallons of wine. That was about the average of Riesling, Chasselas, Zinfandel, Malvoisie, etc. The general average was 136 gallons of wine and 8 of brandy, or 125 gallons of good wine and 10 of brandy. Mr. Heyman said he was glad to get 145 gallons of clear, marketable wine on the average. Mr. Pellet said that the very best grapes would make 150 gallons of wine at the first racking, and this is probably a fair average.
Wooden and Metal Utensils.—In European countries, and in all properly ordered wine cellars, wooden utensils are used wherever practicable; and it ought to be impressed upon the mind of every one who has anything to do with the handling of the liquid, that metal should never come in contact with wine, if it can be avoided, except it be a precious metal like silver. The reason is that wine, on account of the acids contained in it, has a powerful effect upon lead, copper, zinc, iron, etc. Whenever such a metal is exposed to the influence of the air, and of an acid liquor, the metal is readily oxidized, and the oxide combines with the acid to form a salt. Therefore, Mr. Maumene says that it is dangerous to keep wine for a few hours in vessels of copper or lead, on account of the poisonous effects of their compounds. It is bad even to leave it in iron, zinc, or tin. Among the acids contained in wine, that which is the most capable of causing oxidation of the metals is the tartaric acid and the crude tartar. So the principal salts formed by the wine in metallic vessels are the bi-tartrates of potash and the oxide of the metal. Iron wire wet with wine, in a few days becomes covered with a very dark, brown pellicle, the wine is reduced to a solution of tartrate of iron and potash, which is of that color. A piece of iron in the wine produces the same result. This salt however, is not poisonous. But if the acid acts energetically on the iron, the water will be deprived of its oxygen, and the hydrogen thereby set free may seriously affect the wine, by combining with foreign bodies found in it, producing a detestable flavor and odor. A cask of wine may be completely ruined by a nail.
The salts of iron, therefore, are not to be feared on account of any deleterious effect upon the system, but rather on account of the ill effect which they may have upon the color, the flavor, and odor of the wine. On the other hand, the salts of copper and lead are highly poisonous, and should be carefully avoided.
Zinc and galvanized iron are also affected by wine, to the extent that when left in vessels made of either, it will cause serious indisposition to those who drink it.
Tin is also dissolved by wine, forming stannic oxide and stannic acid, which combine with the coloring matter and render it insoluble, making the wine cloudy at first, and finally rendering it nearly colorless. By long contact with tin the wine develops a fetid odor. Every wine maker knows how soon his tin vessels used about wine wear out, and the reason is apparent.
Cleanliness.—Whether wood or metal utensils are used, it is one of the essentials in making good, wholesome wine, that they should be kept scrupulously clean and neat. Stemmers, crushers, presses, buckets, funnels, and in fact everything that comes in contact with the liquid should be scrubbed and rinsed often enough to prevent their becoming sour, or contracting any disagreeable flavor or odor. If metal vessels must be used, by all means do not allow wine to stand in them. Run water through the hose and the pumps after using, and also before using again. For it is safe to assert that many of the bad odors and flavors met with in wines made by inexperienced persons are often due to want of care in these matters. The necessary care to be bestowed upon the casks has already been mentioned in the proper place.
Different Cellar Utensils which will be found convenient are represented in the following figures:
Fig. 45.
Fig. 46.
Tin Pitchers.
Fig. 47.
Wooden Pitcher.
Figures [45] and [46] are tin pitchers, and [47] is of wood.
Fig. 48.
Wooden Vessels.
Fig. 49.
Wooden Funnel.
Fig. 50.
Adjustable Hoop.
[Figure 48] shows wooden vessels not necessary to describe.
[Figure 49] is a wooden funnel for casks. [Figure 50] is an adjustable hoop, useful in case of leakage in a cask caused by the breaking of hoops. It can be put around a cask and tightened with the screw till a new hoop is put in place. Where, however, casks are well hooped with iron, it is not likely to be needed.
[Figure 51] are baskets for carrying bottles.
Every well ordered cellar should be provided with graduated measures (figs. [52] and [53]) in which to measure the respective proportions to be taken of each kind of wine for cutting. They can be had of any desired capacity, and graduated decimally, or otherwise, as needed.
Fig. 51.
Bottle Baskets.
[Figure 54], instruments of tin for drawing from the bungs of casks in tasting.
Fig. 52.
Fig. 53.
Graduated Measures.
In the sherry districts, where the casks are not kept full; a narrow cup attached to a stick is used to dip out the wine through the bung. The practice of using a piece of hose for this purpose, by letting one end into the cask and sucking on the other with the mouth till the wine runs, as it is done in too many cellars in California, is not to be commended to the fastidious.
Fig. 54.
Tin Tasters.
Fig. 55.
Hand Pump.
A pump in the form of [figure 55] is sometimes useful for drawing wine from casks in certain positions.
Fig. 56.
For Removing Corks.
Fig. 57.
Bucket.
[Figure 56] represents wire implements for removing corks which have been pushed inside a bottle.