The Wine Press and the Cellar: A Manual for the Wine-Maker and the Cellar-Man

by Emmet H. Rixford

TREATMENT OF RED WINE.

Insensible Fermentation.—After the wine has undergone its active fermentation, has been drawn from the vat and been filled into casks, the latter should be at once stored in a suitable place above ground of even, moderate temperature, or in an underground cellar whose temperature is not much below 60° F. The new wine still contains some sugar, and a slow fermentation goes on, bubbles of gas are given off, and sediment falls to the bottom. This is called the secondary or insensible fermentation, and when this is finished and no more gas arises, the wine has become clear. A good deal of the carbonic acid that rises in bubbles is not produced by the insensible fermentation, but has become dissolved in the wine during the active fermentation, and is gradually given off with the new gas produced. While the gas is produced in the cask, it must not be closely bunged, but the bung-holes should be loosely covered with a vine leaf, a block, an inverted bung, or a bag of sand, so that the gas may escape. Various patent bungs have been devised with the same object.

The wine should be tasted at each filling of the cask during this period to ascertain whether the insensible fermentation has entirely ceased, which may be known from the fact that it has lost the peculiar pungent flavor of the carbonic acid. As soon as this fermentation is ended, the casks should be tightly bunged with conical bungs, which can be easily removed during the period when it is necessary to fill up frequently.

Ulling or Filling Up.—Owing to the escape of gas and to evaporation, vacant spaces are rapidly formed in the casks which must be filled with the same kind of wine as that contained in them. It is well to keep a certain amount of the wine of each vintage in smaller vessels, to be used for this purpose, such as barrels, kegs, demijohns, and bottles, according to the extent of the vintage. If one vessel is partly emptied, the remaining wine should be put into a smaller one. It is absolutely necessary that all of the casks be kept full or the wine will spoil. (See exceptions under [Sweet Wine].) For this purpose, during the first week they should be filled every day or two, then two or three times the next week, and later, once a week, once in two weeks, and finally once a month. This is governed a good deal by the rapidity of the evaporation, which depends upon the cellar or place of storage. This operation is performed by means of any vessel with which the wine can easily be poured into the bung-hole; the convenient utensil, however, is a vessel in the form of a small watering pot with a long spout, with which the bung can easily be reached. (Figs. [7] and [8].) A good substitute is an ordinary tin funnel with a flexible rubber tube attached to the small opening. Where the casks are piled up in the cellar so that the bungs cannot otherwise be reached, a funnel called the Z funnel ([fig. 9]) is used, which is provided with a long spout or tube turning at right angles to the upper part, and whose tip turns down, and which can easily be passed between the casks to the bung. If, however, the bung cannot be reached, a small hole is bored in the upper part of the head of the cask, and the wine put in with a Z funnel whose tube turns at right angles but does not turn down at the tip ([fig. 10].) The vent is opened in the highest part of the bulge, and wine is poured into the funnel whose tip is in the end hole till it rises to the vent, which is then closed, and the funnel is removed and the hole closed.

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.

Ulling Pots.

Fig. 9.

Z Funnel.

Fig. 10.

Z Funnel.

As some wine is liable to be lost in ulling a cask whose bung is out of sight, to avoid this, an instrument in the form of a watering pot, similar to figs. [7] and [8], has been devised, but whose top is entirely covered, the wine being poured into it through a tube which is closed with a cork when in use. The vent is near the tip of the spout on the under side, so that the wine will run as long as the cask is not full, but will stop as soon as the vent is covered by the wine rising in the cask. It is convenient to have a stopcock on the spout.

Many of these implements are provided with a socket to hold a candle.

Summary of the Rules for the Treatment of New Red Wines.

1. Put the casks, well bunged, in a cellar or other well closed place, and keep them constantly full, by frequently and regularly filling them with wine of the same kind.

2. Rack the wine as soon as the insensible fermentation has ceased and the wine has become limpid, i. e., about December; rack again before the vernal equinox; towards the summer solstice; and also near the autumnal equinox. Racking should always be done, if possible, during cool weather. (See [Racking].)

3. To prevent secondary fermentations, draw off the wine whenever by tasting you recognize by the flavor that it is commencing to work.

If the wines are bright, avoid fining, and so preserve their fruity flavor; but if they remain muddy after the second racking, fine them after the third drawing off with the whites of eggs, and leave them the shortest possible time on the finings.

Mr. Boireau says that by such treatment wines will be obtained limpid and free from secondary fermentations, and that grand wines will so preserve their fruity flavor; while if they are allowed to work again after the cessation of the insensible fermentation, they will lose their fruity flavor and mellowness, and become too dry. In order to avoid this dryness produced by secondary fermentations, which will considerably diminish the value of the wines, and especially of grand wines, some wine makers place the casks with the bung on one side after the June racking; this practice should not be followed, for the elevation of the temperature at that season is liable to set them fermenting.

The idea is in all cases to avoid mixing the lees with the wine, and if young wines are to be shipped before the arrival of the period of the first racking, they should nevertheless be carefully drawn off, if they have already become clear, for to mingle again the lees with wine, predisposes it to secondary fermentations, and renders it difficult to clarify.

Treatment of Old Red Wines.—Wines after the fourth racking are treated as old wines. When they have acquired a clean taste, are limpid and no longer ferment, the casks should be carefully filled and tightly bunged, and they should be stored in a suitable place, with the bung turned to one side. The bung being thus constantly wet swells and exactly fills the hole, the wine keeps better, there is less loss by evaporation, and constant filling up is avoided.

If it happens that by bad treatment the wines are not clear and behave badly, they should receive the necessary treatment, and be clarified before permanently put away with the bung at the side.

In cellars and other well closed places, old red wine, clean-tasting, bright and quiet, stored in good, well hooped casks, need only two rackings per year, one in March and the other in September, unless for some reason it loses its limpidity by entering again into fermentation, which will be discovered by tasting from time to time. In that case, it should immediately be drawn off without regard to the date of the former racking, and then fined.

Care should be taken not to leave ullage in the cask of old wine, by frequent samplings and tastings. And when it occurs, in order to avoid its effects, the wine may immediately be drawn into a smaller cask, and this is necessary more frequently in airy storehouses where the evaporation is greater than in cellars.

Boireau says that if these rules are carefully observed the wines will improve, and develop all the qualities which by their nature they are susceptible of acquiring. The greater or less degree of fineness which they acquire by aging under proper conditions results principally from two causes: The first is the deposit of coloring matter and divers salts which the new wine contains in dissolution, and which become insoluble by entering into new combinations, and which in their turn are removed at each racking, with the lees; the second cause is the transformation of the tannin, which gives the wine a certain degree of roughness, into gallic acid, and its extraction in the insoluble combinations which it forms with the different principles contained in the wine and with the finings which are introduced. It follows that old wine loses part of its color and soluble salts, and a great part of the tannin which it originally contained. Its taste is more delicate, its flavor, which was masked by these different matters, comes out better, its bouquet commences to develop, and its mellowness is more pronounced.

These remarks are more particularly applicable to grand wines, for in many of the ordinary ones the fruity flavor which they have when new is lost before the end of the first year, because the mucilages and pectine, which give them their mellowness, are either precipitated with the lees or are destroyed by insensible fermentation. In general these wines lack firmness, body and tannin, and many of them show a strong tendency to lose their color.

The time necessary for wines to remain in wood in order to acquire the highest degree of perfection which they can acquire in casks, depends upon the quality of the wine; wines of strength and body require more time than feeble ones.

Our author says that, on the average, the poorest wines of the Médoc become bright about the end of two years, and if they are kept longer, they lose their mellowness. But on the other hand, the firm and full-bodied wines of the same localities require to remain in wood a year longer to arrive at perfect maturity. Certain wines strongly charged with tannin, coming from certain localities, and those made from the verdot grape, are long in developing, but they keep so much the longer.

When they have attained their entire development and the separation of the lees is complete, they must be bottled, for they will lose their qualities if left in casks. In bottles they arrive at perfection; they acquire bouquet while they preserve their mellowness, but in casks, they finally lose their fruity flavor and velvety smoothness, and become dry.

And he gives the following:

Summary of Rules for the Care of Old Red Wines.

1. They should be kept in places perfectly closed, and before turning the bung to one side, we should be satisfied that they are perfectly bright, quiet, and well behaved.

2. They should be drawn from the lees twice a year; the casks should be kept full; and they should be kept from secondary fermentations by watching and opportune racking.

3. Keep down the loss by evaporation by all means possible, and keep them in close cellars, in strong, well hooped casks, and avoid ullage.

4. Bottle them before they lose their fruity flavor, and as soon as they cease to deposit.

Thus will they acquire all the qualities of which by their nature they are susceptible.

But if they are kept in places to which the air has free access, the evaporation will be great; and if the casks are left with ullage caused by too frequent sampling, or too infrequent racking, they will work, become dry, lose their mellowness, and become slightly affected by acetic acid, produced by contact with the air.

CHAPTER VII.
WHITE WINE.

Made from both Red and White Grapes.—As the color of grapes resides entirely in the skins, with the exception of a few varieties such as the Tienturiers and the American variety Lenoir, which have colored juice, with these exceptions, white wine may be made from both white and colored grapes.

Differences between Red and White Wine.—Instead of putting the pomace into fermenting vats, it is taken immediately to the press, and the juice is fermented by itself, free from stems, skins, and seeds, and is therefore not only free from the coloring matter contained in the skins, but also from the numerous matters that are contained in red wine, extracted from the pomace during fermentation. It is true that white wine may be made from white grapes by the process that is employed in making red wine from colored grapes, but then it ceases to be what is commonly called white wine, and possesses all the characteristics of red wine except its color, which of itself has little effect upon the wine, except to change its appearance; for when white wine has been colored by the addition of a small quantity of very dark wine, it remains white wine still in all its other characteristics, and the difference is readily detected by experts.

Hygienic effects of Red and of White Wine.—Dr. Guyot says that white wines generally are diffusible stimulants of the nervous system; if they are light, they act rapidly upon the human organism, and excite all its functions. But they escape as readily by the skin and excretory organs, and their effect is of short duration. Red wines, on the other hand, are tonic and persistent stimulants of the nerves, muscles, and digestive organs; their action is slower and more prolonged; they do not increase perspiration or the excretions, and their action generally is astringent, persistent, and concentrated.

Process of Making.—As the must comes from the press it is either immediately run into casks, or is first put into a vat to settle. In the latter case it is allowed to stand in the settling vat from twelve to twenty-four hours, and a large portion of the yeasty parts settle to the bottom, a thick scum rises to the surface, and the must becomes partially cleared. The scum is then skimmed from the top, and the liquid is drawn off into casks, leaving the heavy lees. By this means a great part of the fermentive matter is immediately removed, and the wine does not ferment as thoroughly nor as rapidly as it otherwise would, and retains a portion of its sugar and its sweetness longer. In the Champagne districts the musts for sparkling wines are thus treated. If the weather is very warm, it may not be practicable to do this, because fermentation will set in before the must has time to settle. If, however, it is desired to make a dry wine, the must is not put into a settling vat, but is run from the press directly into the casks.

The Barrels in which white wine is fermented and stored are generally of small size, of a capacity of from 30 to 150 gallons, or say 50 or 60 gallons on an average, and it is considered in France that it preserves its good qualities in casks of moderate size better than in large ones. It is to be understood, however, that it is considered advisable in most parts of France that white wine should retain a portion of its sweetness and be mellow rather than dry; but if it is desirable to make a dry wine, larger casks may be used for fermenting and storing. (But see [Summary of Rules], below, and [Casks].)

Filling the Barrels during Fermentation.—A question upon which there is some difference of opinion, is whether the casks should be immediately filled to their full capacity and kept filled up during the first fermentation, so that the scum and foam will be thrown out of the bung, or whether a vacant space shall be left in each barrel, so that all the matter thrown up by the fermentation shall remain. The objections to allowing the wine to boil over are that much good wine is thereby lost, and the outside of the barrels and the floor of the fermenting house or cellar becomes foul. When the active fermentation ceases, whatever has been thrown up in the form of a dirty scum will settle to the bottom with the rest of the lees, and is no more injurious than the latter. If, however, the foam is allowed to run over by keeping the barrels full, a portion of the yeasty parts will be thrown out, fermentation will not go on as tumultuously nor be as complete, and the wine will longer retain a portion of its sweetness. So that the practice in this behalf, as in most others where there is a diversity of practices in making white wine, depends upon whether it is desired to make a very dry wine, or one that retains a portion of its sugar. But in the Champagne districts, although they allow the marc to settle, they do not allow it to run over in fermenting.

Pressing and Filling.—The pomace is pressed in the same manner as the marc of red wine, in two or three different pressings. The usual practice is to fill the barrels with an equal amount of must from each pressing, so that the contents of all shall be uniform in quality. If it is known beforehand how much wine can be made from a given quantity of grapes, the requisite number of barrels will be provided for each lot, and the must of each pressing will be equally distributed in all. (See [General Chapter].)

Different kinds of White Wine.—Boireau divides white wines into three classes: dry, mellow, and sweet, whose characteristics depend essentially upon the density of their musts.

In Dry White Wines fermentation is complete, and all the sugar that is appreciable by the taste or the hydrometer, except the small amount changed into other substances, is transformed into alcohol and carbonic acid. The grapes are gathered as soon as ripe, and are not allowed to shrivel. The density of the must rarely exceeds 13° Baumé.

Mellow White Wines are those which preserve a small quantity of sugar after the tumultuous fermentation has ceased, and which gives them mellowness and unctuosity. To produce these wines, it is necessary to increase the density of the must, which is accomplished in the Gironde by leaving the grapes upon the vines until they shrivel and turn brown (white grapes are used), and they are gathered by several successive pickings. The density of the must is from 12° to 15° Baumé. These wines occupy the place between dry wines and sweet wines.

White Sweet Wines (vins de liqueur) are those which preserve a considerable portion of their sugar, which renders them very sweet. And in order that they may retain their sweetness in aging, the must should mark 15° to 20° Baumé.

The Grand White Wines of France and Germany do not require any different treatment from that already described, except that the greatest care is exercised in assorting the grapes and allowing them to arrive at the period of greatest maturity, and, of course, they are made from the choicest varieties.

In describing the condition in which the grapes are when gathered, the French use the word pourris, which is usually translated rotten. But Boireau says that it must not be supposed that the grapes are spoiled (gâtés) because they are pourris; the condition which is sought is a sort of natural dessication effected by the heat of the sun, which evaporates a part of the water of vegetation and concentrates the saccharine matter, as well as the savory and aromatic principle, and bakes the grape, as it were. If the weather remains dry, the grapes remain for a fortnight perfectly ripe without any deterioration of the skin, but little by little it changes from yellow or golden to brown, loses its consistency and rots, or rather cracks and gives way. It is then that dessication commences; the rays of the sun penetrate the thin pellicle and volatilize the water of vegetation. In order to better accomplish this result a portion of the leaves are removed from the vine when the grapes are nearly ripe. Those grapes only are picked which are sufficiently shriveled; if only a part of the cluster is ripe, a few grapes are removed at a picking. The vines are usually gone over in this manner three times. At Barsac and Sauternes the white wines are known by three different names, indicating in their order their strength and sweetness: The first, or sweetest, are called têtes; the second, centres; and the third, queues; or head wines, middle wines, and tail wines. If the must does not indicate more than 12°, 13°, or 14° Baumé, the wine cannot be expected to preserve its sweetness and mellowness in aging. If it is desired to make the sweet head wines, having the inimitable flavor (goút de roti) which they get from the great maturity of the grapes, the density must be allowed to increase till Baumé’s instrument marks 18° to 20°. Wines from must of 16° Baumé will preserve their sweetness for a long time, but as they develop a large amount of alcohol, it is preferable that they be sweeter, and that the must mark 18° to 20°. As these wines do not develop more than 15 to 16 per cent. of alcohol by fermentation, they will not bear transportation through tropical climates with safety, and it is necessary to add spirit enough to raise the strength to 18 per cent. If, however, they are carefully managed, and kept in a cool cellar, they will remain sweet.

Treatment of White Wines.—During the active fermentation they should be left in a moderately warm place of even temperature, and until the foaming has ceased. Then, they may be stored in a cooler place if desirable, or may be left where they are. But then the bungs should be loosely closed with a chip or anything that will allow the escape of gas, and the casks must be filled up every two or three days. When the gas has ceased, they should be bunged tight, and filled up once or twice a week, according to the rapidity of evaporation, until the first racking. (See below.)

To keep Sweet.—If it is desired that the wine should preserve a portion of its sweetness and remain mellow, care should be taken not to disturb it after it has commenced depositing, for thereby the sediment and ferment will be again mingled with the wine and its fermentation rendered more active, all its sugar may be transformed, and the wine become dry. Fermentation may be checked at any period by sulphuring, as is described under the proper head (see [Sulphuring and Unfermented Must]), and so the wines may be made dry or sweet at will; but if the sweet ones contain less than 15 per cent. of alcohol they will ferment. By sulphuring they may be kept sweet from one vintage to another, even if the musts have not a high degree of sugar; but they must be constantly kept under the influence of sulphurous acid and protected from the air. But the frequent sulphuring and racking which they must necessarily undergo gives them an odor and a flavor of sulphur; and if they are not watched they ferment.

The care to be given to white wines after the first racking depends upon their character.

In the Case of Dry Wines, whose sugar has all been transformed, the same attentions are to be bestowed as in the case of new red wines, and the rules laid down are referred to. (See [Red Wine].)

Mellow White Wines, that is, those which retain a portion of their sweetness after the tumultuous fermentation, particularly if they do not carry 15 per cent. of alcohol, require the greatest amount of care in order to preserve their mellowness in aging; for if left to themselves they will again enter into fermentation, and become dry. Such wines should be preserved against all ulterior fermentations, and should be made perfectly bright and freed from ferments, but this should be done with as little fining or filtration as possible, which diminishes their mellowness.

It may be well to note that the less alcohol that mellow wines have, the more susceptible they are to fermentation, and the consequent loss of their mellowness.

Those which have 15 per cent. and have kept their mellowness after the first fermentation, do not lose it as readily as those of a lesser degree. If they have less than 15 per cent. of spirit and are sweet, to retain their sweetness, they must be completely clarified to free them from ferments; and in some cases it is necessary not only to rack them, but at the same time to sulphur them, and fine them with gelatine after adding tannin.

Such wines, not having naturally terminated their fermentation, which was arrested by sulphurous acid, reiterated rackings, the extraction of ferments, and the lowering of the temperature—have a natural tendency to ferment; and the arrested fermentation readily recommences if the wine is left to itself, if vigilance is relaxed, if the temperature increases, or if subjected to the movement of transportation.

On the contrary, in those which have acquired the largest amount of alcohol possible by fermentation (between 15 and 16 per cent.), no new spirit is formed at the expense of the sugar, except in case of loss of strength by evaporation or other enfeebling cause.

Summary of Rules for the treatment of mellow white wines, according to Boireau:

1. They should be stored in perfectly closed places, in strong, well hooped casks.

2. The casks should always be kept tightly bunged, and constantly full, by frequent and regular ullings, with bright wine of the same quality, and having the same temperature.

3. They should become bright, be protected against secondary fermentations, and freed from the yeast which they contain by rackings during the first year, according as their lees are deposited. Fining should not be resorted to except when they cannot be cleared by racking at the proper time (rigorously protected from contact with the air) into a cask sulphured with a double square of a sulphur match.

4. When they have been three or four years in wood, if they are not then bottled, they should be racked and transferred to tuns where they receive the same care; the tuns should be first tempered with wines of the same class.

5. They must be constantly watched and frequently tasted to assure one’s self that they do not enter into fermentation; if they do, they must be racked at once.

Racking.—When they remain calm after the insensible fermentation is terminated, whether they are old or young, they should be racked three times each year; first, at the sprouting of the vine in the spring, in March, before the equinox; secondly, at the flowering of the vine in June, before the summer solstice; and thirdly, at the ripening of the grape in September, before the autumnal equinox. (See [Racking].)

CHAPTER VIII.
CASKS.

Casks are almost universally made of oak, though other material has been tried, but generally to be abandoned in favor of the first named. Large, covered tanks of redwood are used to some extent in California for storing red wine, being first well steamed to extract the coloring matter of the wood, but they are not considered desirable, and had better be replaced by oak casks.

Oak Wood.—In France very nice distinctions used to be made as to the kind and nationality of the wood used, the shook from the north, Dantzig, Lubeck, Memel, Riga, and Stettin, taking the first rank, that from America the second, and that known as Bosnian, from the southern provinces of Austria and the north of Turkey in Europe, the third, and that of France the fourth. That from America is the most pliable, but is liable to be found worm-eaten.

All kinds of oak wood contain in different proportions fourteen different principles, several of which are dissolved by wine, and among the most important of which are tannin, gallic acid, a bitter extractive, mucilage, vegetable albumen, and several of pronounced smell and taste. The Bosnian oak contains the most tannin and soluble matter, and is suitable for highly colored wines. But now-a-days there is not so much stress laid upon the quality of the wood as formerly. Their extracts serve often to correct some of the defects of the wine, and many of them are neutralized by the ingredients of the latter. By the introduction of their tannin and albumen the clarification of wine is facilitated; but none but new wine whose insensible fermentation is not yet completed should be put into new casks, for they cause older wines to lose their transparency, and give them a woody flavor which may last a long time. Therefore, temper your new casks with new wine.

Storing Casks.—Casks should be kept in a closed place, not so dry as to cause much shrinkage, nor so damp as to cause mould. In California during the summer, there is no danger from the latter, but the former should be guarded against. In winter, the reverse is the rule. Where casks are to be kept a long time empty, they should be sulphured and tightly bunged, and the sulphuring should be repeated every six months. But they must be carefully washed before putting wine into them. They are less liable to be attacked by the borer if stored in a dark place.

New Casks.—Before putting wine into a new cask, it is ordinarily sufficient to give it a thorough washing with boiling water. Pour in one or two gallons of hot water, bung it up, and roll it and shake it about till it is thoroughly rinsed, letting it rest awhile on each end, and not only will this sufficiently cleanse the cask, but will show if there are any leaks. When the water is nearly cold, let it run out, and thoroughly rinse with cold water, and turn down the bung-hole and leave till well drained.

Mr. Maigne recommends that a couple of pounds of salt be dissolved in the first water, and that the second washing be made with a decoction of peach leaves. Often the casks are soaked for a day with cold water, then washed with lime water, prepared by adding four pounds of lime to two gallons of boiling water for a 100-gallon cask. After thorough agitation, it is washed with cold water. Sometimes, too, the cask is washed with a gallon or so of boiling wine, but it is an unnecessary waste.

Mr. Boireau says that when it is necessary to put old or very delicate wines into new casks, the greater part of the soluble matters can be extracted in the following manner: Pour in about two gallons of boiling lye made from ashes or potash, or other alkaline substance, such as slacked lime or pulverized chalk, etc., for they will dissolve out more of those soluble matters than pure water. After thoroughly agitating the cask, pour out the lye, and repeat the process; afterwards rinse with boiling water, and run it out before cold; then wash with cold water acidulated with one-tenth part of sulphuric acid, which enfeebles the solubility of these matters; finally, rinse with cold water and drain.

These latter operations may be avoided by first washing with hot water, and then filling the casks with common wine of the color of that intended to be put into them, and leaving them for about two weeks.

And before filling them with a grand red wine, it will be well to moisten the inner walls of the cask with a glass or so of good, old brandy.

Fig. 11.

Rinsing Chain.

Fig. 12.

Visitor.

Old Casks, or those which have been in use, should be well washed as soon as emptied, and the washings should be repeated with clean water until it runs out perfectly clear. Oftentimes the cask will have more or less lees adhering to its inner walls, which cannot be removed by an ordinary washing, but it will be necessary to make use of the rinsing chain. This chain is about six feet long, consisting of links made of square iron whose corners will more readily detach the lees. One end is attached to a long conical bung to keep it from falling into the cask, and the other is armed with a square block of iron of a size to easily go into the bung-hole ([fig. 11]). After pouring in two or three gallons of boiling water, leave the cask for a while so that the lees may become softened, then introduce the chain by the bung-hole, and close it with the bung at the other end of the instrument. Thoroughly roll and agitate the cask until the chain and its iron block have removed the lees so that they will run out with the water. Repeat the operation with clean water as often as necessary, and rinse till the water runs out limpid, and let the cask drain.

To Examine the Inside of a Cask, an instrument called a visitor is used. This is simply a piece of heavy wire bent into a loop or handle at the upper end, with the lower end turned up and bent around into the form of a small ring into which a candle can be inserted ([fig. 12]). Put a piece of a candle into this candlestick or socket, light it, and lower it into the cask through the bung, and the interior can be inspected.

Empty Casks should not be allowed to remain long without Washing; as soon as the lees are removed, they should be rinsed as already mentioned, and they should not be put to drain in the sun, for the heat will transform the alcohol remaining into vinegar in a few hours.

Sulphuring Casks.—If the cask is to be kept empty for some time, after it has been washed and then drained for a few minutes, it should be sulphured by burning in it a piece of sulphur match about an inch square, and it should then be left to drain dry. After twenty-four hours, burn in it three or four inches of the match, and bung it up with the gas in it. Store it in a suitable place as described for new casks, and sulphur it every three months. (See [Sulphuring].)

Condition to be Examined.—In using an old cask, as well as a new one, the first thing to ascertain is if it leaks. If the hoops are loose, they should be driven; then pour in two or three pails of water, and stand the cask alternately on each end, and if it is found to leak, soak it till it is tight. If the leaks cannot be stopped by driving the hoops and by soaking, it must be repaired.

The next thing to ascertain is, if the cask has become sour, mouldy, or has been otherwise injuriously affected, as it is liable to be if put away without being carefully washed and cared for. This can be ascertained by examining with the visitor, or by smelling. If, when the candle or a piece of lighted sulphur match is lowered into the cask, it ceases to burn, the cask probably contains a noxious gas, which must be expelled. This may be done by blowing in the bung-hole with a hand-bellows till the air is changed, or by standing the cask on its lower end with the hole in the upper head open, and the open bung turned towards the wind. If, however, it is in the condition which the French call eventé, which corresponds with that diseased condition of wine called by the same name and which we call flatness, the gas being carbonic acid, and heavier than air, will run out of its own accord if the open bung is turned down and the cask left for a while in that position.

Flatness in the Cask, as we will call it for want of a better term, Boireau says, consists in the disengagement of carbonic acid gas which is produced in the interior, and is generally found in casks which have been bunged up without washing, and which gives them an odor of stagnant lees with slight acidity, and will extinguish the sulphur match. After the bad air has been expelled the cask should be well washed with the use of the chain. A cask which has contained wine that has become flat should receive the same treatment. If a large tun is to be treated, the foul air should be expelled, and a man should not enter till a light will burn in it. (See the disease, [Flatness].)

Acidity will be found in the cask if it is left for several days uncared for; the alcohol contained in the wine remaining on the inside of the cask acidifies in contact with the oxygen of the air, and is soon changed into acetic acid, and the change is much more rapid in a high temperature. Instead of being simply flat, the cask is now really sour, and smells of vinegar. The treatment consists in either removing or neutralizing the acid. The first can be done by steam. Turn the bung-hole down, and conduct a jet of steam into the cask either through the faucet-hole or the bung; the water condensed from the steam charged with acid runs out at the bung-hole, and the process must be continued till the water no longer has an acid flavor.

Where it is not convenient to use steam, rinse the cask by using the chain, and scald it out with hot lye made from wood ashes or potash, or with quicklime dissolved in hot water. Give it several rinsings with the alkaline solution without allowing it to cool, and, if possible, fill it with cold water and let it soak three or four days, and rinse as usual. If the water is allowed to remain longer in the cask it may become stagnant.

Mouldy Casks.—Casks may become mouldy inside when left in a damp place, if the bungs are left out, or if they are leaky through defective staves or hoops, sometimes even when they have been sulphured, and much more if they have not been. This condition is recognized by a mouldy smell. The surest way to treat a mouldy cask is to take out the head, and give it a thorough scrubbing with a stiff broom and water. If after removing the mould the staves resume the color of wine-stained wood, it is proof that the wood has not been affected, and the head may be replaced, and the cask rinsed in the usual way. If, however, after removing the mould, the wood is found to be of a brown color, it is more or less rotten.

Rottenness is due to the same causes as mouldiness, and when the inside of a cask is decayed, it is no longer fit for wine. If, however, the mouldy cask is brown only in spots, they should be entirely scraped off, and then it may be used. But it is best not to put good wine into such casks, for there is danger of spoiling it.

Brandy Casks, when emptied, should simply be bunged up, without washing, as the alcohol remaining will have a preservative effect. They should not be kept in a place which is too damp.

Do not Sulphur Old Brandy or Whisky Casks which have recently been emptied or in which any alcohol remains, or you may cause a disastrous explosion. In preparing new casks for the reception of brandy, they should be washed and left to drain for twenty-four hours and until they are dry, and if they are to be kept some time, throw in a glass or two of brandy, bung tightly, and roll and shake till the inside is moistened with the liquor. If they are to be used at once, they ought to be first soaked with water for three or four days to remove the woody taste.

Boireau says that common wines may be put into brandy barrels, or even oil barrels which have not become rancid (olive oil barrels, I presume), but that fine wines should never be put into them. He also adds that wine should not be put into casks which have been used for rum, kirsch, vinegar, absinthe, vermouth, or any other liquor having a strong odor, traces of which will be preserved in the pores of the wood, even after the staves have been scraped.

Cask Borers.—There is a beetle which is very destructive of casks in California, which Mr. J. J. Rivers, curator of the museum of the University, describes as Sinoxlylon declive of the family of Bostrichidae. In a paper read before the Anthrozoic Club, and reported in the Rural Press, Vol. XX, p. 153, 1880, he states that at the request of Mr. Schram, of Napa county, he experimented with the insect in order to ascertain a remedy for the ruin caused by it. He says that “Its primary mischief is caused by the habit of the parent insect boring a hole three or more inches for the purpose of depositing eggs. As casks are usually much less than three inches in thickness, the beetle taps the liquid contents, and loss accrues by leakage. The remedy I first thought of was to select some species of wood suitable for cask making that would be unpalatable to this insect. My endeavors in that way have resulted in failure for the reason that this beetle appears to have no particular dislike to oak, chesnut, pine, whitewood, and several of the eucalypti. The next step was to saturate the outside of the cask with a strong solution of alum water applied hot, and when dry, a coat of linseed oil, this latter to prevent the alum from being washed out, as it would be in time. This proved a success, for all the examples treated with the solution were untouched, while the unprepared were riddled by the borer.” The insect is more destructive to casks stored in light places; it is therefore better to keep them in the dark.

The Size of the Casks is a matter of a good deal of importance. For shipping, the ordinary pipe or puncheon holding from 150 to 200 gallons is of a convenient size for handling, but for storing it is better to use as large a vessel as possible, and where the quantity stored is large, tuns of from 1000 to 3000 gallons or more in size are far preferable. In the first place, it is a well known fact that wine made at the same time, of grapes of like varieties, from the same vineyard, and under the same apparent conditions, turns out quite differently in different casks, and the contents of one cask may far excel in quality that of another. In order to insure uniformity in a large quantity of wine, it is necessary to store it in large receptacles.

Another, and perhaps still more important consideration, is that there is much less loss by evaporation when the wine is stored in large casks. The evaporation in a small barrel will be almost as great as in a cask three or four times the size, and to keep the small one full will require about the same amount of wine at each ulling, which must be performed nearly as often. There are two reasons for this: first, because the staves of small casks are thinner, and secondly, because in them a greater surface of wine is exposed to evaporation, according to the volume, than in the case of the larger vessel.

Guyot says, however, that the larger the receptacles, other conditions being equal, the more rapid the development of the wines, and the sooner they go through the periods of their life, and arrive at decrepitude. He says that the greater part of wines, especially light wines and white wines, cannot endure a long sojourn in tuns, vats, and cisterns. They go through the phases of their life with a rapidity fatal to their good qualities; nevertheless, this fact may be utilized to hasten the epoch when wine may be used or put upon the market; also to produce dry wines, to vinify sweet ones, and to age those of good body. If, therefore, his theory is well founded—and we know that fermentation once established is more active, if the mass is great—the intelligent man will act in this behalf as circumstances require. It would seem, however, that a large mass would be less affected by sudden changes of temperature, and therefore, better protected from their consequent ill effects.

And Boireau recommends that white wines be stored in tuns, when mature, as already mentioned. (See [Aging].)

CHAPTER IX.
SULPHURING—ARRESTING
FERMENTATION.

Casks are sulphured for the purpose of destroying the activity of the ferments contained in the lees which may remain in them, and thereby to prevent their moulding or souring, and must and wine are sulphured to prevent or to check fermentation, and white wine also to keep it from turning yellow.

Sulphurous Oxide, or Sulphur Dioxide, is produced by burning sulphur. It is a colorless gas, of a suffocating odor, and is composed of equal weights of sulphur and oxygen, or, one part of the former and two of the latter, SO₂, and with water becomes sulphurous acid. It arrests fermentation in two ways: first, it absorbs oxygen with avidity, and thereby removes what may be in the must or wine, or in the cask, thus taking away one of the conditions necessary to the life and activity of the ferment. (See [Fermentation].) In the second place, by the absorption of oxygen, sulphuric acid is formed from the sulphurous acid, in a highly concentrated state, which is destructive of the life of the ferment.

Fig. 13.

Sulphurer.

Fig. 14.

Maumené’s
Sulphurer.

The Sulphurer, or Sulphur Burner, the instrument used for the purpose indicated, consists of a wire with a hook at one end, and the other attached to the centre of a long, conical bung ([fig. 13]). It is convenient to have the upper end pass entirely through the bung, allowing the latter to move up and down on the wire, so that the hook can be raised or lowered, according to the position to be occupied in the cask. This is used by attaching the sulphur match to the hook and lowering it into the cask, after lighting it. The objection to this form of instrument is, that the coal or cinder left on the hook, after burning the match, may fall into the cask and give the wine an unpleasant flavor. To avoid this, Mr. Maumené invented a sulphurer, provided with a deep perforated porcelain cup, into which the match is placed and in which it burns, and which retains the carbonized linen ([fig. 14]). A piece of wire cloth bent into a cup of a similar form and attached to the lower end of the wire answers the purpose very well.

Sulphur Matches or Bands may be purchased, or they may be easily manufactured. To make them, melt roll brimstone (stick brimstone), or what is better, flowers of sulphur, over a slow fire (sulphur melts at 115° C. or 239° F.); tear linen or cotton cloth into strips an inch and a half wide and 10 or 12 inches long, and dip them into the melted sulphur, and lay them aside to cool. Then dip again, and repeat the process, dipping and cooling, till the coating of sulphur is of the required thickness, and they should be thickly coated, or it may be necessary to burn too much linen to get sufficient gas. If the sulphur is overheated, the match will be dark-colored.

Sweet scented powders are often added to the sulphur, whose essential oils are disengaged when the sulphur is burned, and the cask is perfumed by their vapors. The substances usually employed are ginger, cinnamon, the flowers of the stock gilly, iris, lavender, thyme, violet, etc., and the matches prepared with the addition of them is generally preferred.

Mr. Maumené says that the smallest amount of this volatile oil gives a perfume to the wine, which is generally advantageous, but Boireau is of opinion, however, that these substances check the combustion of the sulphur, and in a measure neutralize its action, and he prefers the sulphur pure.

To Sulphur a Cask, take a piece of the sulphur match and light it and lower it into the middle of the cask by means of the sulphur burner, and lightly put in the bung of the instrument. By applying the ear to the staves, it can be ascertained if the match is burning. If the air is foul in the cask, and the match will not burn, the noxious gas must be expelled as described under the head of Casks. When the fire is extinguished the burner is withdrawn, care being taken, if the hook is used, not to drop any of the carbonized linen into the cask. If that should happen, the cask must be washed again. As the burning sulphur fills the cask with gas, which exerts considerable pressure, care should be taken that the bung is not blown out into the face of the operator.

Sometimes a strip of the sulphured cloth is lighted at one end and lowered into the cask, the other end being secured by putting in the bung. This is objectionable, because it leaves the debris of the match sticking to the bung and the stave, which may give a disagreeable flavor to the wine. As already mentioned under the head of Casks, never burn a match in a cask containing alcohol.

To Sulphur Wine, if the cask is only partly full, operate the same as in sulphuring an empty cask, only care must be taken not to lower the match into the wine. Here the sulphur burner with a movable bung comes in play. If the cask is full, the gas may be drawn in by burning a match close to a hole bored in the head of the cask somewhat higher than the faucet, drawing from the latter at the same time. It is evident that while the wine runs from the lower hole, the gas will be drawn in at the vent. Where it is necessary to leave a cask with a vacancy in it for some time, flowers and souring may be prevented by burning in it a piece of sulphur match and bunging it up, and the process should be repeated every two weeks, and besides as often as the bung is removed for any purpose. It is better always to keep the cask full, for in time the sulphurous gas will communicate a disagreeable taste to the wine, which it takes a long time to remove.

Sulphuring should be Avoided in Certain Cases.—Ropy wines should not be sulphured, for the presence of oxygen is necessary in order to help their fermentation; nor should those wines be sulphured which it is desirable to keep in a state of effervescence. Sulphur should be very sparingly used in connection with red wines, as it causes them to lose a portion of their color by rendering insoluble the coloring matter, and precipitating it; and for the same reason it is used for bleaching white wines, and it prevents the latter from turning yellow. Liqueur wines which are slow of fermentation should not be sulphured, for they need all the natural aids to fermentation.

Fermentation is Arrested, sometimes, in the manufacture of white wines, by drawing them off into well sulphured casks, using two or three squares of the match, if the fermentation is not very tumultuous; but if it is very active, it may be treated as mentioned below for musts. And in most cases the proper practice is, where wine needs sulphuring, to draw it off into the sulphured cask, and in this way the oxygen contained in the wine is more thoroughly exposed to the action of the gas.

Unfermented Must.—By sulphuring the must, fermentation is prevented, and thereby is produced what the French call mute wine; and it is the must of white grapes as it comes from the press that is more generally subjected to the process. It is first allowed to settle as described in the chapter on white wine, but it must be drawn from the vat as soon as signs of fermentation appear, and bubbles of carbonic acid rise to the surface. And to have the must clear, it must be closely watched, for as soon as fermentation sets in, it becomes turbid. The must should be freed from all fragments of stems, skins, seeds, etc., and should therefore be strained as it runs from the press.

It is Prepared in Two Different Ways.—First, the cask must be scalded, rinsed, and drained in the usual way, and then as much sulphur must be burned in it as can be consumed, or until the match goes out for want of oxygen. Then the cask must be rapidly made half full of the must, and closely bunged. It should then be rolled and thoroughly shaken until the gas has been well absorbed by the juice. The must is then drawn off without allowing it to come in contact with the air (See [Racking]), and into another cask which has been sulphured in the same manner, and is treated as before. While the second cask is being agitated, sulphur is again burned in the one just emptied, until it goes out, and then the must is transferred back in the same manner, and is again shaken. It is subjected to this operation four times, and the cask is finally filled with must treated in the same way, and tightly bunged. The more successful will the operation be, the more the liquid is kept from contact with the air, and therefore this method is preferable to the next. The second method is as follows: burn in an empty cask matches representing a couple of ounces of sulphur; pour in about five gallons of must, bung it up and thoroughly shake; take out the bung and put in another lighted match; if it will not burn for want of oxygen, the air must be renewed by blowing in the cask with a bellows. Then burn the match in the cask, and afterwards pour in five gallons more of must, bung and shake as before. Continue the process till the cask lacks about five gallons of being full. Then five gallons must be sulphured in another cask, and the cask filled up with this and tightly bunged. Of course, the sulphur burner must be shortened as the cask fills up.

Must treated in this manner may be kept for a long time if well clarified, and the cask is well sulphured at each racking, or a portion sulphured when it commences to ferment.

If it is only necessary to keep the must a short time, a portion only, say one-third, need be sulphured. In that case there will be less odor of sulphur, and it will soon pass away.

Clarification and Care of Unfermented Must.—It should be kept in good, strong casks, well hooped and well bunged, in closed cellars of a constant temperature. The casks should be filled every few days with sulphured must; and they should be frequently racked to free them from ferments. They should not be exposed to the air when racking, and should be racked into well sulphured casks. Boireau says that the must may be completely clarified before sulphuring, by introducing about one ounce of tannin per 100 gallons of must, and pouring into the casks before completely filling about a quart of water in which has been dissolved about four tablets of gelatine, and which has become cold.

A Sulphur Flavor is sometimes communicated to must treated as above, and is also sometimes acquired by wines which are put into casks which have been sulphured for some time, without first washing them, and also by allowing the debris of the sulphur match to fall into the cask; this flavor is apt to pass away with time if not very pronounced, or in that case may be removed by racking into a clean cask. But if the wine has a very decided sulphur flavor, it must be disinfected by wood charcoal. Several large pieces[3] of coal well cleaned and well dried are introduced into the cask and soaked in the wine, from which they can be withdrawn by strings attached before putting them in the cask. Forty-eight hours are generally sufficient to remove the flavor; but if necessary, the process may be repeated, by changing the charcoal. In operating on white wines, a large amount of charcoal may be used without inconvenience, but in the case of red wine, there seems to be some danger of depriving it of a portion of its color. Mr. Maumené says, however, that the charcoal is liable to deprive the wine of the carbonic acid dissolved in it, it being an absorbent of that gas, and thereby rendering the wine more subject to the action of oxygen.

Other Substances have been recommended to Prevent Fermentation in a Must, but notwithstanding the disagreeable flavor which is communicated by an excessive use of sulphur, no other agent has been found which is as satisfactory, on the whole.

By Burning Alcohol in the Cask, the oxygen may be removed, but the ferments are not destroyed. Care must be taken to avoid an explosion. Therefore, the spirit must not be poured into the cask and lighted, but must be placed in a small vessel and lowered in through the bung, as in the case of sulphuring.

The Concentrated Aqueous Solution of Sulphurous Acid has been recommended, but Maumené says that not only is its preservation very difficult, but its management is more difficult than the sulphur match, and the chances of its being mixed with dangerous substances are considerable; and therefore no one should think of using it.

The Bisulphite of Lime has been used to prevent fermentation in wine and cider, but it does not always give satisfactory results, and the salt is difficult to keep, and the use for wine, at least, has generally been abandoned. In the experiments of Proust, given by Maumené, the smallest quantity used was 15 grammes to 100 kilogrammes of must, or about one-half ounce to 23 gallons.

Salicylic Acid has been much recommended within the past few years, but like everything else, it affects the flavor, if sufficient is used to prevent fermentation. The quantity necessary depends upon the amount of alcohol, ferments, etc., contained in the wine. Prof. Neubauer, quoted by H. Endemann in American Chemist, says that wine which is yet fermenting should not receive any salicylic acid, since too large quantities of the substance are required for effective use, but that it may be used in wine when made to prevent after-fermentation; that it will prevent disease, but will not cure wine when diseased. Though infallible rules as to quantity cannot be given, experiments should be made with from .02 to .06 gramme per litre, or say from 1.165 to 3.5 grains per gallon. A solution of 2 grammes (30.864 grains) of salicylic acid to 100 c.c. (3.38 fluid ounces) of alcohol of 80° is employed; 1 c.c. = 0.02 grammes; 3 c.c. = 0.06 grammes; 61.44 minims or a little more than one fluidram = 1.165 grains, and 3.7 fluidrams = 3.5 grains. Salicylic acid being but sparingly soluble in water, it is preferable to dissolve in strong alcohol, and these are convenient proportions.

It is said that 100 grammes (3½ Ap. ounces) will stop the fermentation of 1000 litres (about 264 gals.) of must, when nearly completed; 800 grammes are necessary when in active fermentation; and 400 will preserve the wine when made.

But now the intelligence comes that salicylic acid has an injurious effect upon the teeth and bones, it having an affinity for calcareous salts (Boston Journal of Chemistry, Vol. XI, 143), and the French Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, on the report of the Committee of Public Hygiene, recommends that the sale of articles of food adulterated with it be prohibited as injurious to the public health. (Ib. Vol. XV., 45.)

CHAPTER X.
AGING—EFFECTS OF
VARIOUS INFLUENCES.

General Considerations.—Wines, from the time of their first fermentation down to the time of their degeneration and decay, are constantly undergoing change. Until they have acquired a certain age, varying in each case with the quality and nature of the liquid, they do not possess those qualities which make them an agreeable, healthful beverage. The care to be bestowed upon them in their general treatment not only includes what is necessary for their preservation, but also what is necessary to age them by developing in them all the good qualities of which they are susceptible, and the means of preventing and remedying their defects and diseases.

A New Wine, when first fermented, is quite different from one even a few months old, in respect to color, flavor, and aroma. But the quality which it may acquire depends upon the proportion of different substances which it contains. Some wines, poor in alcohol and deficient in tannin, will develop their best qualities and begin to degenerate very soon after fermentation. Such should be consumed as soon as their insensible fermentation is completed; it is useless to attempt to age them; while those which are stout, firm and full-bodied must be kept several years to be completely developed.

The Bouquet and Distinctive Flavor of a wine, according to Mr. Boireau, generally, are not perfectly developed until defecation is complete—that is to say, until, after several months’ repose under proper conditions, they have ceased to deposit insoluble matters, and no longer mineral and vegetable salts, ferments, and coloring matter are precipitated.

Old Wine, then, differs from a new wine of the same origin by its color, its aroma, and flavor, and the difference is due to several causes.

The Color of old red wine is less dark on account of the precipitation of a part of the coloring matter, which, rendered insoluble by the formation of different combinations, has been carried down with the lees. The red color becomes tawny in time.

The Aroma of old wine is more agreeable, being largely due to ethers which are formed by a combination of the alcohol with the acids, and because the other aromatic principles are no longer masked by the carbonic acid which is disengaged when the wine has been recently fermented.

The Difference in Flavor is due to several causes, such as the loss of a great part of the mineral and vegetable salts, which have become insoluble by combination with the tartaric, acetic, and malic acid, and their consequent precipitation, and also to the deposit of a portion of the coloring matter.

So that when a wine is old, having been well cared for, it contains less coloring matter, vegetable and mineral salts, acids free and combined, tannin, ferments, mucilage, alcohol, etc., than when first fermented.

Influences which Develop, also Destroy.—Pellicot, quoting Béchamp, says that a wine ages and improves under influences analogous to those which spoil it, and he, himself, carries the idea a little farther, and adds, that the influence which produces the amelioration in a wine—which ages it—will, after having brought about the improvement, cause it to deteriorate, unless its action is opportunely suspended.

It must also be understood that certain influences which will greatly improve a strong, alcoholic, or a sweet wine, might in a short time entirely ruin a weaker one, or a dry wine.

Influence of the Air.—When a wine of ordinary strength, a table wine, comes into immediate contact with the air, a portion of its alcohol evaporates, it loses its bouquet and flavor, and if long exposed, a whitish scum is formed on its surface, called flowers. These have already been described in the chapter on fermentation as micoderma vini and micoderma aceti. A disagreeable flavor is communicated to the wine which the French call goût d’ évent, and the wine is said to be éventé, or flat; and it becomes turbid, and loses its transparency. Sometimes when the wine still contains sugar the flowers are not formed, but a second alcoholic fermentation sets in, and it works. If the wine is not immediately freed from contact with the air, it acidifies, becomes pricked, and by degrees turns to vinegar. (See [Acetic Fermentation].) And if still longer exposed, putrid fermentation sets in.

Sweet wines, whose alcoholic strength exceeds 16 per cent., and which contain a good deal of sugar, are not so liable to be injured by the influence of the air. Not only does their high degree of spirit interfere with acetic and putrid fermentation, but an insensible alcoholic fermentation sometimes takes place, and the supply of alcohol is kept up. But in time, as the sugar disappears, the alcohol becomes enfeebled by evaporation, and then acetic fermentation sets in, as in the weaker wines.

In the sherry countries it is considered necessary that the wine should be exposed to the action of the air, and therefore the casks are not kept full, and flowers are considered a good sign. In a few instances, where the wines are strong enough to bear it, aging may be hastened by some exposure to the air, but great care must be taken that they are not left too long under its influence, or disorganization may ensue. It must, however, be laid down as an almost universal rule, that the casks must be kept full and well bunged. (See [Ulling].)

Variations of Temperature affect wines like other liquids by contraction and expansion. When a full cask is put in a cold place, the wine contracts and leaves a vacant space; then it must be filled up or the wine drawn into a smaller cask. If the temperature of the wine in a full cask is raised, the liquid expands, and is apt to cause leaks; the sediment is liable to rise and give the wine a flavor of the lees.

Influence of Heat.—Guyot says that the higher the degree of heat to which wines are exposed, the greater their internal activity. Those subjected to 15, 20, 30 degrees, Celsius, (59°, 68°, 86° F.), sooner arrive at maturity, if young, at old age, if ripe, and at decrepitude, if old, than they would at a temperature of 10° C. (50° F.) From which the conclusion is drawn, that wines which have nearly or quite reached their maturity must be protected from heat, or at least from that of an elevated temperature, and that old wines should be kept in as cool a place as possible.

Aging by Heat.—On the other hand, if we wish to hasten the maturity of our wines, we can do so by keeping them in a warm place rather than in a cool cellar. The younger the wines, and the more sugar and alcohol they contain, the more they will gain, and the less risk will they run if subjected to a temperature of from 60° to 86° F. For example, sweet wines which are only ripe at thirty or forty years will mature in fifteen or twenty years, at 68° of heat, and in five or ten years, at 86°; a Bordeaux or a Hermitage wine which at 50° would be made in eight or ten years, would certainly be made in four or five years at from 59° to 68°, and in two or three years at 77° or 86° of heat. He says that a temperature between 40° and 90° C. (104° and 194° F.) will disorganize many kinds of wine, particularly red wines and those which have remained long in the fermenting vat, though it will not have that effect upon all wines.

It is well known that the inhabitants of many southern countries are accustomed to expose their wines to a considerable degree of heat to hasten their maturity, and different methods are employed for the purpose, and it is important to know what kind of wine will be improved and what injured by the practice. On this subject Boireau says, that after many experiments, he can affirm that if the heat exceeds 30° C. (86° F.), it is injurious to the grand mellow wines of the Gironde; also to wines of a delicate bouquet whose alcoholic strength does not exceed 12 per cent. Fine wines which possess both an aromatic taste and bouquet, a fruity flavor, and a pronounced mellowness, by heat take on a certain tawny flavor of worn out wine; but they become dry, lose their mellowness, and coolness, and acquire a cooked flavor, which changes their nature and gives them an analogy with the wines of the south of France. This taste covers their natural flavor and renders them common.

He goes on to say that wines subjected to the action of heat in direct contact with the air, loss by evaporation a part of their alcohol; the oxygen deprives them of a part of their color, and if the influence is prolonged, they become weak and greatly deteriorated. Exposed to heat in imperfectly closed vessels, they deposit, and take the tawny flavor (goût de rancio) if their alcoholic strength exceeds 16 per cent.; but if feeble in spirit, and they remain long in this condition, the oxygen transforms a part of their alcohol into vinegar. In receptacles kept full and well stopped, they undergo but few constitutional changes, if the heat does not exceed 158° F.; but, nevertheless, a small part of their coloring matter is precipitated, and their taste is sensibly changed. A flavor of cooked wine is found, and a slight odor of the lees, no matter how quick the heating.

Whatever the kind of wine operated upon, care must be taken not to carry the heat too high, for it will decompose and precipitate certain principles in dissolution in the wine, and change its natural flavor. After cooling, voluminous deposits will be found, and the cooking will give the wine a disagreeable flavor and an odor of the residue of a still. The extreme limits of from 113° to 158° F. should not be exceeded, and the greater the heat the shorter should be the exposure to it.

Generally speaking, the wines which gain the most by heating, either by artificial means or by leaving them in casks well bunged, but in ullage, in warm store rooms, are strongly fortified liqueur wines. And in order that they be not injured under those conditions, they should contain at least 18 per cent. of pure alcohol. And as they will gradually lose a little of their spirit by evaporation, their alcoholic strength should be taken from time to time, and they should be kept up to the indicated degree by fortifying.

Preserving Wine by Heat.—Aside from the question of aging wine by the effect of heat, Pasteur has attempted to show that wines can be kept without change, if the temperature is raised for a short time to 130° or 140° F. This is on the theory that wines become flat, pricked, turned, or rotten, owing to secondary fermentations, and that each change is due to the action of a particular ferment, as stated in the chapter on fermentation; and that this degree of heat destroys the action of these ferments—in fact, kills them. It is owing to the presence of the alcohol, that they are destroyed by this degree of heat, for a must which has been raised to the boiling point still ferments according to the experience of Boireau and of Pellicot. The first named gives the results of his experiments in heating wines according to Pasteur’s plan. The wine was in bottles, and the heat was gradually raised to 52° C. (125.6° F.) In comparing the wines treated with unheated wines kept under the same conditions, he found that the wine which had been heated could support contact with the air with less injury than the unheated, but that nevertheless it became flat, covered with flowers, and acidified even in closed vessels which were not completely full; also that fine wines generally are injured by the process. The wines experimented upon had from 10 to 10½ per cent. of alcohol.

It is a costly process to subject wine to a high artificial heat, and owing to the doubt which yet seems to attend the matter, but few are likely to go to the expense.

Influence of Cold.—Most authors have something to say on the subject of congealed wines, and undoubtedly the liquid may be concentrated by freezing a portion of the water, and drawing off the remaining liquid. Those living in cold countries can try the experiment, but it will certainly not be practiced in California.

Mr. Boireau says that the liquid remaining acquires a flavor similar to that possessed by wines which have been heated; that fine wines of a delicate bouquet and flavor acquire a commoner flavor than those in their normal state.

Treatment of Frozen Wines.—It may not be amiss to indicate what treatment a wine should receive in case it has been frozen and has thawed again. It becomes turbid, loses part of its color, and several matters are precipitated, or remain in suspension, and it is liable to ferment when the temperature rises. The last named author says that it should be put in a place of even temperature, and if necessary, it should be fined; in which case it should be fortified with a strong wine of the same nature, or a small amount of brandy.

Influence of Light.—Guyot says that the direct light of the sun causes wine to work, especially red wine, and that it has an injurious effect upon its composition and color; and the coloring matter being decomposed, or modified, acts upon the other elements and makes the wine turn. And hence the wisdom of putting wine in colored bottles. It is only the direct light of the sun, however, that is to be avoided, for a dim light, light reflected or polarized, and moonlight and artificial light are not sufficiently powerful to produce a sensible effect.

Aging by Sunlight.—Exposure to the rays of the sun has been resorted to for the purpose of aging wine, but Boireau says that it is not favorable to all, and is least suited to those whose alcoholic strength does not exceed 15 per cent. He says that the direct rays of the sun falling upon bottled wines will promptly precipitate the coloring matter, and that the effect is greater where the bottles are not completely filled and corked with the needle. If the bottles are wrapped in paper, or if the wine is in casks, the aging is less rapid. He shows by experiment that insolation is advantageous only to wines of more than 15 per cent. of alcohol, to sweet wines, and wines fortified up to 18°, intended to be treated as the wines of Madeira, i. e., baked. But wines of about 10 per cent. of spirit will not endure this method of aging without more or less deterioration by souring.

Effect of the Motion of Voyages.—Wines age more rapidly if kept in motion, and hence, in part, the good effect of a long voyage. Strong, sweet wines, are undoubtedly greatly improved by the motion consequent on transportation, as well as by the heat, but constant agitation will cause weak ones to go rapidly through the periods of their existence, and degenerate.

Wines Suitable for Shipment.—And Dr. Guyot adds that a wine which does not contain 12 per cent. of alcohol and 6 per cent. of sugar, crosses the equator with great difficulty, even in bottles. In wood it should be young and contain 20 per cent. of spirit, or sufficient sugar to make up that amount. For a voyage in Europe, or to America direct, he says that the wines of Bordeaux, Burgundy, and of Champagne, of 10 to 12 per cent. of spirit and 2 to 4 per cent. of sugar, behave well if young or in bottles.

Mr. Boireau, however, says that wines proper for exportation, and which will keep in tropical climates, where good cellars and good care are generally wanting, are those which possess naturally or by addition a high alcoholic title, a solid, but bright and handsome color, a clean taste, and perfect limpidity. Sweet, fortified wines best fulfil these conditions. He says that liqueur wines, for shipping to the tropics, should have at least 18 per cent. of pure alcohol; below that they ferment, their saccharine matter is transformed into alcohol, their strength diminishes, and they end by becoming pricked. Dry wines, to be sent to those countries, should have the same strength, unless the casks are kept full. He adds, however, that these remarks only apply to those wines which on their arrival do not receive the usual care, such as filling the casks, clarifying and racking, and are not kept in suitable places; and that a good firm wine of the south of France, which has naturally at least 12 per cent. of alcohol, can be shipped without fortifying.

The motion and the high temperature to which wines are subjected in transportation also cause a loss of color by precipitation, particularly if they lack tannin. Wines which are sufficiently strong in alcohol, but from lack of tannin want firmness and body, are liable to acidify. Therefore, wines too poor in tannin should not be shipped abroad. The greater part of the wines of the Gironde having plenty of tannin, can be safely shipped if fortified to 11 per cent., and the grand wines of less alcohol are safe if shipped in bottles.

In Shipping a New Wine, whose sensible fermentation is finished, the motion often causes a new disengagement of carbonic acid, and sometimes in sufficient force to burst out a head of the cask, unless vented. Of course, such wine should not be shipped, except under conditions which admit of careful supervision. If transported short distances, a small gimlet hole should be kept open near the bung, in which three or four straws may be placed with the heads or spikes on, or a small tin tube with a button at the top may be placed in the hole and bent inside the stave, having sufficient play to allow the gas to escape. Must is shipped in the same way.

Other Motion, such as Jarring and Trembling, produced by loud noises and bypassing teams and by factories, act injuriously upon wines, causing them to behave badly and to deteriorate. Guyot also says what may be by some deemed fanciful, that musical sounds hasten the development of wine; and that most old wines will turn in a cellar transformed into a music hall.

Fining is also resorted to for the purpose of aging wine, producing results somewhat similar to the effects of time. But it should be performed with the care and subject to the conditions mentioned in the proper place. (See [Fining].)

Aging Generally.—Before subjecting a wine to any of the processes for artificial aging, care should be taken, says Mr. Boireau, to precipitate the matters held in suspension, and to render it perfectly limpid.

Grand wines, however, should never be subjected to the treatment, for if a premature development of bouquet is obtained, it is at the expense of that precious quality, mellowness. For to-day, gourmets and consumers of refined taste do not select wines which have a bouquet, if they are also dry and harsh to the palate; such wines are only too plenty. They esteem above all those wines which in aging have kept their fruity flavor, their velvety smoothness, that unctuosity which can only be preserved in keeping them in a place having a regular temperature (averaging 60°), in well closed receptacles, by bringing about the defecation of their lees and the deposit of their ferments by opportune rackings without contact with the air, and by fining them as little as possible.

If, for want of care or suitable places, the wines work, enter into fermentation, their mellowness diminishes, and when neglected they become dry.

The Wines which Gain the Most by the Aging Processes mentioned, are: 1st, Wines excessively rough and overcharged with color; 2d, fortified wines, whose minimum degree of alcohol is 18 per cent.; 3d, sweet wines fortified to 18 or 20 per cent.

Those which remain too harsh should be fined with a strong dose of gelatine; continued agitation after this will make them smoother.

Fortified wines, dry or sweet, age very quickly, if subjected to agitation and afterwards to insolation, if followed by a complete clarification; but it is important to fortify them anew, for the alcohol evaporates, and below 15 per cent. they would sour instead of acquiring bouquet. It is also sometimes necessary to add sugar to sweet wines so treated.

CHAPTER XI.
GENERAL TREATMENT—CELLARS.

Unfortified, or Table Wines.—After what has been said in the last chapter of the different effects produced by the various influences to which wine may be subjected, it remains to point out the proper care and treatment to be bestowed upon unfortified table wines, whose alcoholic strength does not exceed 15 per cent. The three essential conditions indicated by Mr. Boireau are:

1. They should be protected from the contact of the air.

2. They should be kept in a uniform temperature.

3. They should be freed from their lees, ferments, and deposits; they must become perfectly clear, and their degeneration be prevented.

It is very important to taste them, and keep close watch over them by frequent visiting, in order to prevent secondary fermentations and their consequent injurious results, particularly in the case of mellow wines, which thereby transform into alcohol the mucilages and pectines which they contain, and lose their fruity flavor. (See [Red Wine], [White Wine], etc.)

Deposits, Lees, etc.—It is important that they should be freed from ferments and deposits, for muddy, troubled wines are predisposed to secondary fermentations, alcoholic or acetic; they readily contract the bad taste of the lees, bitterness, etc. In all wines, the work of clearing is constantly going on; different matters, among others, coloring matter, several mineral and vegetable salts, etc., which were dissolved in the wine, become insoluble, and these with a portion of the tannin are precipitated to the bottom of the vessel or remain in suspension. It is these matters with the ferments which constitute the lees. Wines deposit more or less, according to their nature and the care bestowed in their making. The most voluminous deposits take place during the first year, and they diminish in volume and consistency at each racking, if properly cared for. When they have become well settled and bright, and have achieved their complete development, the deposit is almost nothing. But it increases anew when the wine declines and begins to degenerate.

To Prevent this Degeneration, and to keep fully developed wines, they must be put into bottles. (See [Wine in Bottles].)