HISTORY OF THE RIFLE.
Invention of the rifle.
We shall now direct our attention to the rifle,—its invention is ascribed to Gaspard Zollner, of Vienna, towards the end of the fifteenth century.
1466.
The first society for firing with the arquebuss was founded at Bâle, in Switzerland.
Rifles at Leipsic, 1498.
In the practice of firing at a mark, at Leipsic, 1498, the greater part of the Sharpshooters or Marksmen, were armed with the Rifles.
Rifles used first for amusement.
At first, Rifle arms were used only for amusement, and sometimes for the defence of places, but very rarely as weapons of war in the field.
Rifles used in war.
Their employment in a campaign only dates from a little before the middle of the seventeenth century.
Landgrave of Hesse, 1631.
In 1631, the Landgrave William of Hesse had three companies of Chasseurs, armed with rifles.
Elector Maximilian, 1645.
In 1645, the Elector Maximilian of Bavaria formed three regiments of Chasseurs, armed with rifles which he intended to employ principally in the minor operations of war.
Frederick William of Prussia, 1674.
In 1647, Frederick William of Prussia, in his campaign on the Rhine, distributed in each company of infantry, some light infantry and Riflemen.
Frederick the Great in Seven Years’ War.
Frederick the Great, in order to counterbalance the Austrian Light Troops, more particularly the Tyrolese Marksmen, whose fire was exceedingly deadly, felt obliged during the seven years’ war to add a company of trained light infantry to the effective strength of each battalion.
Rifles in France, 1674.
In France the Cavalry were supplied with rifles before the Infantry. Towards 1674 Louis XIV. created some squadrons of Cavalry armed with “Carabines rayées.” The name was given in France to all arms which were grooved, and it also served for the name of the corps which were first armed with them, viz., “Carabins.”
Rifles in English Life Guards.
In 1680 eight rifle carbines were carried in each troop of English Life Guards.
Rifles in Sweden, 1691.
In 1691 the Non-Commissioned Officers of the Swedish Dragoons received the rifled carabin, and in 1700 those of the Prussian Cavalry received the same rifled arms.
Experiments in England, 1776.
Experiments were tried with rifled small arms in England in the year 1776.
We read in the Scots’ Magazine, vol. 36, that “the Guards are every day practising the use of the Rifle Gun in Hyde Park. On Saturday, April 27th, 1776, their Majesties attended a Review of the Rifle-men yesterday, and were much pleased with the dexterity of the officer, who loaded and fired several times in a minute, and hit the mark each time. He lies upon his back when he discharges his piece.”
Rifles in Austria, 1778.
Austria kept 2000 Sharpshooters, having double carbines, which were supplied with a crotch to rest them upon while shooting. Only one of the barrels was rifled.
Rifles in French infantry, 1793.
In 1793 the first model carbine for French Infantry was made at Versailles; at the same time the model for Cavalry was also fixed. Rifles were soon abandoned in the French Army; they deemed them of more trouble than profit.
Rifles, English, 1794.
In 1794 the English adopted the Rifle, which, I fancy, was first used by a Battalion of the 60th, or Royal American Regiment.
Rifles numerous in Austria, 1796.
In 1796 there were in the Austrian Army 15 Battalions of Light Infantry, the greater part of whom were armed with Rifles.
Rifles for the 95th regt., 1800.
In 1800, Rifles were placed in the hands of the 95th Regiment, now the Rifle Brigade of four Battalions. These Rifles weighed about 101⁄2lbs. each, with the sword. They were sighted for 100 and 200 yards, with seven grooves, having a quarter turn in the length of the barrel, which was about 2 feet 6 inches, the length of the Rifle 3 feet 10 inches, weight of sword 1lb., diameter of bore ·623. The locks were excellent, and had a detent, to prevent the nose of the sear catching at half cock, and it had a bolt, to prevent its going off at half cock. The ball was spherical, and driven in with a mallet, which was afterwards dispensed with, and a greased patch substituted.
Rifle ball in two sizes.
During the Peninsular War, our Riflemen were supplied with balls of two sizes, the easiest fitting being designed for use where celerity of loading was required. Baker, who made these Rifles, says in his Work, 1825, Range of English rifle.“I have found 200 yards the greatest range I could fire to any certainty. At 300 yards I have fired very well at times, when the wind has been calm. At 400 yards, and at 500 yards, I have frequently fired, and have sometimes struck the object, though I have found it to vary much.”
Rifles in 7th and 10th Dragoons.
Colonel Dickson, R.A., says, “In the early part of the present century, there was also introduced a rifle-arm for cavalry. The barrel 20 inches, calibre 20 bore, grooves 7, having the same pitch as those for the infantry; the 7th and 10th light cavalry were the only regiments armed with them, but they were soon discontinued from being considered as unfit for cavalry service.”
Brunswick rifle.
The Brunswick rifle was introduced in 1836. Weight with bayonet 11lbs. 5oz., length of barrel 2ft. 6-in., bore ·704. Two deep spiral grooves with one turn in the length of the barrel. Sighted for 100, 200, and 300 yards. Bullet spherical and belted, diameter ·696. Weight of bullet 557 grains. The shooting of this arm was superior to our first rifle, although the loading was not so easy as was desired, and a great disadvantage existed in the bullet and cartridge being separate in the soldier’s pouch, the grooves were deeper and rounder than those of the ordinary rifle, the projecting zone of the ball was made to fit the grooves, the ball was wrapped in a linen patch dipped in grease. It was found that, although the rifle loaded easily at first, after constant firing the barrel became very foul, rendering loading nearly as difficult as under the old system of the indented ball. The belt on the ball caused considerable friction while passing through the air. ([Plate 20], fig. 1).
Merits of the Brunswick rifle.
By a committee of officers assembled at Enfield, it was determined that all firing with the Brunswick beyond 400 yards was too wild to give a correct angle of elevation. It was tested at Antwerp in 1844, in an experiment extending to 44,000 rounds, and declared to be the worst tried.
Improvements from France.
From France chiefly have proceeded most of the modern improvements in fire-arms.
French at discount without rifles.
The original French rifle (like our own) was loaded by force with a strong ramrod and mallet, and they found that it gave precision with diminution of range. For these reasons during the early campaigns of the French Revolution, the rifle was given up in the French army; but as their Chasseurs were found to be unequally matched against those of other armies, who surpassed them in accuracy as marksmen, a series of experiments were carried on at different times, with a view to its reintroduction into their service. No satisfactory result was obtained until the occupation of Algeria, Captain Delvigne’s first step to restore rifles in France.when Mons. Delvigne, of the Guarde Royale, took the first step in its restoration. In the flying wars kept up against them by Abd-el-Kader, they found that masses of their men were struck by Arab balls at distances where the French muskets were apparently powerless, and this they afterwards found arose from the long matchlocks of their enemies being fired at a much greater elevation than was ever thought of by European troops. The French desired to be on an equality with Arabs.In order to put themselves on an equality with their enemies, Mons. Delvigne showed in 1828 how the rifle bullet could be made to enter the piece easily, and quit it in a forced state; a method of loading as easy and simple as that of a smooth-bore arm. Expansion by chamber.Expansion was obtained by the introduction of a chamber in the bore, which furnished an annular surface to receive the bullet, and on its being struck a small blow with the rammer it was expanded into the grooves. ([Plate 20], fig. 2). Defects of chambered rifle.The objection to the chambered rifle, was that after frequently firing, a residuum collected which eventually left the powder less room in the chamber, and of necessity it then reached above the shoulder of the latter, so that the ball resting upon the powder instead of upon the shoulder of the chamber, was not so readily dilated by the strokes of the ramrod into the grooves. To remedy this defect the wooden sabot and greased patch ([plate 20], fig. 3) were suggested by Colonel Poncharra, in 1833, Poncharra Delvigne rifle 1833.introduced into the French army 1839, and employed in Algeria, 1840, but several inconveniences attended its use.
Carabine à Tige, 1842.
Colonel Thouvenin endeavoured to overcome these difficulties by fixing at the bottom of the bore an iron shank, around which was placed the powder. This stem, ([plate 20], fig. 4) stopping the bullet, allowed it to be struck in such a manner as to cause the lead to penetrate into the grooves. Defects of Tige.There is much fouling at the breech, and around the pillar of these rifles. They are difficult to clean, the soldier having to carry an instrument for this purpose. Tige introduced, 1846.The Chasseurs and Zouaves of the African Army were armed with the tige in 1846.
At first a spherical ball had been used, and then a solid cylindro-conical bullet was resorted to; ([Plate 20], fig. 6.) Messrs. Delvigne and Minié having long previously experimented with hollow cylindro-conical projectiles.
Minié iron cup.
Some years after these experiments, Captain Minié proposed the adoption of a bullet which should receive its expansion by placing an iron cup in the hollow of the base, which should be driven up by the gas, and force the walls of the cavity outwards, thus making them enter the grooves. ([Plate 20], fig. 7.) French army 1850.In 1850 the Fusil rayé with balle à culot was put into the hands of some French regiments of the line, and since then the French Imperial Guard have been armed with the old musket rifled, and a hollow bullet without a cup.
At present it is understood that the French are rifling all their smooth bore arms, and the Russians are doing the same.
Prussian. army.
The Prussians have many thousands of their infantry armed with a breech-loading long range Rifle. Russian riflemen.The Russian Army is to have fifty-four rifle regiments, with a rifle company to each other regiment of Infantry. Austrian riflemen.The Austrians are busy at work, according to their means. The Tyrol has always supplied them with a large number of marksmen. Belgium.The Belgians are, I believe, universally armed with rifles, Portugal.and even the little Kingdom of Portugal has ordered 28,000 rifles from Belgium.
Conoidal bullet, with Brunswick.
Subsequent to the French experiments with the conoidal bullet, and the great results obtained over the spherical from it, it was proposed to adapt a conoidal bullet to the Brunswick Rifle. ([Plate 20], fig 5.) This was done as an experiment, and succeeded very well, but at the same time the new arm, Minié rifle, introduced, 1851.called the Minié pattern, 1851, was also tried, and the shooting exhibited greater accuracy with this latter arm. Nothing further was done with the Brunswick rifle and conoidal bullet; and the (then called) “new regulation Minié,” was introduced into the service by the late Marquis of Anglesea, Master-General of Ordnance, with the approval of the late Duke of Wellington. Its weight with bayonet, was 10lbs. 83⁄4ozs., bore ·702, four spiral grooves, with one turn in 6 feet 6-in., powder, 21⁄2 drs., bullet, 680 grs., with iron cup, diameter of bullet, ·690, windage, ·012. Performance and angle of Minié.When the axis is parallel to the ground at 4 feet 6-in. above it, the first graze is about 177 yards, and the angle of elevation at 800 yards, is 3° 25.
Consequences of improvements in military rifles.
A few years previous to the Russian war, rifles had attained to a degree of improvement in structure and adaptability to the general purpose of war, which threatened subversion to the established notions of the military world.
Probable effect on artillery.
The artillery arm was menaced in its long rested monopoly of range and precision, with an equilibrium in hands it had never dreamed to find it; one which not alone would curb the wonted dash of field batteries to within the “shortest range,” On cavalry.but also impress a more than wonted respect upon the best led and most daring cavalry, for even the thinnest formation of that arm, which it had hitherto been taught to despise. Minié in Kaffir war.The Minié was first used in the Kaffir war, and next at Alma and Inkerman, when it proved that the gallant Marquis had advanced a step in the right direction; who had ordered 28,000, but quarrels taking place among the contractors this order was never completed. Bullet improved.The accuracy of firing from the Minié was improved by altering the form of the bullet from conoidal to cylindro-conoidal, ([plate 20], fig. 8.) and the iron cup from hemispherical to a conical shape with a hole in the apex.
Lord Hardinge’s desire for improvement.
Lord Hardinge, succeeding to the post of Master-General, and after to that of Commander-in-Chief, zealously followed out the prosecution of the now becoming fixed idea, the general adoption for British infantry, of a pattern rifle-musket, which should combine lightness with solidity, precision, and superior range. Lord Hardinge opened competition to the leading British gun makers, when the following sent in muskets for trial, viz:—Purdy, Westley Richards, Lancaster, Wilkinson, and Greener. Experiments at Enfield.The Minié pattern, (51), and Brunswick, (36), were also subjected to a course of trial before the committee assembled at Enfield, in 1852, for the purpose of determining the best description of fire-arm for military service.
Merits of the Brunswick.
The Brunswick rifle showed itself to be very much inferior in point of range to every arm hitherto tried. The loading was so difficult, that it is wonderful how the rifle regiments can have continued to use it so long, the force required to ram down the ball was so great as to render a man’s hand much too unsteady for accurate shooting. Colonel Gordon, says, “It should be noticed here with the exception of Mr. Wilkinson, every one of the makers changed either his musket or projectile during the trials, thereby causing them to be protracted much beyond the time originally intended.”
All had reduced bores.
The diameter of the bore of all the new muskets was less than that hitherto in use, Elongated bullets.all the bullets were elongated and had auxiliaries for expansion, being metallic, or in one case a horn plug, one pattern had cannelures Reversed cartridge.and the whole required the cartridge to be reversed in loading. Best shooting from short rifle.It is worthy of remark that the best shooting at these trials was from a short rifle made at Enfield, which was named the artillery carbine, but not the one now used by the Royal Artillery. The barrel was only 2 feet 6-in. long, and the projectile cylindro-conoidal, with an iron cup weighing 620 grains; thus proving that great length of barrel is not absolutely necessary in a rifle; but a certain length of barrel is required to fire in double ranks, and so that the weapon may be effectually used as a pike. Advantage of small bore.With a small bore, a greater number of rounds of ammunition may be carried, greater penetration, velocity, lower trajectory, and more accuracy, than with larger projectiles of equal weight. Disadvantages of small bore.The alleged disadvantages of small bore are, the slender form of cartridge and the smaller hole made in a man’s body, as stated to be proved in the case of wild animals, in proof of which it is said that they are found to run further when wounded with a small ball, than they do with a large one; but this reasoning does not seem applicable to the human race, for it is presumed that few men would be found willing to move far when wounded by a musket ball, whether the hole in their body was ·702 or ·530 of an inch in diameter.
Objection to reversing the cartridge.
An absurd objection was stated as to reversing the cartridge, viz:—that drill with blank would be performed in a different manner to firing ball, and that in action the soldier would forget to reverse his cartridge, and put in the ball first. As we now always perform our drill, and as our present blank cartridges require to be reversed or will not ignite, this objection is removed. It also was said that mice, rats, &c., &c., would eat off the lubricating mixture!!
It was proposed to give the Enfield, (1853,) a back sight to 900 yards, when an outcry was raised against the monstrous proposition of giving to every common soldier a delicately made back sight, whether he knew how to use it or not!!! and those rifles first issued, were only sighted to 300 yards.
The Enfield rifle.
At the conclusion of the trials at Enfield, in August, 1852, two rifles were made at the Royal Manufactory, in which were embodied the improvements and alterations suggested by the experience obtained during the course of the trials, and which was hoped would possess the necessary requirements for a military weapon, and which proved superior to the Minié, the Brunswick, and all those presented for trial by the different manufacturers.
Dimensions, &c., of Enfield.
This beautiful rifle though 21⁄2lbs. less than the old musket, is fully as strong, and as capable of rough usage. Weight, including bayonet, 9lbs. 3 ozs., bore, ·577, length of barrel, 3 feet 3-in., weight of barrel, 4lbs. 6 ozs., three grooves with spiral of one turn in 6 feet 6-in.; the barrel to be fastened to the stock by bands. The bayonet to be fixed by means of a locking ring. The lock to have a swivel. The bullet was of a pattern suggested by Mr. Pritchett. ([Plate 20], fig. 9.)
Attempts to improve the bullet.
Lord Hardinge, desirous to improve the projectile, and if possible to get rid of the cup, having requested the leading gun makers to lay any suggestions before the small arms committee, none were submitted but one by Mr. Wilkinson, which was not a compound. It was solid with two deep cannelures, but it lost its accuracy when made up into a cartridge, and made very wild practice beyond 300 yards. ([Plate 20], fig. 10.) Subsequently a bullet was proposed by Mr. Pritchett, Description of Pritchett.being cylindro-conoidal in form, with a small hollow at the base, which was made more to throw the centre of gravity forward than to obtain expansion thereby. This bullet weighed 520 grains, or 24 guage, and excellent practice was made with it at Enfield, from 100, to 800 yards, and it was accordingly introduced into the service, to the suppression of the Minié, with iron cup; and for which Mr. Pritchett, received £1,000.
Lancaster smooth bore rifles.
Shortly after the establishment of the School of Musketry, in June, 1853, twenty Enfield rifles were sent down for trial in competition with the Minié, and also with “Lancaster’s smooth bore eliptical rifle, with increasing spiral and freed at the breech,” when the Enfield was found to be superior to both. It is stated that Mr. Lancaster’s invention is intended to overcome the inconvenience attendant on the wearing out the rifle ridges, by the ramrod, &c.; these rifles are also easily cleaned, the difference in width between the major and minor axis of the ellipse was, 1⁄100 of an inch.
Engineer Carbine.
Carbines on this principle are now carried by the Royal Engineers, and shoot well, and by some persons are thought to be superior to the Enfield, 1853; they fire the same ammunition, and there is no question but that their firing is much more accurate from using the improved wooden plug bullet.
Failure of the Pritchett.
In May, 1855, the ammunition was found to be in a most unsatisfactory state and unfit to be used, there being bullets of various diameters in many of the packages of the cartridges. The correct size of the Pritchett bullet viz., ·568, was found to produce accurate shooting, at 600 yards, while bullets of a smaller diameter fired very badly.
Return to iron cup.
To get out of this difficulty, Colonel Hay recommended the application of the iron cup to the bullet, which was approved, when more uniform expansion resulted and greater accuracy.
Thus by using an auxiliary to expansion there is a margin left to cover any trifling inaccuracy in manufacture, in diameter of either bullet or bore.
Woolwich account for bad ammunition.
The Woolwich authorities stated that they had seven dies at work making bullets, and which were made small at first as they gradually wore larger; when any one die became too large it was destroyed, and replaced by a smaller one. To this cause they imputed the failure of our Pritchett ammunition. It was afterwards suggested from the School of Musketry, to procure expansion by using a wooden plug, and after most extensive experiments, this was found to be superior to any description of bullet yet tried at Hythe, and the wooden plug has accordingly been established for the British army. ([Plate 20], fig. 11.)
On expansion.
Uniform accuracy mainly results from the bullet continuing to receive a sufficient and uniform expansion into the grooves, so that the projectiles get such an amount of rotation as shall last until they have reached the object fired at. The more perfect the expansion, the less the accumulation of fouling and consequently accuracy is further increased.
The Enfield has frequently been fired to 200 rounds and the loading continued easy.
Progressive grooving 1858.
Early in 1858, the regulation rifle, (53), was changed from grooves of uniform, ·014 in depth, to ·005 at muzzle, increasing in depth to ·015 at the breech; while new, these rifles shoot well, but they require increased elevation at long ranges. How far these shallow grooves will answer, or how long it will take to convert these aims into smooth bores at the muzzle, by the continued friction of the ramrod, remains to be seen.
Origin of progressive grooving.
Captain Panot, of the French service, states, “it is but a few years since all our smooth bore barrels were reamed so that they would carry the spherical ball of ·669, instead of ·641. It was afterwards determined to convert these arms into rifles. To prevent weakening the reamed up barrels, M. Tamisier proposed to vary the depth of the grooves, making them deeper at the breech than at the muzzle.” Advantages.Grooves thus made, are said to have a greater accuracy of fire from keeping the ball perfectly tight as it leaves the bore and destroying all windage at the muzzle. This is called “progressive grooving.” Rifles upon this principle require to be fired at an increased elevation, attributed to the greater amount of friction experienced by the bullet while passing down the barrel.
Short Enfield.
Rifle regiments and all serjeants of infantry have been furnished with a weapon requiring the same ammunition as the regulation arm, but six inches shorter, being mounted in steel, with a sword bayonet.
Royal Navy rifle.
A five “grooved progressive” carbine has recently been given to the Royal Marine Artillery and the Royal Navy, with the same bore as the Enfield.