| CHAPTER I. |
| NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF THE DOCTRINE OF FILIATION,OR DESCENT-THEORY. |
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| General Importance and Essential Nature of the Theory of Descent asreformed by Darwin.—Its Special Importance to Biology (Zoologyand Botany).—Its Special Importance to the History of the NaturalDevelopment of the Human Race.—The Theory of Descent as theNon-Miraculous History of Creation.—Idea of Creation.—Knowledgeand Belief.—History of Creation and History of Development.—TheConnection between the History of Individual and PalæontologicalDevelopment.—The Theory of Purposelessness, or theScience of Rudimentary Organs.—Useless and Superfluous Arrangementsin Organisms.—Contrast between the two entirelyOpposed Views of Nature: the Monistic (mechanical, causal) andthe Dualistic (teleological, vital).—Proof of the former by theTheory of Descent.—Unity of Organic and Inorganic Nature, andthe Identity of the Active Causes in both.—The Importance ofthe Theory of Descent to the Monistic Conception of all Nature. | [1] |
| CHAPTER II. |
| SCIENTIFIC JUSTIFICATION OF THE THEORY OF DESCENT.HISTORY OF CREATION ACCORDING TO LINNÆUS. |
| The Theory of Descent, or Doctrine of Filiation, as the Monistic Explanationof Organic Natural Phenomena.—Its Comparison withNewton’s Theory of Gravitation.—Limits of Scientific Explanationand of Human Knowledge in general.—All Knowledge foundedoriginally on Sensuous Experience, à posteriori.—Transition of àposteriori knowledge, by inheritance, into à priori knowledge.—Contrastbetween the Supernatural Hypotheses of the Creation accordingto Linnæus, Cuvier, Agassiz, and the Natural Theories ofDevelopment according to Lamarck, Goethe, and Darwin.—Connectionof the former with the Monistic (mechanical), of the latterwith the Dualistic Conception of the Universe.—Monism andMaterialism.—Scientific and Moral Materialism.—The History ofCreation according to Moses.—Linnæus as the Founder of the SystematicDescription of Nature and Distinction of Species.—Linnæus’Classification and Binary Nomenclature.—Meaning of Linnæus’ Ideaof Species.—His History of Creation.—Linnæus’ view of the Originof Species | [24] |
| CHAPTER III. |
| THE HISTORY OF CREATION ACCORDING TO CUVIERAND AGASSIZ. |
| General Theoretical Meaning of the Idea of Species.—Distinction betweenthe Theoretical and Practical Definition of the Idea of Species.—Cuvier’sDefinition of Species.—Merits of Cuvier as the Founderof Comparative Anatomy.—Distinction of the Four Principal Forms(types or branches) of the Animal Kingdom, by Cuvier and Bär.—Cuvier’sServices to Palæontology.—His Hypothesis of the Revolutionsof our Globe, and the Epochs of Creation separated by them.—UnknownSupernatural Causes of the Revolutions, and the subsequentNew Creations.—Agassiz’s Teleological System of Nature.—HisConception of the Plan of Creation, and its six Categories(groups in classification).—Agassiz’s Views of the Creation ofSpecies.—Rude Conception of the Creator as a man-like beingin Agassiz’s Hypothesis of Creation.—Its internal Inconsistencyand Contradictions with the important Palæontological Laws discoveredby Agassiz | [47] |
| CHAPTER IV. |
| THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT ACCORDING TO GOETHEAND OKEN. |
| Scientific Insufficiency of all Conceptions of a Creation of IndividualSpecies.—Necessity of the Counter Theories of Development.—HistoricalSurvey of the most Important Theories of Development.—Aristotle.—HisDoctrine of Spontaneous Generation.—TheMeaning of Nature-philosophy.—Goethe.—His Merits as aNaturalist.—His Metamorphosis of Plants.—His Vertebral Theoryof the Skull.—His Discovery of the Mid Jawbone in Man.—Goethe’sInterest in the Dispute between Cuvier and GeoffroySt. Hilaire.—Goethe’s Discovery of the two Organic FormativePrinciples, of the Conservative Principle of Specification (by Inheritance),and of the Progressive Principle of Transformation (byAdaptation).—Goethe’s Views of the Common Descent of all VertebrateAnimals, including Man.—Theory of Development accordingto Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus.—His Monistic Conception ofNature.—Oken.—His Nature-philosophy.—Oken’s Theory ofProtoplasm—Oken’s Theory of Infusoria (Cell Theory).—Oken’sTheory of Development | [72] |
| CHAPTER V. |
| THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT ACCORDING TO KANT ANDLAMARCK. |
| Kant’s Dualistic Biology.—His Conception of the Origin of InorganicNature by Mechanical Causes, of Organic Nature by Causes actingfor a Definite Purpose.—Contradiction of this Conception with hisleaning towards the Theory of Descent.—Kant’s GenealogicalTheory of Development.—Its Limitation by his Teleology.—Comparisonof Genealogical Biology with Comparative Philology.—Viewsin favour of the Theory of Descent entertained by LeopoldBuch, Bär, Schleiden, Unger, Schaafhausen, Victor Carus,Büchner.—French Nature-philosophy.—Lamarck’s Philosophic Zoologique.—Lamarck’sMonistic (mechanical) System of Nature.—His Viewsof the Interaction of the two Organic Formative Tendencies ofInheritance and Adaptation.—Lamarck’s Conception of Man’sDevelopment from Ape-like Mammals.—Geoffroy St. Hilaire’s ,Naudin’s , and Lecoq’s Defence of the Theory of Descent.—EnglishNature-philosophy.—Views in favour of the Theory of Descententertained by Erasmus Darwin, W. Herbert, Grant, Freke, HerbertSpencer, Hooker, Huxley.—The Double Merit of Charles Darwin | [100] |
| CHAPTER VI. |
| THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT ACCORDING TO LYELLAND DARWIN. |
| Charles Lyell’s Principles of Geology.—His Natural History of theEarth’s Development.—Origin of the Greatest Effects through theMultiplication of the Smallest Causes.—Unlimited Extent of GeologicalPeriods.—Lyell’s Refutation of Cuvier’s History of Creation.—TheEstablishment of the Uninterrupted Connection of HistoricalDevelopment by Lyell and Darwin.—Biographical Notice of CharlesDarwin.—His Scientific Works.—His Theory of Coral Reefs.—Developmentof the Theory of Selection.—A Letter of Darwin’s .—TheContemporaneous Appearance of Darwin’s and Alfred Wallace’sTheory of Selection.—Darwin’s Study of Domestic Animals andCultivated Plants.—Andreas Wagner’s Notions as to the SpecialCreation of Cultivated Organisms for the good of Man.—The Treeof Knowledge in Paradise.—Comparison between Wild and CultivatedOrganisms.—Darwin’s Study of Domestic Pigeons.—Importanceof Pigeon Breeding.—Common Descent of all Races ofPigeons | [125] |
| CHAPTER VII. |
| THE THEORY OF SELECTION (DARWINISM). |
| Darwinism (Theory of Selection) and Lamarckism (Theory of Descent).—TheProcess of Artificial Breeding.—Selection of the DifferentIndividuals for After-breeding.—The Active Causes of Transmutation.—Changeconnected with Food and Transmission by Inheritanceconnected with Propagation.—Mechanical Nature of these TwoPhysiological Functions.—The Process of Natural Breeding:Selection in the Struggle for Existence.—Malthus’ Theory ofPopulation.—The Proportion between the Numbers of Potentialand Actual Individuals of every Species of Organisms.—GeneralStruggle for Existence, or Competition to attain the Necessaries ofLife.—Transforming Force of the Struggle for Existence.—Comparisonof Natural and Artificial Breeding.—Selection in the Life ofMan.—Military and Medical Selection | [149] |
| CHAPTER VIII. |
| TRANSMISSION BY INHERITANCE AND PROPAGATION. |
| Universality of Inheritance and Transmission by Inheritance.—SpecialEvidences of the same.—Human Beings with four, six, or sevenFingers and Toes.—Porcupine Men.—Transmission of Diseases,especially Diseases of the Mind.—Original Sin.—HereditaryMonarchies.—Hereditary Aristocracy.—Hereditary Talents andMental Qualities.—Material Causes of Transmission by Inheritance.—Connectionbetween Transmission by Inheritance and Propagation.—SpontaneousGeneration and Propagation.—Non-sexual orMonogonous Propagation.—Propagation by Self-Division.—Moneraand Amœba.—Propagation by the formation of Buds, by the formationof Germ-Buds, by the formation of Germ-Cells.—Sexual orAmphigonous Propagation.—Formation of Hermaphrodites.—Distinctionof Sexes, or Gonochorism.—Virginal Breeding, or Parthenogenesis.—MaterialTransmission of Peculiarities of both Parentsto the Child by Sexual Propagation.—Difference between Transmissionby Inheritance in Sexual and in Asexual Propagation | [175] |
| CHAPTER IX. |
| LAWS OF TRANSMISSION BY INHERITANCE.ADAPTATION AND NUTRITION. |
| Distinction between Conservative and Progressive Transmission by Inheritance.—Lawsof Conservative Transmission: Transmission ofInherited Characters.—Uninterrupted or Continuous Transmission.—Interruptedor Latent Transmission.—Alternation of Generations.—Relapse.—Degeneracy.—SexualTransmission.—SecondarySexual Characters.—Mixed or Amphigonous Transmission.—Hybrids.—Abridgedor Simplified Transmission.—Laws of ProgressiveInheritance: Transmission of Acquired Characters.—Adaptedor Acquired Transmission.—Fixed or Established Transmission.—HomochronousTransmission (Identity in Epoch).—HomotopicTransmission (Identity in Part).—Adaptation andMutability.—Connection between Adaptation and Nutrition.—Distinctionbetween Indirect and Direct Adaptation | [203] |
| CHAPTER X. |
| LAWS OF ADAPTATION. |
| Laws of Indirect or Potential Adaptation.—Individual Adaptation.—Monstrousor Sudden Adaptation.—Sexual Adaptation.—Laws ofDirect or Actual Adaptation.—Universal Adaptation.—CumulativeAdaptation.—Cumulative Influence of External Conditions of Existenceand Cumulative Counter-Influence of the Organism.—FreeWill.—Use and Non-use of Organs.—Practice and Habit.—CorrelativeAdaptation.—Correlation of Development.—Correlation ofOrgans.—Explanation of Indirect or Potential Adaptation by theCorrelation of the Sexual Organs and of the other parts of theBody.—Divergent Adaptation.—Unlimited or Infinite Adaptation | [227] |
| CHAPTER XI. |
| NATURAL SELECTION BY THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE.DIVISION OF LABOUR AND PROGRESS. |
| Interaction of the two Organic Formative Causes, Inheritance andAdaptation.—Natural and Artificial Selection.—Struggle for Existence,or Competition for the Necessaries of Life.—Disproportionbetween the Number of Possible or Potential, and the Number ofReal or Actual Individuals.—Complicated Correlations of all NeighbouringOrganisms.—Mode of Action in Natural Selection.—HomochromicSelection as the Cause of Sympathetic Colourings.—SexualSelection as the Cause of the Secondary Sexual Characters.—Lawof Separation or Division of Labour (Polymorphism, Differentiation,Divergence of Characters).—Transition of Varieties intoSpecies.—Idea of Species.—Hybridism.—Law of Progress or Perfecting(Progresses, Teleosis) | [252] |
| CHAPTER XII. |
| LAWS OF DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANIC TRIBES AND OFINDIVIDUALS. PHYLOGENY AND ONTOGENY. |
| Laws of the Development of Mankind: Differentiation and Perfecting.—MechanicalCause of these two Fundamental Laws.—Progresswithout Differentiation, and Differentiation without Progress.—Originof Rudimentary Organs by Non-use and Discontinuance ofHabit.—Ontogenesis, or Individual Development of Organisms.—ItsGeneral Importance.—Ontogeny, or the Individual History ofDevelopment of Vertebrate Animals, including Man.—The Fructificationof the Egg.—Formation of the Three Germ Layers.—Historyof the Development of the Central Nervous System, of theExtremities, of the Branchial Arches, and of the Tail of VertebrateAnimals.—Causal Connection and Parallelism of Ontogenesis andPhylogenesis, that is, of the Development of Individuals and Tribes.—CausalConnection of the Parallelism of Phylogenesis and ofSystematic Development.—Parallelism of the three Organic Seriesof Development | [280] |
| CHAPTER XIII. |
| THEORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNIVERSE AND OFTHE EARTH. SPONTANEOUS GENERATION. THE CARBONTHEORY. THE PLASTID THEORY. |
| History of the Development of the Earth.—Kant’s Theory of the Developmentof the Universe, or the Cosmological Gas Theory.—Developmentof Suns, Planets, and Moons.—First Origin of Water.—Comparisonof Organisms and Anorgana.—Organic and InorganicSubstances.—Degrees of Density, or Conditions of Aggregation.—AlbuminousCombinations of Carbon.—Organic and InorganicForms.—Crystals and Formless Organisms without Organs.StereometricalFundamental Forms of Crystals and of Organisms.—Organicand Inorganic Forces.—Vital Force.—Growth and Adaptationin Crystals and in Organisms.—Formative Tendencies ofCrystals.—Unity of Organic and Inorganic Nature.—SpontaneousGeneration, or Archigony.—Autogony and Plasmogony.—Origin ofMonera by Spontaneous Generation.—Origin of Cells from Monera.—TheCell Theory.—The Plastid Theory.—Plastids, or Structural-Units.—Cytodsand Cells.—Four Different Kinds of Plastids | [316] |
| CHAPTER XIV. |
| MIGRATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANISMS. CHOROLOGYAND THE ICE-PERIOD OF THE EARTH. |
| Chorological Facts and Causes.—Origin of most Species in one SingleLocality.—“Centres of Creation.”—Distribution by Migration.—Activeand Passive Migrations of Animals and Plants.—Means ofTransport.—Transport of Germs by Water and by Wind.—ContinualChange of the Area of Distribution by Elevations andDepressions of the Ground.—Chorological Importance of GeologicalProcesses.—Influence of the Change of Climate.—Ice or GlacialPeriod.—Its Importance to Chorology.—Importance of Migrationsfor the Origin of New Species.—Isolation of Colonists.—Wagner’sLaw of Migration.—Connection between the Theory of Migrationand the Theory of Selection.—Agreement of its Results with theTheory of Descent | [350] |