The History of Creation, Vol. 2 (of 2) / Or the Development of the Earth and its Inhabitants by the Action of Natural Causes

by Ernst Haeckel

PEDIGREE AND HISTORY OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

II. Mollusca, Star-fishes, and Articulated Animals.

Tribe of Molluscs.—Four Classes of Molluscs: Lamp-shells (Spirobranchia); Mussels (Lamellibranchia); Snails (Cochlides); Cuttle-fish (Cephalopoda).—Tribe of Star-fishes, or Echinoderma.—Their Derivation from Ringed Worms (Mailed Worms, or Phracthelminthes).—The Alternation of Generation in the Echinoderma.—Four Classes of Star-fish: Sea-stars (Asteridea); Sea-lilies (Crinoidea); Sea-urchins (Echinidea); Sea-cucumbers (Holothuridea).—Tribe of Articulated Animals, or Arthropoda.—Four Classes of Articulated Animals: Branchiata, or Crustacea, breathing through gills; Jointed Crabs; Mailed Crabs; Articulata Tracheata, breathing through Air Tubes.—Spiders (Long Spiders, Round Spiders).—Myriopods.—Insects.—Chewing and Sucking Insects.—Pedigree and History of the Eight Orders of Insects.

The great natural main groups of the animal kingdom, which we have distinguished as TRIBES, or PHYLA (“types” according to Bär and Cuvier), are not all of equal systematic importance for our phylogeny or history of the pedigree of the living world. They can neither be classed in a single series of stages, one above another, nor be considered as entirely independent stems, nor as equal branches of a single family-tree. It seems rather (as we saw in the last chapter) that the tribe of Protozoa, the so-called primæval animals, is the common radical group of the whole animal kingdom. Out of the Gastræada—which we class among the Protozoa—the Zoophytes and the Worms have developed, as two diverging branches. We must now in turn look upon the varied and much-branching tribe of Worms as the common primary group, out of which (from perfectly distinct branches) arose the remaining tribes, the four higher phyla of the animal kingdom. (Compare the Pedigree, p. [133].)

Let us now take a genealogical look at these four higher tribes of animals, and try whether we cannot make out the most important outlines of their pedigree. Even should this attempt prove defective and imperfect, we shall at all events have made a beginning, and paved the road for subsequent and more satisfactory attempts.

It does not matter in what succession we take up the examination of the four higher tribes. For these four phyla have no close relationship whatever among one another, but have grown out from entirely distinct branches of the group of Worms (p. [133]). We may consider the tribe of Molluscs as the most imperfect and the lowest in point of morphological development. We nowhere meet among them with the characteristic articulation or segmented formation of the body, which distinguishes even the Ring-worms, and which in the other three higher tribes—the Echinoderma, Articulata, and Vertebrata—is most essentially connected with the high development of their forms, their differentiation, and perfection. The body in all Molluscs—in mussels, snails, etc.—is a simple non-jointed sack, in the cavity of which lie the intestines. The nervous system consists not of a cord but of several distinct (generally three) pairs of knots loosely connected with one another. For these and many other anatomical reasons, I consider the tribe of Molluscs (in spite of the high physiological development of its most perfect forms) to be morphologically the lowest among the four higher tribes of animals.

Whilst, for reasons already given, we exclude the Moss-polyps, and Tunicates—which have hitherto been generally classed with the tribe of Molluscs—we retain as genuine Molluscs the following four classes: Lamp-shells, Mussels, Snails, and Cuttles. The two lower classes of Molluscs, the Lamp-shells and Mussels, possess neither head nor teeth, and they can therefore be comprised under one main class, or branch, as headless animals (Acephala), or toothless animals (Anodontoda). This branch is also frequently called that of the clam-shells (Conchifera, or Bivalvia), because all its members possess a two-valved calcareous shell. In contrast to these the two higher classes of Molluscs, the snails and cuttles, may be represented as a second branch with the name of Head-bearers (Cephalophora), or Tooth-bearers (Odontophora), because both head and teeth are developed in them.

The soft, sack-shaped body in most Molluscs is protected by a calcareous shell or house, which in the Acephala (lamp-shells and mussels) consists of two valves, but in the Cephalophora (snails and cuttles) is generally a spiral tube (the so-called snail’s house). Although these hard skeletons are found in large quantities in a petrified state in all the neptunic strata, yet they tell us but little of the historical development of the tribe, which must have taken place for the most part in the primordial period. Even in the Silurian strata we find fossil remains of all the four classes of Molluscs, one beside the other, and this, conjointly with much other evidence, distinctly proves that the tribe of Molluscs had then obtained a strong development, when the higher tribes, especially the Articulates and Vertebrates, had scarcely got beyond the beginning of their historical development. In subsequent periods, especially in the primary and secondary periods, these higher tribes increased in importance more and more at the expense of Molluscs and Worms, which were no match for them in the struggle for life, and accordingly decreased in number. The still living Molluscs and Worms must be considered as only a proportionately small remnant of the vast molluscan fauna, which greatly predominated in the primordial and primary periods over the other tribes. (Compare Plate [VI]. and explanation in the Appendix.)

No tribe of animals shows more distinctly than do the Molluscs, how very different the value of fossils is in geology and in phylogeny. In geology the different species of the fossil shells of Molluscs are of the greatest importance because they serve as excellent marks whereby to characterize the different groups of strata, and to fix their relative ages. As far as relates to the genealogy of Molluscs, however, they are of very little value, because, on the one hand, the shells are parts of quite subordinate morphological importance, and because the actual development of the tribe belongs to the earlier primordial period, from which no distinct fossils have been preserved. If therefore we wish to construct the pedigree of Molluscs, we are mainly dependent upon the records of ontogeny and comparative anatomy from which we obtain something like the following result. (Gen. Morph. ii. Plate VI. pp. 102-116.)

The lowest stage of the four classes of genuine Molluscs known to us, is occupied by the Lamp-shells or Spiral-gills (Spirobranchia), frequently but inappropriately called Arm-footers (Brachiopoda), which have become attached to the bottom of the sea. There now exist but few forms of this class; for instance, some species of Lingula, Terebratula, and others akin to them, which are but feeble remnants of the great variety of forms which represented the Lamp-shells in earlier periods of the earth’s history. In the Silurian period they constituted the principal portion of the whole Mollusc tribe. From the agreement which, in many respects, their early stage of development presents with the Moss animals, it has been concluded that they have developed out of Worms, which were nearly related to this class. Of the two sub-classes of Lamp-shells, the Hinge-less (Ecardines) must be looked upon as the lower and more imperfect, the Hinged (Testicardines) as the higher and more fully developed group.

The anatomical difference between the Lamp-shells and the three other classes of Molluscs is so considerable that the latter may be distinguished from the former by the name of Otocardia. All the Otocardia have a heart with chamber (ventricle) and ante-chamber (auricle), whereas Lamp-shells do not possess the ante-chamber. Moreover, the central nervous system is developed only in the former (and not in the latter) in the shape of a complete pharyngeal ring. Hence the four classes of Molluscs may be grouped in the following manner:—

I. Molluscs without head. Acephala.		1. Lamp-shells (Spirobranchia)		I. Haplocardia (with simple heart)
		2. Mussels (Lamellibranchia)		II. Otocardia (with chamber and ante-chamber to the heart)
I. Molluscs with head. Cephalophora.		3. Snails (Cochlides).
		4. cuttles cephalopoda.

The result of these structural dispositions for the history of the pedigree of Molluscs, which is confirmed by palæontology, is that Lamp-shells stand much nearer to the primæval root of the whole tribe of Molluscs than do the Otocardia. Probably Mussels and Snails developed as two diverging branches out of Molluscs, which were nearly akin to the Lamp-shells.

Mussels, or Plate-gills (Lamellibranchia), possess a bivalved shell like the Lamp-shells. In the latter, one of the two valves covers the back, the other the belly of the animal; whereas in Mussels the two valves lie symmetrically on the right and left side of the body. Most Mussels live in the sea, only a few in fresh water. The class is divided into two sub-classes, Asiphonia and Siphonida, of which the latter were developed at a later period out of the former. Among the Asiphonia are Oysters, mother-of-pearl Shells, and fresh water Mussels; among the Siphonida, which are characterized by a respiratory tube, are the Venus-shells, Razor-shells, and Burrowing Clams. The higher Molluscs seem to have developed at a later period out of those without head and teeth; they are distinguished from the latter by the distinct formation of the head, and more especially by a peculiar kind of tooth apparatus. Their tongue presents a curious plate, armed with a great number of teeth. In our common Vineyard Snail (Helix pomatia) the number of teeth amount to 21,000, and in the large Garden Slug (Limax maximus) to 26,800.

SYSTEMATIC SURVEY
Of the 4 Classes, 8 Sub-classes, and 21 Orders of Molluscs.
Classes of Molluscs.		Sub-classes of Molluscs.		Orders of Molluscs.		Systematic Name of the Orders.
I. Molluscs without head or teeth: Acephala or Anodontoda.
I. Lamp-shells Spirobranchia or Brachiopoda		I. Ecardines Hinge-less		1.	Stalked	1.	Lingulida
				2.	Flattened	2.	Craniada
		II. Testicardines Hinge-less		3.	Fleshy armed	3.	Sarcobrachia
				4.	Calcareous-armed	4.	Sclerobrachia
II. Mussels or Plate-gills Lamellibranchia or Phyllobranchia		III. Asiphonia Mussels without respiratory tubes		5.	One-muscled	5.	Monomya
				6.	Uneven-muscled	6.	Heteromya
				7.	Even-muscled	7.	Isomya
		IV. Siphonida Mussels with respiratory tubes		8.	Round-mantled	8.	Integripallia
				9.	Ray-mantled	9.	Sinupalliata
				10.	Tube-mussels	10.	Inclusa
II. Molluscs with head and teeth: Cephalophora or Odontophora.
III. Snails Cochlides or Gasteropoda		V. Stump-headed Perocephala		11.	Tube-snails	11.	Scaphopoda
				12.	Butterfly-snails	12.	Pteropoda
		VI. Large-headed Delocephala		13.	With hind gills	13.	With hind gills
				14.	With fore gills	14.	Prosobranchia
				15.	Swimming-snails	15.	Heteropoda
				16.	Beetle-snails	16.	Chitonoida
				17.	Snails with lungs	17.	Pulmonata
IV. Cuttles or Poulps Cephalopoda		VII. Chamber-Poulps with four gills Tetraranchia		18.	Pearl boats	18.	Nautilida
				19.	Ammon's horns	19.	Ammonitida
		VIII. Ink-Poulps with two gills Dibranchia		20.	Ten-armed	20.	Decabrachiones
				21.	Eight-armed	21.	Octobrachiones

---