APPENDIX ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.

By M. C. POTTER.

The earliest systems of classification were derived from the properties and uses of plants; and it was not until some two centuries ago that any scientific grouping of plants was attempted. Aristotle and Theophrastus had adopted the groups of Trees, Shrubs and Herbs as the chief divisions of the Vegetable Kingdom, a system which persisted and was employed by Tournefort and Ray as late as the end of the 17th century. The arrangement by which these three divisions were separated into smaller divisions was often founded upon a single character, such as the formation of the corolla, the form of fruit, that of the calyx and corolla, etc. All these systems of classification which brought into close proximity plants distinguished by some one character alone, could only be considered as artificial, since plants related to one another would not necessarily be included in the same group. As the knowledge of the morphology, physiology, and reproduction of plants increased, such systems were recognised as unscientific, and it became the aim of botanists to establish a natural system, founded upon mutual relationships, which would associate together only those plants which are truly allied.

The following are some of the chief systems of classification which will show the gradual development of the natural system, and may be of service to students making use of this text-book.[41]

System of John Ray (1703).

I. Herbæ.
A. Imperfectæ (Flowerless).
B. Perfectæ (Flowering).
Dicotyledones.
Monocotyledones.
II. Arbores.
A. Monocotyledones.
B. Dicotyledones.

Ray was the first botanist who recognised the importance of the one or two seed-leaves of the embryo, and initiated the division of the Flowering-plants into Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons.

System of Linnæus (1733).

In his well known artificial system Linnæus divided the Vegetable Kingdom into twenty-four classes, based upon the number, relative position and union of the stamens with regard to each other, and also to the gynœceum.

Class	I.	Monandria.	Flowers with	1	stamen.
„	II.	Diandria.	„ „	2	stamens.
„	III.	Triandria.	„ „	3	„
„	IV.	Tetrandria.	„ „	4	„
„	V.	Pentandria.	„ „	5	„
„	VI.	Hexandria.	„ „	6	„
„	VII.	Heptandria.	„ „	7	„
„	VIII.	Octandria.	„ „	8	„
„	IX.	Enneandria.	„ „	9	„
„	X.	Decandria.	„ „	10	„
„	XI.	Dodecandria.	„ „	11 to 19 stamens.
„	XII.	Icosandria.	„ „	20 or more stamens inserted on the calyx.
„	XIII.	Polyandria.	„ „	20 or more stamens inserted on the receptacle.
„	XIV.	Didynamia.	Stamens didynamous.
„	XV.	Tetradynamia.	„ tetradynamous.
„	XVI.	Monadelphia.	Filaments united into 1 bundle.
„	XVII.	Diadelphia.	„ „ „ 2 bundles.
„	XVIII.	Polyadelphia.	„ „ „ several bundles.
„	XIX.	Syngenesia.	Anthers united together.
„	XX.	Gynandria.	Stamens and pistil united.
„	XXI.	Monœcia.	Flowers diclinous, ♂ and ♀ on the same plant.
„	XXII.	Diœcia.	„ „ ♂ and ♀ on different plants.
„	XXIII.	Polygamia.	♂-, ♀-, and ☿-flowers on the same plant.
„	XXIV.	Cryptogamia.	Flowerless plants (Ferns, Mosses, Algæ, Fungi).

These classes were further divided into orders, according to the number of styles, as Monogynia, flowers with 1 style; Digynia, with 2 styles, etc. Thus a Dock (Rumex), having 6 stamens and 3 styles, would be placed in Class VI., Hexandria, and Order III., Trigynia.

Class XIV. was divided into two orders. Order I., Gymnospermia, with seeds apparently naked, comprising the Labiatæ; and Order II., Angiospermia, with the seeds enclosed in a capsule (Bartsia, Rhinanthus).

Class XV. was divided into two orders: Order I., Siliculosa, fruit a silicula (Capsella); and Order II., Siliquosa, fruit a siliqua (Brassica).

Class XIX. was divided into Order I., Æqualis, all the flowers perfect (Sonchus); Order II., Superflua, flowers in the centre perfect, those at the circumference with pistils only (seemingly superfluous), e.g. Aster; Order III., Frustranea, flowers in the centre perfect, those at the circumference neuter, e.g. Centaurea.

“Fragments” of a natural system have also come down to us from Linnæus, who himself always recognised the imperfection of his artificial system.

System of Antoine Laurent de Jussieu (1789).

			Class
Acotyledones. Plants without cotyledons: Fungi, Ferns, Mosses, Algæ, Naiades			I.
Monoctyledones. Plants with one cotyledon:—
1. Stamens hypogynous			II.
2. „ perigynous			III.
3. „ epigynous			IV.
Dicotyledones. Plants with two cotyledons:—
1. Apetalæ	Stamens epigynous		V.
	„ perigynous		VI.
	„ hypogynous		VII.
2. Monopetalae	Corolla hypogynous		VIII.
	„ perigynous		IX.
	„ epigynous,	anthers connate	X.
	„ epigynous,	„ free	XI.
3. Polypetalæ	Stamens epigynous		XII.
	„ hypogynous		XIII.
	„ perigynous		XIV.
4. Diclines irregulares, male and female flowerson different plants, corolla generally absent.

System of A. P. de Candolle (1819).

I. Vasculares. Plants with vascular bundles.
1. Exogenæ. Vascular bundles arranged in a ring.
A. Diplochlamydeæ. Calyx and corolla present.
a. Thalamifloræ. Corolla polypetalous and hypogynous.
b. Calycifloræ. Corolla perigynous or epigynous; stamens inserted on the calyx.
c. Corollifloræ. Corolla gamopetalous; stamens inserted on the corolla.
B. Monochlamydeæ. Perianth simple.
2. Endogenæ. Vascular bundles scattered, the youngest in the centre.
A. Phanerogamæ. Flowers present.
B. Cryptogamæ. Flowers absent.
II. Cellulares. Vascular bundles absent.
1. Foliaceæ. Leaves present.
2. Aphyllæ. Leafless.

Robert Brown published in 1827 his discovery of the gymnospermy of the ovules of the Coniferæ and Cycadeæ, and showed that the Gymnosperms, which had previously been classed with the Dicotyledons, must be regarded as an independent group.

System of Stephen Endlicher (1836–40).

I. Thallophyta. No differentiation into stem and root.
1. Protophyta. Class I., Algæ; Class II., Lichenes.
2. Hysterophyta. Class III., Fungi.
II. Cormophyta. Differentiated into stem and root.
1. Acrobrya. Stem growing at the point.
Anophyta (Hepaticæ, Musci).
Protophyta (Filices, etc.).
Hysterophyta (Balanophoreæ, etc.).
2. Amphibrya. Stem growing at the circumference (Monocotyledons).
3. Acramphibrya. Stem growing both at the point and circumference.
Gymnosperma (Coniferae).
Apetala. Perianth single or absent.
Gamopetala. Petals gamopetalous.
Dialypetala. Petals polypetalous.

System of A. Brongniart (1843).

I. Cryptogamæ. Plants without flowers.
1. Amphigenæ. Not differentiated into stem or leaf (Algæ, Fungi, Lichenes).
2. Acrogenæ. Plants with stem and leaf (Muscineæ, Filicinæ).
II. Phanerogamæ. Plants with flowers.
3. Monocotyledones.
a. Albuminosæ. Seeds with endosperm.
b. Exalbuminosæ. Seeds without endosperm.
4. Dicotyledones.
a. Angiosepermæ.
α. Gamopetalæ.
β. Dialypetalæ.
b. Gymnospermæ.

System of John Lindley (Vegetable Kingdom, 1845).

Asexual, or Flowerless Plants.
Stem and leaves undistinguishable	I.	Thallogens.
Stem and leaves distinguishable	II.	Acrogens.
Sexual, or Flowering Plants.
Fructification springing from a thallus	III.	Rhizogens.
Fructification springing from a stem.
Wood of stem youngest in the centre; cotyledonsingle. Leaves parallel-veined, permanent; woodof stem always confused	IV.	Endogens.
Leaves net-veined, deciduous; wood of the stem,when perennial, arranged in a circle with a central pith	V.	Dictyogens.
Wood of stem youngest at the circumference, alwaysconcentric; cotyledons, 2 or more.
Seeds quite naked	VI.	Gymnogens.
Seeds inclosed in seed-vessels	VII.	Exogens.

System of Alexander Braun (1864).

I. Bryophyta.
1. Thallodea (Algæ, Fungi, Lichenes).
2. Thallophyllodea (Charas, Mosses).
II. Cormophyta.
1. Phyllopterides (Ferns, Equisetums).
2. Maschalopterides (Lycopods).
3. Hydropterides (Water-ferns).
III. Anthophyta.
Gymnospermæ.
1. Frondosæ (Cycadeæ).
2. Acerosæ (Coniferæ).
Angiospermæ.
1. Monocotyledones.
2. Dicotyledones.
Apetalæ.
Sympetalæ.
Eleutheropetalæ.

W. Hofmeister published from 1849 to 1851 his researches upon the embryology of the Phanerogams, and upon the embryology and life-history of the Vascular Cryptogams, and established the phylogenetic connection existing between the Mosses, Vascular Cryptogams and Phanerogams.

System of Hooker and Bentham (Genera plantarum, 1862–1883).

DICOTYLEDONES.

I. POLYPETALÆ.

Series I. Thalamifloræ. Calyx most often free from the ovary. Petals uniseriate or often 2–∞-seriate. Stamens ∞ or definite, inserted on the receptacle, often small, or raised, or stipitate. Ovary most frequently free.

Cohort I. Ranales. Stamens ∞, or if definite the perianth is 3–∞-seriate. Carpels apocarpous, or immersed in the receptacle. Endosperm usually abundant, fleshy.

Order 1. Ranunculaceæ.
„ 2. Dilleniaceæ.
„ 3. Calycanthaceæ.
„ 4. Magnoliaceæ.
„ 5. Anonaceæ.
„ 6. Menispermaceæ.
„ 7. Berberideæ.
„ 8. Nymphæaceæ.

Cohort II. Parietales. Stamens ∞ or definite. Ovary unilocular, or divided into loculi by spurious dissepiments, with parietal placentation. Endosperm absent or fleshy.

Order 9. Sarraceniaceæ.
„ 10. Papaveraceæ.
„ 11. Cruciferæ.
„ 12. Capparideæ.
„ 13. Resedaceæ.
„ 14. Cistineæ.
„ 15. Violarieæ.
„ 16. Canellaceæ.
„ 17. Bixineæ.

Cohort III. Polygalinæ. Stamens definite. Ovary usually perfectly or imperfectly bilocular. Micropyle often superior. Fruit very often compressed laterally. Endosperm very often abundant and fleshy.

Order 18. Pittosporeæ.
„ 19. Tremandreæ.
„ 20. Polygaleæ.
„ 20a. Vochysiaceæ.

Cohort IV. Caryophyllineæ. Stamens definite, or rarely ∞. Ovary unilocular, or imperfectly septate. Placenta central, more rarely parietal. Micropyle inferior. Embryo curved, rarely straight. Endosperm farinaceous.

Order 21. Frankeniaceæ.
„ 22. Caryophylleæ.
„ 23. Portulaceæ.
„ 24. Tamariscineæ.

Cohort V. Guttiferales. Sepals inbricate. Stamens usually ∞. Ovary septate, placentæ on the inner angles of the loculi. Endosperm absent or fleshy.

Order 25. Elatineæ.
„ 26. Hypericineæ.
„ 27. Guttiferæ.
„ 28. Ternstrœmiaceæ.
„ 29. Dipterocarpeæ.
„ 30. Chlænaceæ.

Cohort VI. Malvales. Sepals valvate. Stamens usually ∞ or monadelphous. Ovary septate, placentæ on the inner angles of the loculi. Endosperm absent or fleshy.

Order 31. Malvaceæ.
„ 32. Sterculiaceae.
„ 33. Tiliaceæ.

Series II. Discifloræ. Calyx usually free from the ovary. Petals uniseriate. Stamens usually definite, inserted within, or upon, or around the receptacle, which is more often expanded as a disc. Ovary usually free, or embedded in the disc.

Cohort VII. Geraniales. Disc usually as a ring between the stamens, or adnate to the staminal tube, or reduced to glands alternating with the petals, more rarely absent. Gynœceum entire, or more often lobed, or sub-apocarpous. Ovules most often 1–2 in each loculus, pendulous, raphe ventral. Leaves various.

Order 34. Lineæ.
„ 35. Humiriaceæ.
„ 36. Malpighiaceæ.
„ 37. Zygophylleæ.
„ 38. Geraniaceæ.
„ 39. Rutaceæ.
„ 40. Simarubeæ.
„ 41. Ochnaceæ.
„ 42. Burseraceæ.
„ 43. Meliaceæ.
„ 44. Chailletiaceæ.

Cohort VIII. Olacales. Disc cupular or annular, free, or bearing the stamens and petals on its edge. Gynœceum entire. Ovules 1–3 in the unilocular ovaries, or 1–2 in each loculus, pendulous, raphe dorsal. Leaves simple.

Order 45. Olacineæ.
„ 46. Ilicineæ.

Cohort IX. Celastrales. Disc tumid, adnate to the calyx, or covering its base. Stamens inserted round the disc or affixed to its margin. Gynœceum usually entire. Ovules most often two in each loculus, erect, raphe ventral. Leaves simple, or rarely compound.

Order 47. Celastrineæ.
„ 48. Stackhousieæ.
„ 49. Rhamneæ.
„ 50. Ampelideæ.

Cohort X. Sapindales. Disc various. Stamens variously inserted on the disc. Gynœceum entire, or more often lobed, or sub-apocarpous. Ovules more often 1–2 in each loculus, ascending with ventral raphe, or reversed, or solitary and pendulous from an ascending funicle, or rarely ∞ horizontal. Leaves pinnate, or more rarely simple or digitate.

Order 51. Sapindaceæ.
„ 52. Sabiaceæ.
„ 53. Anacardiaceæ.

Anomalous orders, or rather genera,—

Order 54. Coriarieæ.
„ 55. Moringeæ.

Series III. Calycifloræ. Calyx-tube usually surrounding the ovary, or adnate to it. Petals uniseriate, inserted on the calyx-tube. Stamens ∞ or definite, inserted on the calyx-tube, or most often on the disc lining the calyx-tube. Ovary often enclosed by the calyx-tube, or inferior.

Cohort XI. Rosales. Carpels solitary, or free, or united at the base, more rarely at the apex; styles distinct, or very rarely united into a column, and easily separated.

Order 56. Connaraceæ.
„ 57. Leguminosæ.
„ 58. Rosaceæ.
„ 59. Saxifrageæ.
„ 60. Crassulaceæ.
„ 61. Droseraceæ.
„ 62. Hamamelideæ.
„ 63. Bruniaceæ.
„ 64. Halorageæ.

Cohort XII. Myrtales. Ovary syncarpous, inferior, or enclosed in the calyx-tube, usually divided into loculi; style undivided. Ovules 2–∞ in the loculi.

Order 65. Rhizophoreæ.
„ 66. Combretaceæ.
„ 67. Myrtaceæ.
„ 68. Melastomaceæ.
„ 69. Lythrarieæ.
„ 70. Onagrarieæ.

Cohort XIII. Passiflorales. Ovary syncarpous, inferior or superior, enclosed in the calyx-tube or exserted, unilocular with parietal placentation, or divided into loculi; styles distinct, one style divided, or undivided.

Order 71. Samydaceæ.
„ 72. Loaseæ.
„ 73. Turneraceæ.
„ 74. Passifloreæ.
„ 75. Cucurbitaceæ.
„ 76. Begoniaceæ.
„ 77. Datisceæ.

Cohort XIV. Ficoidales. Ovary syncarpous, inferior or superior, divided into loculi with sub-basilar placentæ, or more rarely unilocular with parietal placentæ. Styles distinct, or divided at the apex. Embryo curved or excentric.

Order 78. Cacteæ.
„ 79. Ficoideæ.

Cohort XV. Umbrellales. Ovary syncarpous, inferior, crowned by the disc, divided into loculi, or unicarpellate. Styles distinct or divided at the apex. Ovules solitary and pendulous in the loculi.

Order 80. Umbelliferæ.
„ 81. Araliaceæ.
„ 82. Cornaceæ.

II. GAMOPETALÆ.

Series I. Inferæ. Ovary inferior. Stamens equal to the lobes of the corolla, rarely fewer.

Cohort I. Rubiales. Stamens adnate to the corolla. Ovary 2–∞-locular, loculi 1–∞-ovuled.

Order 83. Caprifoliaceæ.
„ 84. Rubiaceæ.

Cohort II. Asterales. Stamens adnate to the corolla. Ovary formed of 2 carpels, unilocular and 1-ovuled.

Order 85. Valerianeæ.
„ 86. Dipsaceæ.
„ 87. Calycereæ.
„ 88. Compositæ.

Cohort III. Campanales. Stamens generally free from the corolla. Ovary 2–6-locular, loculi most often ∞-ovuled.

Order 89. Stylidieæ.
„ 90. Goodenovieæ.
„ 91. Campanulaceæ.

Series II. Heteromeræ. Ovary most often superior. Stamens free from the corolla, opposite to, or double the lobes of the corolla, or ∞, or if epipetalous, equal and alternating with them. Carpels more than 2.

Cohort IV. Ericales. Stamens double the lobes of the corolla, or alternating with them. Ovary 2–∞-locular. Seeds small, frequently minute.

Order 92. Vacciniaceæ.
„ 93. Ericaceæ.
„ 94. Monotropeæ.
„ 95. Epacrideæ.
„ 96. Diapensiaceæ.
„ 97. Lennoaceæ.

Cohort V. Primulales. Stamens equal to and opposite the lobes of the corolla. Ovary unilocular, with a free central placenta, 1–∞ ovules.

Order 98. Plumbagineæ
„ 99. Primulaceæ.
„ 100. Myrsineæ.

Cohort VI. Ebenales. Stamens equal to and opposite the lobes of the corolla, or double, or ∞. Ovary 2–∞-locular. Seeds few and large. Trees or shrubs.

Order 101. Sapotaceæ.
„ 102. Ebenaceæ.
„ 103. Styraceæ.

Series III. Bicarpellatæ. Ovary most often superior. Stamens equal, or fewer than the lobes of the corolla, and alternating with them. Carpels 2, rarely 1 or 3.

Cohort VII. Gentianales. Corolla regular. Stamens equal to the lobes of the corolla, or if fewer, usually alternating with the carpels. Leaves generally opposite.

Order 104. Oleaceæ.
„ 105. Salvadoraceæ.
„ 106. Apocynaceæ.
„ 107. Asclepiadeæ.
„ 108. Loganiaceæ.
„ 109. Gentianeæ.

Cohort VIII. Polemoniales. Corolla regular. Stamens equal to the lobes of the corolla. Leaves generally alternate.

Order 110. Polemoniaceæ.
„ 111. Hydrophyllaceæ.
„ 112. Boragineæ.
„ 113. Convolvulaceæ.
„ 114. Solanaceæ.

Cohort IX. Personales. Corolla most often irregular or oblique. Posterior stamen less than the others, more often reduced to a staminode, or altogether absent. Ovary ∞-ovuled, or 2-ovuled.

Order 115. Scrophularineæ.
„ 116. Orobanchaceæ.
„ 117. Lentibularieæ.
„ 118. Columelliaceæ.
„ 119. Gesneraceæ.
„ 120. Bignoniaceæ.
„ 121. Pedalineæ.
„ 122. Acanthaceæ.

Cohort X. Lamiales. Corolla most often irregular or oblique. Posterior stamen less than the others, most frequently reduced to a staminode or absent. Carpels 1-ovuled or with 2 collateral ovules. Fruit enclosed in the persistent calyx, indehiscent, and with one seed, or dehiscing into 2 or 4, rarely ∞, 1-seeded nuts.

Order 123. Myoporineæ.
„ 124. Selagineæ.
„ 125. Verbenaceæ.
„ 126. Labiateæ.

Anomalous Order 127. Plantagineæ.

III. MONOCHLAMYDEÆ.

Perianth simple, lobes or segments 1–2-seriate and often sepaloid, or small, or wanting.

Series I. Curvembryeæ. Endosperm frequently farinaceous. Embryo curved, excentric, lateral or peripheral, rarely straight. Ovules most frequently 1 in the ovary, or 1 in each loculus. Flowers ☿, in some genera unisexual or polygamous. Petals very rare. Stamens equal to the segments of the perianth, rarely fewer or more.

Order 128. Nyctagineæ.
„ 129. Illecebraceæ.
„ 130. Amarantaceæ.
„ 131. Chenopodiaceæ.
„ 132. Phytolaccaceæ.
„ 133. Batideæ.
„ 134. Polygonaceæ.

Series II. Multiovulatæ Aquaticæ. Aquatic herbs, submerged. Ovary syncarpous; ovules numerous in each loculus or on each placenta.

Order 135. Podostemaceæ.

Series III. Multiovulatæ Terrestres. Terrestrial trees or shrubs. Ovary syncarpous; ovules numerous in each loculus or on each placenta.

Order 136. Nepenthaceæ.
„ 137. Cytinaceæ.
„ 138. Aristolochiaceæ.

Series IV. Micrembryeæ. Ovary syncarpous, monocarpous, or apocarpous. Ovules generally solitary in each carpel, rarely 2 or few. Endosperm copious, fleshy, or rarely farinaceous. Embryo very minute.

Order 139. Piperaceæ.
„ 140. Chloranthaceæ.
„ 141. Myristiceæ.
„ 142. Monimiaceæ.

Series V. Daphnales. Ovary monocarpous, very rarely syncarpous, with 2–4 loculi; ovules in the ovary or in each loculus, solitary, or in pairs. Trees or shrubs, very rarely herbs; flowers generally ☿. Perianth perfect, sepaloid, 1–2 seriate. Stamens perigynous, equal to the lobes of the perianth, or double unless fewer.

Order 143. Laurineæ.
„ 144. Proteaceæ.
„ 145. Thymelæaceæ.
„ 146. Penæaceæ.
„ 147. Elæagnaceæ.

Series VI. Achlamydosporeæ. Ovary unilocular, 1–3 ovules. Ovules most frequently poorly developed before flowering. Seeds endospermous, but without testa, either free in the pericarp or attached to its walls. Perianth generally perfect, sepaloid or petaloid.

Order 148. Loranthaceæ.
„ 149. Santalaceæ.
„ 150. Balanophoreæ.

Series VII. Unisexuales. Flowers unisexual. Ovary syncarpous or monocarpous, ovules in the ovary or in each loculus, solitary, or in pairs. Endosperm copious, fleshy, or scanty, or absent. Trees or shrubs, rarely herbs. Stipules generally present. Perianth sepaloid, or minute, or absent. Styles equal in number to the carpels, not rarely bifid.

Order 151. Euphorbiaceæ.
„ 152. Balanopseæ.
„ 153. Urticaceæ.
„ 154. Platanaceæ.
„ 155. Leitnerieæ.
„ 156. Juglandeæ.
„ 157. Myricaceæ.
„ 158. Casuarineæ.
„ 159. Cupuliferæ.

Series VIII. Ordines Anomali. Anomalous Orders.

Order 160. Salicineæ.
„ 161. Lacistemaceæ.
„ 162. Empetraceæ.
„ 163. Ceratophylleæ.

GYMNOSPERMEÆ

Order 164. Gnetaceæ.
„ 165. Coniferæ.
„ 166. Cycadaceæ.

MONOCOTYLEDONES.

Series I. Microspermæ. At least the inner series of the perianth petaloid. Ovary inferior, unilocular, with 3 parietal placentæ, or rarely 3-locular, with axile placentation. Seeds minute, numerous, without endosperm.

Order 167. Hydrocharideæ.
„ 168. Burmanniaceæ.
„ 169. Orchideæ.

Series II. Epigynæ. At least the inner series of the perianth petaloid. Ovary most often inferior. Endosperm copious.

Order 170. Scitamineæ.
„ 171. Bromeliaceæ.
„ 172. Hæmodoraceæ.
„ 173. Irideæ.
„ 174. Amaryllideæ.
„ 175. Taccaceæ.
„ 176. Dioscoreaceæ.

Series III. Coronarieæ. At least the inner series of perianth petaloid. Ovary free, very rarely slightly adnate at the base. Endosperm copious.

Order 177. Roxburghiaceæ.
„ 178. Liliaceæ.
„ 179. Pontederiaceæ.
„ 180. Philydraceæ.
„ 181. Xyrideæ.
„ 182. Mayaceæ.
„ 183. Commelinaceæ.
„ 184. Rapateaceæ.

Series IV. Calycinæ. Perianth sepaloid, small, rigid, or herbaceous (inner series subpetaloid or small). Ovary free. Endosperm copious.

Order 185. Flagellarieæ.
„ 186. Juncaceæ.
„ 187. Palmæ.

Series V. Nudifloræ. Perianth absent, or reduced to hairs or scales. Ovary superior, carpel solitary, or if many, syncarpous, 1–∞-ovuled. Endosperm most frequently present.

Order 188. Pandaneæ.
„ 189. Cyclanthaceæ.
„ 190. Typhaceæ.
„ 191. Aroideæ.
„ 192. Lemnaceæ.

Series VI. Apocarpæ. Perianth 1–2-seriate, or absent. Carpels superior, solitary, or if more, apocarpous. Endosperm absent.

Order 193. Triurideæ.
„ 194. Alismaceæ.
„ 195. Naiadaceæ.

Series VII. Glumaceæ. Flowers solitary, sessile in the axils of bracts and arranged in capitula or spikelets with bracts. Segments of perianth small, scale-like, glumaceous or absent. Ovary 1-ovuled, or divided into 1-ovuled loculi. Endosperm present.

Order 196. Eriocauleæ.
„ 197. Centrolepideæ.
„ 198. Restiaceæ.
„ 199. Cyperaceæ.
„ 200. Gramineæ.

Classification of the Thallophytes proposed by Sachs (Text-Book of Botany, English Edition, 1882).

THALLOPHYTES.
Containing chlorophyll.	Not containing chlorophyll.
Class I. Protophyta.
Cyanophyceæ.	Schizomycetes.
Palmellaceæ (in part).	Saccharomycetes.
Class II. Zygosporeæ.
Conjugating cells motile.
Pandorineæ.	Myxomycetes.
(Hydrodictyeæ).
Conjugating cells stationary.
Conjugatæ (including Diatomaceæ).	Zygomycetes.
Class III. Oosporeæ.
Sphæroplea.
Vaucheria (Cœloblastæ).		Saprolegnieæ.
			Peronosporeæ.
Volvocineæ.
Œdogonieæ.
Fucoideæ.
Class IV. Carposporeæ.
Coleochæteæ.	Ascomycetes (including Lichens).
Florideæ.	Æcidiomycetes (Uredineæ).
Characeæ.	Basidiomycetes.

System of A. W. Eichler (1883).

A. Cryptogamæ.
I. Thallophyta.
1. Class. Algæ.
1 Group. Cyanophyceæ.
2 „ Diatomeæ.
3 „ Chlorophyceæ.
1 Series. Conjugatæ.
2 „ Zoosporeæ.
3 „ Characeæ.
4 Group. Phæophyceæ.
5 „ Rhodophyceæ.
2. Class. Fungi.
1 Group. Schizomycetes.
2 „ Eumycetes.
1 Series. Phycomycetes.
2 „ Ustilagineæ.
3 „ Æcidiomycetes.
4 „ Ascomycetes.
5 „ Basidiomycetes.
3 Group. Lichenes.
II. Bryophyta.
1 Group. Hepaticæ.
2 „ Musci.
III. Pteridophyta.
1 Class. Equisetinæ.
2 „ Lycopodinæ.
3 „ Filicinæ.
B. Phanerogamæ.
1. Gymnospermæ.
2. Angiospermæ.

The subdivisions of the Phanerogamæ have with little variation been adopted in this book.

Classification of the Thallophytes, adopted in the 3rd Danish Edition (1891). [Algæ by Wille; Fungi by Rostrup (after Zopf).]

I. DIVISION. THALLOPHYTA.
I. Sub-division. Algæ.
1 Class. Chlorophyceæ (Green Algæ).
1 Family. Conjugatæ.
2 „ Protococcoideæ.
3 „ Confervoideæ.
4 „ Siphoneæ.
5 „ Gyrophyceæ.
2 Class. Phæophyceæ (Brown Algæ).
1 Family. Syngeneticæ.
2 „ Dinoflagellata.
3 „ Pyritophyceæ (Diatomeæ).
4 „ Phæosporeæ.
5 „ Cyclosporeæ.
6 „ Dictyoteæ.
3 Class. Aciliatæ.
A. Sub-class. Schizophyceæ.
1 Family. Myxophyceæ (Blue-Green Algæ).
2 „ Bacteria.
B. Sub-class. Rhodophyceæ.
1 Family. Bangioideæ.
2 „ Florideæ.
II. Sub-division. Myxomycetes.
III. „ Fungi.
A. Phycomycetes.
1 Class. Oomycetes.
2 „ Zygomycetes.
B. Mycomycetes.
3 Class. Basidiomycetes.
A. Sub-class. Protobasidiomycetes.
B. „ Autobasidiomycetes.
1 Family. Hymenomycetes.
2 „ Gasteromycetes.
3 „ Basidiolichenes.
4 Class. Ascomycetes.
1 Family. Gymnoasci.
2 „ Perisporieæ.
3 „ Pyrenomycetes.
4 „ Discomycetes.
5 „ Ascolichenes.

System of A. Engler (Syllabus der Vorlesungen, etc., 1892).

I. DIVISION. MYXOTHALLOPHYTA.
Sub-division. Myxomycetes.
1 Class. Acrasieæ.
2 „ Plasmodiophorales.
3 „ Myxogasteres.
1 Series. Ectosporeæ.
2 „ Endosporeæ.
II. DIVISION. EUTHALLOPHYTA.
I. Sub-division. Schizophyta.
1 Class. Schizophyceæ.
2 „ Schizomycetes.
II. Sub-division. Dinoflagellata.
Class. Dinoflagellata.
1 Series. Adinida.
2 „ Dinifera.
III. Sub-division. Bacillariales.
Class. Bacillariales.
IV. Sub-division. Gamophyceæ.
1 Class. Conjugatæ.
2 „ Chlorophyceæ.
1 Sub-class. Protococcales.
2 „ Confervales.
3 „ Siphoneæ.
3 Class. Charales.
4 „ Phæophyceæ.
1 Sub-class. Phæosporeæ.
2 „ Cyclosporeæ.
5 Class. Dictyotales.
6 „ Rhodophyceæ.
1 Sub-class. Bangiales.
2 „ Florideæ.
1 Series. Nemalionales.
2 „ Gigartinales.
3 „ Rhodymeniales.
4 „ Cryptonemiales.
V. Sub-division. Fungi.
1 Class. Phycomycetes.
1 Series. Zygomycetes.
2 „ Oomycetes.
1 Sub-series. Chytridiales.
2 „ Mycosiphonales.
2 Class. Mesomycetes.
1 Sub-class. Hemiasci.
2 „ Hemibasidii.
3 Class. Mycomycetes.
1 Sub-class. Ascomycetes.
1 Series. Exoasci.
2 „ Carpoasci.
1 Sub-series. Gymnoascales.
2 „ Perisporiales.
3 „ Pyrenomycetes.
Appended. Pyrenolichenes.
4 Sub-series. Hysteriales.
5 „ Discomycetes.
Appended. Discolichenes.
2 Sub-class. Basidiomycetes.
1 Series. Protobasidiomycetes.
1 Sub-series. Uredinales.
2 „ Auriculariales.
3 „ Tremellinales.
4 „ Pilacrales.
2 Series. Autobasidiomycetes.
1 Sub-series. Dacryomycetes.
2 „ Hymenomycetes.
Appended. Hymenolichenes.
3 Sub-series. Phalloideæ.
4 „ Gasteromycetes.
Appended. Gasterolichenes.
Fungi imperfecti.
III. DIVISION. EMBRYOPHYTA ZOIDIOGAMA (Archegoniatæ).
I. Sub-division. Bryophyta (Muscinei).
1 Class. Hepaticæ.
1 Series. Marchantiales.
2 „ Anthocerotales.
3 „ Jungermanniales.
1 Sub-series. Anacrogynæ.
2 „ Acrogynæ.
2 Class. Musci.
1 Sub-class. Sphagnales.
2 „ Andreæales.
3 „ Archidiales.
4 „ Bryales.
1 Series. Cleistocarpæ.
2 „ Stegocarpæ.
1 Sub-series. Acrocarpæ.
2 „ Pleurocarpæ.
II. Sub division. Pteridophyta.
1 Class. Filicales.
1 Sub-class. Filices.
1 Series. Planithallosæ.
2 „ Tuberithallosæ.
2 Sub-class. Hydropterides.
2 Class. Equisetales.
1 Sub-class. Isosporæ.
2 „ Heterosporæ.
3 Class. Sphenophyllales.
4 „ Lycopodiceles.
1 Sub-class. Isosporæ.
2 „ Heterosporæ.
IV. DIVISION. EMBRYOPHYTA SIPHONOGAMA.
(Siphonogamæ, Phanerogamæ).
I. Sub-division. Gymnospermæ.
1 Class. Cycadales.
2 „ Cordaitales.
3 „ Bennettitales.
4 „ Coniferæ.
5 „ Gnetales.
II. Sub-division. Angiospermæ.
1 Class. Chalazogamæ.
Series. Verticillatæ.
2 Class. Acrogamæ.
1 Sub-class. Monocotyledoneæ.
1 Series. Pandanales.
2 „ Helobiæ.
3 „ Glumifloræ.
4 „ Principes.
5 „ Synanthæ.
6 „ Spathifloræ.
7 „ Farinosæ.
8 „ Liliifloræ.
9 „ Scitamineæ.
10 „ Microspermæ.
2 Sub-class. Dicotyledoneæ.
1 Group of Series. Archichlamydeæ.
1 Series. Piperales.
2 „ Juglandales.
3 „ Salicales.
4 „ Fagales.
5 „ Urticales.
6 „ Proteales.
7 „ Santalales.
8 „ Aristolochiales.
9 „ Polygonales.
10 „ Centrospermæ.
11 „ Ranales.
12 „ Rhœadales.
13 „ Sarraceniales.
14 „ Rosales.
15 „ Geraniales.
16 „ Sapindales.
17 „ Rhamnales.
18 „ Malvales.
19 „ Parietales.
20 „ Opuntiales.
21 „ Thymelæales.
22 „ Myrtifloræ.
23 „ Umbellifloræ.
2 Group of Series. Sympetalæ.
1 Series. Ericales.
2 „ Primulales.
3 „ Ebenales.
4 „ Contortæ.
5 „ Tubifloræ.
6 „ Plantaginales.
7 „ Rubiales.
8 „ Aggregatæ.
9 „ Campanulatæ.

TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS.

S = Sepals.
P = Petals.
Pr = Perianth.
A = Andrœcium.
G = Gynœceum.

♂ = Male.
♀ = Female.
☿ = Hermaphrodite.
∞ = Indefinite.

Names of continents and countries have sometimes been abbreviated, for example:—Am. = America; As.=Asia; Af. = Africa; Ind. = India, etc. N., S., E., W., = North, South, East, West; Temp. = Temperate Regions; Trop. = Tropics.