CONGREVE ROCKETS.

Rockets may be of great use when a disembarkation of troops takes place in presence of an enemy, since Rocket men can land with the first party of Infantry, and commence firing before any guns can be brought into position. Rockets will not only be useful against masses of Cavalry, and squares of Infantry, but, when guns cannot be brought up, may be of material benefit in dislodging an enemy from villages or houses, which could not be approached by Infantry alone without a considerable loss of men, and chance of failure. The larger rockets are of great service in bombardments and sieges.

Congreve Rockets are of four different natures—viz., 24 pounders, 12 pounders, 6 pounders, and 3 pounders. The cases are of wrought iron, and the rockets are driven upon the same principle as Signal rockets. Congreve rockets may be used either as shot or shell-rockets, and the shell may be made to burst either at long or short ranges. Each rocket is fitted with a fuze screwed into the base of the shell; this fuze is as long as the size of the shell will admit of, so as to leave sufficient space between the end of it and the inner surface of the shell, for putting in the bursting powder, and the end of the fuze is capped to serve as a guide in the insertion of the boring-bit. There is a hole in the apex of the shell, secured by a screw metal plug, for putting in the bursting powder, and for boring, according to the different ranges at which it may be required to burst the shell.

ON FIRING ROCKETS.

If the Rocket is to be used as a Shot-rocket, the only thing to be attended to, is to take care that there is no powder in the shells, and that the plug is secured in the plug-hole. If the rocket is to be used as a shell-rocket at the longest range, the plug is to be taken out, and the shell filled, the fuze left at its full length, and the plug replaced. If at the shortest range, the fuze is to be entirely bored through, and the rocket composition bored to within an inch and a half of the top of the cone in the 24 pounder rocket, and to within one inch in the 12, 6, and 3 pounder rockets. The distances from the surface of the shell to the top of the cone, and from the surface of the shell to the end of the fuze, and also, the length of the fuze being fixed and known, the place on the boring-bit at which to screw the stopper, whether for various lengths of fuzes, or lengths of rocket composition to be left over the cone, is easily determined; these distances are marked on the brass scales for each nature of rocket, and the length of rocket composition available for boring into, and the lengths of fuze, are also set off and subdivided into tenths of an inch.

ELEVATIONS, RANGES, AND LENGTHS OF FUZE.

The 24 pounder and 12 pounder rockets are very destructive against troops from 800 to 1000 yards; against buildings, &c., from 500 to 600 yards: with 6 pounders about 300 yards, and never at a greater range than 600 or 700 yards.

The range and elevation of a 12 pounder rocket is 10 degrees of elevation for 600 yards, and 1 degree more is given for each additional 100 yards, as far as 1250 yards, the elevation for which will be 16 degrees.

The range and elevation of a 6 pounder rocket is 7¾ degrees for 400 yards, and as far as 700 yards 1 degree for each 100 yards; and from 700 to 1250 yards, half a degree increases the range about 100 yards.

24 pounders.—If the whole length of fuze is left in the shell, the rocket may be expected to burst at from 3300 to 3700 yards; elevation, 47 degrees.

If the whole of the fuze composition is bored out, and the rocket composition left entire, the shell may be expected to burst at about 2000 yards; elevation, 27 degrees.

If the rocket composition be bored to within 1·5 inch of the top of the cone, the shell may be expected to burst at about 700 yards; elevation, 17 degrees.

12 pounders.—If the whole length of fuze be left in the shell, the rocket may be expected to burst at about 3000 yards; elevation, 40 degrees.

If the whole of the fuze composition is bored out, and the rocket composition left entire, the shell may be expected to burst at about 1300 yards; elevation, 15 degrees. If the rocket composition be bored to within one inch of the top of the cone, the shell may be expected to burst at about 500 yards; elevation, 9 degrees.

6 pounders.—If the whole length of the fuze be left in the shell, the rocket may be expected to burst at about 2300 yards; elevation, 37 degrees. If the whole of the fuze composition be bored out, and the rocket composition be left entire, the shell may be expected to burst at about 950 yards; elevation, 13¾ degrees. If the rocket composition be bored to within one inch of the top of the cone, the shell may be expected to burst at about 500 yards; elevation 9½ degrees.

3 pounders.—If the whole length of the fuze be left in the shell, the rocket may be expected to burst at about 1850 yards; elevation, 25 degrees. If the whole of the fuze composition be bored out, and the rocket composition be left entire, the shell may be expected to burst at about 750 yards; elevation, 10 degrees. If the rocket composition be bored to within one inch of the top of the cone, the shell may be expected to burst at about 500 yards; elevation, 8 degrees.

Ranges, and Elevation of Congreve rockets.

Ranges.	Elevation.
Ranges.	12 Pounder.		6 Pounder.

Yards.	Degrees.	Minutes.	Degrees.	Minutes.
400			7	45
500			8	45
600	10	0	9	45
700	11	30	10	30
800	12	45	11	15
900	13	30	11	45
1000	14	0	12	30
1100	14	45	13	15
1200	15		14	0
1250	16		14	30

EXERCISE OF ROCKETS.[23]

The 24 pounder is used for siege purposes. The 12 and 6 pounders are for service in the field.

Exercise of 12 and 6 pounder, or Field Rockets.

Telling off the Detachment.

The detachment falls in, in rear of and facing the carriage, and is told off as for gun exercise.

“Form the order of march, Left face—Quick march.”

Disposition and Duties of a Detachment of Seven Men, with a 12 and 6 pounder Rocket.

No. 1 stands one yard in rear of the tube, points, and commands.
3 stands on the left of the tube, in line with its centre, elevates,and traverses.	2 stands on the right of the tube, in line with its centre, elevates, and traverses.
5 stands on the left of the tube, in line with the rear of it, primes, and fires.	4 stands on the right of the tube, in line with the rear of it, brings up rockets, arranges the priming, and loads.
7 stands in rear of the carriage and prepares rockets. When firing shell-rockets, he bores out the composition, assisted by No. 6.	6 stands in rear of the carriage, assists No. 7 in preparing rockets. When firing shell rockets he puts in the bursting powder, &c.

The following is the proportion of Stores furnished with Field Carriages.
Two hundred and sixteen rockets with sticks.	} with
Two hundred and sixteen bursters.	} 6 pounder.

One hundred rockets with sticks.	} with
One hundred bursters.	} 12 pounder.

One rocket tube. One rocket frame, comprising two cheeks, a prypole, elevating bar, and tangent scale. Two funnels. One boring stock. Two boring bits. One brass scale fitted to bits. Two turnscrew bits. One grease box. One tube pocket with tubes. One lanyard with hook for friction tubes.	} with both natures.

To every other equipment not exceeding 144 Rockets.
One rocket tube with frame. One stick for each rocket. One burster ditto. Two funnels. One boring stock. Two boring bits. One brass scale fitted to bits. Two turnscrew bits. One grease box. One tube pocket with tubes. One lanyard with hook for friction tubes.
One angle. One plummet with line. One elevating chain. Two guy ropes. Two additional pieces for the cheeks.	} with 24 pounder.

On field service the bursters are carried in the limber boxes, in canvas cartouches, similar to those in which the field ammunition is carried. The 12 pounder rocket carriage takes 50 bursters in each limber box, and the small stores in a box on the body of the carriage corresponding to the slow match box. The 6 pounder carriage takes 108 bursters in each limber box, and the small stores in a box which is between the limber boxes. In mountain equipments the bursters and small stores are carried in a box fitted to the pack saddle.

[24]Action front, rear, right, or left. Drive on. Load. Elevate. Lower. Halt. Muzzle right, or left. Halt. Priming, and Firing, as at Field guns.

Plan of a Garrison Carriage.

A	Sides or brackets	K	Stool bed
B	Transom	L	Quoin
C	Fore axletree	a	Transom bolt
D	Hind axletree	b	Bed bolt
E	Steps	c	Bracket bolts
F	Quarter round or ovolo	d	Linch-pins
G	Fore truck	e	Axletree hoops
H	Hind truck	f	Stool bed bolts
I	Trunnion hole	g	Eye or loop bolts
J	Axletree arm

Elevation of a Garrison Carriage.

Exercise of 24 Pounder, or siege rocket.

Disposition, and duties with seven men.

When the detachment is in action, the disposition and duties of the numbers are the same as at the lighter natures.

Put the frame together at low order. Raise the frame. Reeve the guys. Sling the rocket tube, and fix the angle. Adjust the frame. Load. Traverse, when necessary, Muzzle right, muzzle left. If greater alteration be required, than can be given by means of the guys, the cheeks of the rocket frame are moved in the named direction, Cheeks to the right, or left. Elevate, when necessary. Priming, and Firing, as directed for Field guns. When the frame is fixed at Low order, the prypole forms an angle of 30 degrees with the horizon. If greater elevation than this be required, the frame must be raised to High order—45 degrees elevation; or higher still—50 degrees elevation.

Prepare to raise the frame to high order. Join the cheeks. Raise the frame. Adjust the frame. Load, etc. Prepare to strike the frame. Strike the frame.

PART VII.
REPOSITORY COURSE.
SERVING, AND WORKING HEAVY ORDNANCE.[25]

Part I.—Article 1.—Telling off the Detachments.

The men fall in two deep, and are told off on the same principle as for field guns. No. 1 always commands his detachment.

A gun detachment being drawn up in line, two deep, No. 1 is the right hand man of the front rank; No. 2 is the right hand man of the rear rank; and No. 3 his front rank man; and so on.

The men must go through every part of the exercise in turn. At the word “Change round” when there are seven men in a detachment,

No. 2	becomes	4	No. 1	becomes	7
4	”	6	7	”	5
6	”	1	5	”	3
			3	”	2

No. 3 shifting in front of the muzzle.

When there are only six men in a detachment,

No. 4	becomes	1
1	”	6
6	”	5

the rest as above.

The detachments are told off on their private parades, and marched to the battery. Arrived there, they are halted a few paces in rear of the platforms, to the left of their respective guns, so as to be covered by the merlons, and facing the parapet.

The commander then gives the caution, “Take post under cover of the merlon;” and immediately afterwards the executive word, “To the right face,” No. 1 after facing takes an oblique pace to the rear, on the left of 3. At the word quick march, the detachments step off except No. 1, who at first marks time until the detachment has past him, and then follows in rear of 6. When the detachments are opposite to the left corner of the platforms, the ranks open out on each side of the guns, the rear ranks on the right, the front ranks on the left—the whole outside of the platforms. Nos. 2 and 3 halt next to the embrasure, as soon as they arrive at the parapet; 4, 6, and 1 halt in succession on the right of 2; 5 and 7 on the left of 3. When all the numbers have arrived at the parapet in the order here detailed, the commander gives the word, “Right about face.”

The detachments are now in the position, which they should always occupy in action, in a battery, unless actively employed in their duties at the guns.

When there is no parapet, the command is given to “Take post at the guns;” Nos. 2 and 3 halt in line with the muzzle of the piece; 4 and 5 in line with the trunnions; 6 and 7 with the vent; 1 the trail: the whole outside of the platform and in echellon. The numbers should never cover if they can avoid doing so.

The following general detail of duties for a detachment of seven men is applicable to all natures of guns, from 18-pounders and upwards, on any description of carriage whatever.

No. 1 commands, points, and primes.
3 loads, assists to ram home shot and wad, runs up, and elevates.	2 searches, spunges, rams home, runs up, and elevates.
5 supplies 3 with shot and wad, runs up, and traverses.	4 clears the vent, serves it, pricks the cartridge, runs up, and traverses.
7 supplies 3 with cartridge, double-man’s his handspike, serves 1 with tubes, and fires.	6 supplies 2 with side arms, double-man’s his handspike, replaces 1’s handspike, and supplies 7 with cartridges, (and 3 with shell when required.)

The following general detail of duties for a detachment of six men, is applicable to all natures of guns below 18-pounder, on any description of carriage whatever.

No. 1 commands, supplies 2 with side arms, points, and primes.
3 loads, assists to ram home shot and wad, runs up, and elevates.	2 searches, spunges, rams home, runs up, and elevates.
5 supplies 3 with cartridge, shot, and wad, runs up, and traverses.	4 clears the vent, serves it, pricks the cartridge, runs up, and traverses.
6 supplies 5 with cartridge, replaces 1’s handspike, serves him with tubes, and fires.

Besides the men told off to each gun, there must be some at the magazine, to fill and issue cartridges. When shells are fired, some men must be appointed to fill them, and to cut and fix fuzes; No. 6 brings up shells to 3, who uncaps the fuze.

Guns are always laid under metal, i. e., at an angle of depression, after exercise.

The following is a list of stores required for the service of heavy ordnance in batteries:—

One spunge	{	to be placed on the right of the gun outside of 4, resting against the parapet; the spunge head, rammer head, and the worm uppermost, and just below the interior crest.
One rammer	{
One wadhook	{

When there is no parapet the side arms must be laid on the ground in the order above detailed, about two paces from the gun, and parallel to it; the spunge and rammer heads to the front, and supported to keep them free from gravel.

Five handspikes.—Two of these are placed on each side of the platform close to the edge of it, the points towards the parapet; the points of the front handspikes about two feet from the hurter, the points of the rear ones overlapping inside to about the middle of the front ones; the front handspikes for the use of 2 and 3, the rear ones for the use of 4 and 5. The fifth handspike is placed close to the rear of the middle of the platform, small end to the right, for the use of 1. All bevelled handspikes are to be laid bevelled side upwards.

One set of priming irons
One thumbstall

{

For the use of No. 4. The priming irons to be placed in the loop on the right of the carriage.

One leather pocket with tubes.—The tube pocket must be strapped on the left side of No. 7, who will keep it close shut.

One lanyard with hook for friction tubes in charge of No. 7, who attaches it to the waist belt of the tube pocket; or, one hammer with lanyard likewise in charge of 7, who fixes it to the gun, assisted by 1.

Shot, piled on the left of the gun, close to the front of the platform.

Wads, (if necessary,) close to the shot.

Broom, shovel, one or two for each battery.

Spade, pick, one per battery if thought necessary.

Guns on dwarf and casemate traversing platforms require nearly the same stores.

Two shod levers, in place of three common handspikes, and in addition,

Two truck levers. Two scotches. One preventive rope.

Two luff tackles. With 8-inch guns and all above that calibre, the tackles should consist of double blocks.

Guns on common traversing platforms require nearly the same stores as those on dwarf platforms. When the four trucks are on, two shod levers to be substituted for two truck levers.

Article 3.

TO SHIFT A GUN FROM THE FIRING TO THE TRAVELLING, OR FROM THE TRAVELLING TO THE FIRING TRUNNION HOLES.

The wheels of the gun carriage and those of the limber should, if possible, always be on a level and scotched. In shifting the gun either way, it should only be lifted so high, as to keep the under side of the trunnions clear of the cheeks of the carriage.

When the gun is in the travelling holes, the screw must be taken out to prevent its being damaged; it is lodged in a place for it between the cheeks. The gun roller is strapped to the hind part of the centre transom.

Heavy guns on travelling carriages require the following number of men for their service in the field:—

24-pounder	18 men	}	besides non-commissioned officers,
18 ”	14 ”	}
12 ”	12 ”	}

being necessary on the march for extricating them out of difficulties, taking up positions, laying temporary platforms, placing planks under the wheels and trail, to facilitate the working of the gun, &c., &c.

Prepare to shift the gun. Bear down. Lower. Lift, and heave. Halt, lower the muzzle. Bear down. Lower. Strap on the side arms and handspikes.

Article 4.

EXERCISE OF GUNS, ON SIEGE CARRIAGES.

The disposition, and duties of the detachments are the same as detailed for guns on standing carriages; with the exception of the application of the handspikes.

In addition to the stores, and side arms for the service of the gun, a heavy gun in the field requires men’s harness, and dragropes, a lifting jack, a set of intrenching tools, and three planks of a foot wide, and ten or twelve feet long. There should be a lever, and fulcrums, and prop, for every two guns; besides a gyn, rollers, tackles, and ropes for every four guns. The side arms, handspikes, and planks are strapped on the cheek; the gyn, rollers, tackles, &c., are carried on a platform waggon.

Planks for temporary platform. When the ground is not very hard, it will be found very necessary to lay planks under the wheels and trail for the carriage to recoil on.

Article 5.

EXERCISE OF GUNS ON DWARF, AND CASEMATE TRAVERSING PLATFORMS.

The disposition, and duties of the detachments are the same as at [page 174], with the following additions, viz., No. 1 guides the levers whilst the gun is running back; Nos. 1, and 7 hold on the preventer rope, and 4, and 5 guide the levers, whilst it is running up; Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5 manage the truck levers, reeve the tackles, hook, and unhook them.

[26]Prepare for action. Reeve the tackle, and fix the preventer rope. Hook the tackles. Load. Run the gun up. Ease off. Halt. After Pointing, Laying, Priming, and Firing——Run the gun back. Heave. Halt. Unreeve the tackle, and take off the preventer rope.

Article 6.

EXERCISE OF GUNS ON COMMON TRAVERSING PLATFORMS.

The disposition, and duties of the detachments, as at [page 174].

Load. Run the gun up. Heave. Elevating, Traversing, Priming, Firing, and Running back, as detailed for guns on dwarf, and casemate traversing platforms.

Article 7.

DISPOSITION, AND DUTIES OF FIRING HOT SHOT, WITH SEVEN MEN.

No. 1. commands, supplies 2 with side arms, points, and primes.
3 loads, puts a dry wad over the cartridge, then a damp one, (and a dry wad over the shot if necessary,) assists No. 2 to ram home the dry wads, runs up, and elevates.	2 searches, spunges, rams home, assists to put in the shot, runs up, and elevates.
5 supplies 3 with cartridges and wads, runs up, and traverses.	4 clears the vent, serves it, pricks the cartridge, runs up, and traverses.
7 brings shot from the furnace, and assists to put them in, double-mans 3’s handspike, supplies 1 with tubes, and fires.	6 assists 7 to bring shot from the furnace, double-mans 2’s handspike, and supplies 5 with cartridge, and wads.

With all kinds of traversing platforms, No. 3 receives the bearer from 6 and 7, and assists 2 to put in the shot.

The gun is spunged in the ordinary manner, but the spunge must be wetted, and the gun frequently cooled with it.

The same stores are required as for the service of heavy guns with cold shot. Junk wads are indispensable, and those which are used wet should be made of a low gauge.

Utensils required for the Shot.
One furnace or grate.	One poker.
One moving tool.	One rake.
One scraper.	One shovel.
One pair of tongs.

One stand on which to place the shot, in order to scrape them.

One shot bearer per gun. Two tubs full of water, to soak wads, cool tongs, &c. Two or three water buckets.

The furnace may be heated either with wood, or coals, or a mixture of coal and coke, according to circumstances.

There should never be less than three men to attend the furnace, even when the shot and wood are close at hand, and four will generally be required, viz., one non-commissioned officer, or steady man in charge to see that the reddest shot are served out and replaced by cold ones, and to keep up such a fire as he may judge necessary.

One man to light and attend the fire, and supply fresh fuel when required.

One to take out shot, lay them on the stand, scrape them, and afterwards place them on a bearer.

One to supply the furnace with cold shot, and to bring fuel.

Loading.

The powder must be in a good flannel cartridge, which must undergo the strictest examination, to see that there are no holes in it, lest in setting it home any grains should fall out. The gun must be elevated, in order that the shot may roll freely along the bore.

Load. Prepare to Load. Load.

ADDISON’S SHOT FURNACE.

This furnace will contain in three rows, alongside of each other, fifteen 32-pounder, or eighteen 24-pounder, or twenty-one 18-pounder shot.

To heat the furnace.

To heat the furnace, it takes of coals ½ a bushel, of coke 2½ bushels, and shavings for lighting it. It should be allowed twenty minutes to light properly.

To heat the shot.

Fifteen 32-pounder shot being then put in, are heated in forty minutes.

Order of using the shot.

The shot should be taken equally out of each row from the rear of the furnace, and replaced by cold ones from the front.

After the furnace has been thoroughly heated, it will supply a new batch of shot every twenty minutes.

The furnace should be placed to leeward, and as near the battery as may be convenient, carefully selecting an open space, with as great a draught as can be found. The draught-hole should be to windward, and the furnace perfectly horizontal.

Article 8.

EXERCISE OF CARRONADES, 68-POUNDER, SEVEN MEN.

The disposition and duties are the same as detailed for the service of heavy guns with seven men, in Articles 1 and 2. But as the spunge stave is short, No. 2 receives it with his right hand at the rammer head, and left near the spunge head, pushes it up to the bottom of the chamber at once, spunges out, and proceeds as directed for guns.

The shot weighing above ½ cwt. No. 2 assists 3 to put it into the bore by means of a shot bearer, which they raise to the muzzle with their outward hands, backs down, and their inward hands, backs up.

24 and 12-Pounders, Six men.

The disposition, and duties are the same as detailed for the service of heavy guns with six men. See [Articles 1], and 2.

Article 9.

EXERCISE OF GUNS, AND CARRONADES ON SHIP CARRIAGES, WITH SEVEN MEN.

The disposition, and duties are the same as in the gun and carronade exercises, but a few additional men are necessary for manning the tackles.

The same stores as for guns on common traversing platforms, with the exception of the four levers, and in addition, three handspikes, and a breeching.

Fix the breeching. Hook the tackles. Run the gun in. Heave. Halt. Spunge, and load, as detailed for guns on standing carriages. Run the gun out. Heave. Halt. Elevating, Traversing, Priming and Firing, as directed in Article 2.

Article 10.

GUNS, AND CARRONADES ON DEPRESSING CARRIAGES.

When, after being fired, the piece is to be loaded, it must be brought to such a position that the spunge may be clear of the ground, or sill of the embrasure. Short pieces, such as carronades, and howitzers, are superior to guns for great depression, as they are easily managed and quickly loaded.

Article 11.

EXERCISE OF 10 AND 8-INCH HOWITZERS, ON STANDING AND SIEGE CARRIAGES, WITH SEVEN MEN.

No. 1 commands, supplies 2 with side arms, points, and primes.
3 loads, runs up, and elevates.	2 spunges, wipes the shell, uncaps the fuze, puts the shell up, runs up, and elevates.
5 supplies 3 with cartridge, runs up, and traverses.	4 clears the vent, serves it, pricks the cartridge, runs up, and traverses.
7 prepares and brings up shells, assists to put them in, double-mans 3’s handspike, supplies 1 with tubes, cuts and fixes fuzes, and fires.	6 prepares and brings up shells, assists to put them in, double-mans 2’s handspike, replaces 1’s handspike, supplies 5 with cartridges, cuts and fixes fuzes.

The same stores are required for the service of howitzers as for that of guns, (substituting shells for shot,) and, in addition, a shell bearer, a sheepskin, and a pair of setting up pincers.

The detachments take post as directed for guns.

Load. Shell. The howitzers are run up, elevated, traversed, primed, and fired, as detailed for guns.

Article 12.

EXERCISE OF MORTARS.

The detachments are told off and numbered as detailed in Article 1. When they are to take post the commander gives the word, “Take post at the mortars, to the right face.” No. 1, after facing, takes an oblique pace to the rear on the left of No. 3. At the word “Quick march,” the ranks open out and march on each side of the mortars, as directed for guns. Nos. 2 and 3 halt in line with the muzzle; 4 and 5 with the trunnions; 6 and 7 with the rear of the bed; the whole outside of the platform, and in echellon, except No. 1, who takes post in rear of the platform.

Disposition, and Duties of Detachments, for 13 and 10-inch Mortars, with Seven men.

No. 1 commands, hands the spunge to 2, points, and primes.
3 runs up, puts in the cartridge, assists to put in the shell, and traverses.	2 runs up, spunges, wipes the bottom of the shell, uncaps the fuze, assists to put the shell in, and traverses.
5 runs up, supplies 3 with cartridge, and traverses.	4 runs up, clears the vent, serves it, pricks the cartridge, and traverses.
7 double-mans 3’s handspike, prepares and brings up shells, assists to put them in, cuts and fixes fuzes, supplies 1 with tubes, and fires.	6 double-mans 2’s handspike, prepares and brings up shells, assists to put them in, supplies 5 with cartridges, cuts and fixes fuzes.
At 10-inch mortars, Nos. 2 and 3 are sufficient to put in the shell.

Disposition, and Duties of Detachments, for 8, 5½, and 4⅖-inch Mortars, with Five men.

No. 1 commands, hands the spunge to 2, points, and primes.
3 runs up, puts in the cartridge, puts in shell, and traverses.	2 runs up, spunges, wipes the bottom of the shell, uncaps the fuze, and traverses.
5 prepares and brings up shells, cuts and fixes fuzes, supplies 1 with tubes, and fires.	4 clears the vent, serves it, pricks the cartridge, supplies 3 with cartridges, cuts and fixes fuzes.

The shells ought always to be deposited behind traverses raised for the purpose, or in other sheltered places, and one or two men, according to circumstances, should be appointed to scrape and clean the inside of them, and prepare them for the powder and fuzes. There must also be men to weigh or measure out the charges of powder, according to the directions of No. 1.

The following stores are required for the service of mortars:—

One spunge to be placed on the right of the mortar, the spunge head to the front, and supported to keep it free from gravel.

One scraper for two mortars.

One cartridge case, for bringing up the cartridge; or a paper or leather case, for loading when the powder is loose.

One beam hook, for 13-inch; One pair of hand hooks, for 10-inch.

One new pattern hand hook, or piece of cord, for 8-inch.

Four handspikes. Two on each side of the platform, as directed for guns.

Two pointing rods, or pickets.

One plummet with line, in charge of No. 1.

A piece of sheepskin, or an empty sand-bag for wiping the bottom of the shell; to be placed on the right of the spunge.

One quadrant, One perpendicular, One fuze engine, for every four or five mortars. One tube pocket. One lanyard with hook, for friction tubes. One set of priming irons. One filling funnel. One cork screw. One mallet. Two setters. Tow, or flax. Shells. Pound shot, or stones. Bottoms for ditto. Valenciennes composition. Fuzes. Carcasses. Light balls.

At the Magazine.
One budge barrel.	One set of powder measures.
One set of weights and scales.

Prepare for action. Plant the pointing rods. Halt. Plant the rod. Pointing rods are sometimes fixed in two and a half or three inch planks, about seven or eight feet in length, prepared for this purpose.

Mortars are run up by the same numbers, and in the same manner, as guns on standing carriages, the handspikes being applied under the running up bolts. Load. Put in the shell. Traverse. Muzzle right. Heave. Halt. Muzzle Left. Heave. Halt. If necessary—Cross lift the mortar to the right, (or LEFT). Heave. Down. Priming, and Firing, as detailed for guns, except that No. 2, at the word “Ready,” takes the sheepskin out of the mortar, and as well as No. 3 takes an oblique pace to the rear, to be clear of the explosion.

Article 13.

FIRING BY NIGHT.

To insure as accurate a fire as possible during the night, the following expedients have been adopted:—

For guns on standing carriages.—A directing bar, or piece of timber, about a foot or eighteen inches longer than the platform and four inches by six in thickness, is used. It has a hole at one end, through which a bolt is passed into the platform close to the hurter, and in the object line. On this bolt the bar traverses. At equal distances from the axis or middle line of the carriage, two cleats are bolted under each axletree, at a distance from each other equal to the breadth of the bar, and the bar is passed under the carriage and fitted between these cleats. Holes are bored at the tail of the platform, for the reception of bolts, at distances from each other to suit the size of the bar. The gun is laid for the object during the day, and should the bar fall exactly between two holes, the bolts are put in, and the bar remains fixed. When however the bar covers a hole, the bolts are put into the nearest holes on each side, and small wedges driven in between them and the bar, in order to keep it in its place. The gun now requires nothing more after each round than to be loaded, run up, and fired; operations which are as easily performed by night as by day.

For guns on travelling carriages.—The gun having been properly laid during the day, a bead or piece of timber of a proper scantling is nailed or screwed to the platform, inside the felloe of each wheel, and parallel to the object line, and two shorter pieces are fastened in like manner outside of the cheeks of the carriage, at the trail.

By a proper application of scotches, the Madras and every description of traversing platform can be made available for night firing.

When the foregoing expedients cannot be resorted to, the platform and the carriage should be chalked in different places, and when the gun is run up, these chalk-marks should be made to correspond. A lantern, in this case, is always required.

For Mortars.

After the mortar has been accurately laid, a plank, thin enough to go under the running-up bolts without touching them, is placed against the outside of one of the cheeks of the bed, and nailed or screwed to the platform, and the mortar after every round, run up to it. If a suitable piece of plank cannot be procured the platform must be chalked close to the mortar bed.

Article 14.

FIRING AT MOVING OBJECTS.

For firing at moving objects a garrison carriage may be fitted with a directing bar, as for night firing, and traversed by means of tackles hooked to eye-bolts in the rear end of the bar. If the rear end be shaped for about ten inches like an axletree arm, and fitted with a truck, the operation of traversing will be greatly facilitated. This method is peculiarly applicable to coast batteries, where the guns are mounted en barbette and where vessels under sail are the objects to be fired at. The gun is elevated and primed, and the proper tackle being then hauled upon, No. 1 gives the word “Fire,” without any caution to the traversing numbers.

Part 2.—Article 1.

LEVER, AND HANDSPIKE.

The lever is of essential use in the service of artillery. When it is 6 feet long, and 3½ inches square at the large end, called the point, it is termed a handspike. The greater the length of the lever the greater is its power.[27]

Slewing.

To slew a gun, or mortar, strictly speaking, is to turn it on its axis without moving it from the spot on which it rests.

Pinching.

Pinching is the operation of moving a gun, or mortar, by small heaves of the handspike, without allowing it to turn on its axis. It is moved little by little, and never raised in its progress, but rubs against the skid on which it rests.

Cross-lifting.

To cross-lift a gun, or carriage, is to move it in a direction nearly perpendicular to its axis. Heavy guns, mounted, or dismounted, require a long lever, and a fulcrum, for cross-lifting. Guns of medium weight may be cross-lifted by means of handspikes.

Article 2.

FULCRUMS, AND PROPS.

Any piece of strong timber of suitable dimensions may serve for a fulcrum, or a prop. It is called a fulcrum when used to support a lever, and a prop when used as a temporary support for anything else.

Fulcrums.

The distance of the fulcrum from the weight which is to be raised should be such that, when the lever rests upon the top of it, the point may be put under the weight, and the lever form such an angle with the horizon that, when it is heaved down, and the small end nearly touches the ground, the weight may be raised to the required height.

Except with very heavy bodies, care must be taken, in placing a fulcrum, that it is inclined in a small degree towards the body, so that when the lever acts it may bring the fulcrum into a vertical position.

Props.

There cannot be a better prop than a quoin, when it is long enough, or a piece of wood of that shape, of proportionate size.

If the wheels of a carriage are to be taken off, and the carriage propped, the trail should be first secured from slipping.

The props are placed under each cheek, or under the shoulder of the axletree, with a slight inclination towards the carriage.

When one wheel only is to be taken off, and the other scotched, the props may be placed vertically; but practice alone will point out the proper position of props in all situations.

The point of the lever must not be withdrawn, until it is evident that the prop is well placed.

Article 3.

LIFTING JACK.

The lifting jack forms part of the equipment of every battery, and battering train. It may be applied to many of the purposes for which a long lever is used; but it is commonly employed to raise the wheels of carriages from the ground when they are to be greased, or exchanged, and to extricate them from ruts and holes.

The wheel opposite to that which is to be raised must be scotched.

On soft ground a piece of board must be placed under the foot of the jack, to prevent its sinking.

There are three kinds of lifting jacks in the service—

1st. The common lifting jack is used for field carriages only. The arm, which may be adjusted, within certain limits, to any required height, is a lever of the first kind, and is applied accordingly. The body of the jack is the support on which it works.

2nd. The tooth and pinion jack is of greater power than the common jack, and is used for heavy carriages. It is applied vertically under the carriage, which is raised by turning the winch of the jack.

3rd. The screw jack is an elevating screw of large dimensions, and is of greater power than either of the other two. Like the tooth and pinion jack, it is applied vertically under the body, which is raised, like the breech of a gun, by turning up the screw. The foot of it is furnished with three spikes, to prevent its slipping when the screw is turned.

If a wheel is to be extricated from a rut, into which it has sunk so far that the lifting jack cannot be applied in the ordinary manner, the jack is placed as close to the wheel as possible, on the outside of it. A piece of rope, passed under the nave, is made fast to the extremity of the arm, if the common jack is used, or to the fork, if either of the other kinds be employed. The jack is then worked as usual, and stones or other hard substances are thrown under the wheel, to prevent its sinking, as often as it may be necessary to take fresh purchases.

The tooth and pinion and screw jacks may be employed to move bodies horizontally a few inches, provided a good abutment or support can be found for the foot of the stock. By the application of two jacks, in opposite directions, bodies may be brought together to be spliced, riveted, &c.

Article 4.

ROLLERS.

Rollers are solid cylinders of wood, used in mounting guns upon their carriages, in shifting them from carriage to carriage, and in moving them through passages too narrow to admit of the use of the ordinary means of transport. Their dimensions vary, according to the nature of the service for which they are intended.

They can be used with advantage, only on a perfectly level plane surface.

When a cylindrical body is moved on rollers, they must be perfectly horizontal, or it will roll off them; and even when the rollers are horizontal, steadying handspikes should, if possible, be applied, to guard still further against such an accident.

The rollers must be placed at right angles to the direction in which they are intended to move, projecting equally on each side of the axis of the gun, or other body, which they support.

A gun laid upon rollers may be moved, either by hauling upon it with ropes, or by means of levers. In the last case, two holes crossing each other at right angles, are pierced near each end of the several rollers, and in them are inserted the points of iron levers, by means of which the rollers are turned in the required direction.

In order that rollers may be used with the greatest effect, and that there may be as little necessity as possible for shifting them during the course of an operation, it must be borne in mind,—

1st. That a roller moves in a direction perpendicular to its own axis.

2nd. That it moves over half the space only which is traversed by the body it supports.

Article 5.

CRAB CAPSTAN.

A crab capstan consists of a barrel, (in shape, a frustum of a cone,) and of a framework of wood and iron by which the barrel is supported in a vertical position with its largest diameter next the ground. It is furnished with two levers, called capstan bars, which are passed through mortices in the upper part of the barrel, and by means of which the barrel may be turned about on its axis. By means of the crab capstan, a few men, acting at the levers, can move weights which would be far beyond their strength, if applied in the ordinary manner; and it may, therefore, be used with advantage in many situations, in which it may be either difficult to command labour, or desirable to economise it.

One end of a rope is made fast to the weight which is to be moved, and is called the standing end. The other, called the running end, is passed two or three times round the lower part of the barrel, the loose or running end being kept above the turns, and stretched taught by the man who passed it round. As the barrel is turned, the standing end of the rope winds round it, forces the turns up the barrel, and clears itself. As fast as the running end comes off the barrel, it is coiled by a man appointed to that duty.

The capstan, when used, is secured by ropes to pickets, driven on the opposite side of it to that on which the strain acts upon it. Three men at each end of both bars—i. e., twelve men in all—is the greatest number that can be employed at the capstan with advantage; and two men are required for the running end of the fall, as previously described. The levers are twelve feet in length, and the power of twelve men, acting upon them, is about equivalent to that of 132 men acting at the end of a taught rope.

If a crab capstan cannot be procured, the windlass of a gyn may be used as a substitute, the cheeks being laid on the ground and secured with pickets; or a temporary capstan may be rigged, by lashing four handspikes to the spokes and felloe of a limber wheel, which is turned upon the pintail of the dismounted limber.

Article 12.

SLING CART.

The sling cart weighs about 15 cwt., and is employed for moving heavy ordnance. It is capable of carrying 65 cwt.

One non-commissioned officer and six men are required, numbered as usual; but it can be worked by one non-commissioned officer and four men.

Articles required:—

One sling of six-inch white rope, two fathoms long, with an eye-splice at each end.

One sling tye, of one-inch tarred rope, two feet long.

One prypole.

One prypole rope, 2½-inch, three fathoms long.

Two levers, six feet nine inches long.

Two lever ropes, of two-inch tarred rope, each two fathoms.

Two pawls.

Two common handspikes.

Two pieces of short skidding, about 4½ feet long, and five or six inches square.

The detachment is drawn up in rear of and facing the cart, the command is given, “Form the order of exercise—to the right face—quick march.” The detachment wheels to the left, and the ranks open out. Nos. 2 and 3 halt one pace in rear of and covering the wheels. The whole one pace from each other, and covering.

Disposition, and duties of the Men.

No. 1 attends to the pawl, and commands.
Left side.	Right side.
3 has charge of the left lever, and skids the gun when necessary.	2 has charge of the right lever, and skids the gun when necessary.
5 has charge of a handspike, assists 3 at the lever, and skidding, and raises the weight when it is to be lashed.	4 has charge of a handspike, assists 2 at the lever, and skidding, and raises the weight when it is to be lashed.
7 assists 3 at the lever, slings, and unslings the gun, and lashes it to the prypole.	6 assists 2 at the lever, slings, and unslings the gun, and lashes it to the prypole.

Form the order of march. Quick march. If the gun be not on skids, a piece of skidding is placed under it, a little in front of the trunnions, to make room for the sling to be passed under the piece. Before the piece is slung, the trunnions are brought vertical, or nearly so, either by the ordinary method of slewing, or by means of the sling cart, as follows:—

Back the cart over the gun. Scotch the wheels. Form the order of exercise. Quick march. Unlash the prypole, levers, and handspikes. Fix the sling to the right of the windlass. Overhaul the sling. Prepare to raise the right trunnion. Heave in the slack. Take up levers. Right lever take purchase. Heave. Left lever take purchase. Right lever fetch. Left lever heave. Right lever take purchase. Left lever fetch. Halt. Out levers. Sling the gun. Heave in the slack. Man the levers. Heave. Left lever hold on. Right lever fetch. Alternately to the lever numbers—Hold on, and FETCH, until the gun is close to the axletree, Halt. Prepare to raise the breech. Raise the breech. (If necessary, Take a fresh purchase. Heave.) Halt, lash the breech. Lash levers, and handspikes.

Unslinging the Gun.

Unlash levers, and handspikes. Unlash the prypole. Man the levers. Ease off. Left lever hold on. Right lever fetch. Right lever hold on. Left lever fetch. Out levers.

Slinging a Howitzer.

A howitzer is slung, and unslung according to the foregoing details.

Slinging a Mortar.

A mortar is slung with the muzzle towards the rear. For a 13-inch mortar, the wheels of the sling waggon ought to be used for the sling cart, and a double-barrelled windlass, if procurable.

Unslinging a Mortar.

See [“Unslinging a Gun.”]

Slinging a Mortar bed.

The windlass for raising Mortar beds is of a different construction from that of guns, being square in the middle, and cylindrical at each end. The bed is slung with the front part towards the rear of the cart.

Sling the bed. Lash the bed.

Unslinging a Mortar bed.

Unslinging a mortar bed is just the reverse of slinging, each number undoing what he had previously done.

Article 13.

SLING WAGGON.

The sling waggon weighs about 29 cwt., and is employed for moving heavy ordnance, and their standing carriages. It requires a detachment of 1 non-commissioned officer and 8 men; but 1 non-commissioned officer and 6 men can sling any weight below a 24-pounder.

The following articles are required:—

One sling of five-inch white rope, 2½ fathoms long, and having an eye-splice at each end.

One sling tye of one-inch tarred rope, two feet long.

One breech rope, or carriage sling, of 2½-inch tarred rope, 6 fathoms long.

Two levers, six feet nine inches long.

Two lever ropes, of two-inch tarred rope, 2½ fathoms each.

Two pawls.

Four common handspikes.

Two pieces of skidding, about four feet long, and six or seven inches square.

One pair of strong dragropes.

The detachment is numbered in the usual manner, and takes post for exercise, as at the sling cart.

Disposition, and duties of the men.

No. 1 attends to the pawls, and commands.
Left side.	Right side.
3 has charge of the left lever, and skidding, scotches the wheels in rear, assists in unlimbering, and limbering up.	2 has charge of the right lever, and skidding, scotches the wheels in rear, assists in unlimbering, and limbering up.
5 has charge of a handspike, assists 3 at the lever, scotches the wheels in front, fixes the carriage sling, and assists in unlimbering, and limbering up.	4 has charge of a handspike, assists 2 at the lever, scotches the wheels in front, fixes the carriage sling, and assists in unlimbering, and limbering up.
7 assists 3 at the lever, slings, and unslings the gun, lashes the breech, handspikes, and levers, and assists in unlimbering, and limbering up.	6 assists 2 at the lever, slings, and unslings the gun, lashes the breech, handspikes, and levers, and assists in unlimbering, and limbering up.
9 assists in unlimbering, and limbering up, keys, and unkeys the limber chain, and fixes the breech rope.	8 assists in unlimbering, and limbering up, keys, and unkeys the draught chain, and fixes the breech rope.

Bringing the stores.—If the stores are not with the waggon, Nos. 2 and 3 bring a lever each, and 4 and 5 two handspikes each; 6 the gun sling, and 7 the carriage sling or breech rope; 8 and 9 the skids and drag ropes.

The gun is supposed to be lying on skids, and its carriage on one side, with its breast nearly in line with the breech.

Form the order of march. Quick march. Back the waggon over the gun. Prepare to unlimber. Unlimber. Out levers. Prepare to turn the gun carriage over. Turn the gun carriage over—Heave. Take off the trucks. Prepare to lift the carriage to the cross-bar. Lift the carriage to the cross-bar. Fix the carriage sling. Take up levers. Right lever take a purchase—Heave. Out levers—off sling. Prepare to limber up. Limber up. Prepare to back the waggon. Back the waggon. Scotch the hind wheels. Put on the trucks. Form the order of exercise. Quick march. Prepare to raise the trunnion on the right. Heave in the slack. Take up levers. Right lever take a purchase—Heave. Left lever take a purchase. Right lever fetch. Left lever heave. Out levers. Sling the gun. Man the levers. Left lever hold on—Right lever fetch. Prepare to raise the breech. Raise the breech. Frap and make fast. Place stool bed, and quoin. Lash up levers, and handspikes.

Dismounting the Gun, and Carriage.

Place skids, unlash, and scotch the wheels. Unlash the breech. Form the order of exercise. Quick march. Levers take a purchase to lower the gun. Bear down. Ease off. Right lever hold on. Left lever fetch. Left lever hold on. Right lever fetch. Ease off.

Slinging Howitzers.

A howitzer is slung in the same manner as a gun.

Slinging Mortars.

A 13-inch mortar and its bed require each a waggon for itself; but a 10 or 8-inch mortar can be conveyed on its bed, by one waggon.

Limber up. Unscotch the wheels. Run the waggon back. Prepare to lash up the muzzle. Heave. Run the waggon forward.

Article 15.

TRIANGLE GYNS.

There are two patterns of triangle gyn, the small and the large.

The small gyn has legs sixteen feet long, weighs about 8½ cwt., including the tackle, and is capable of raising with safety 65 cwt. It is principally used for mounting guns and howitzers on their carriages, and for dismounting them; and for placing ordnance of every description on platform waggons.

The large gyn has legs twenty feet long, weighs about 11½ cwt., including the tackle, and is also capable of raising with safety 65 cwt. It is principally used for mounting guns upon traversing platforms, and for dismounting them.

The rear of the gyn is the part where the windlass is fixed. The front of the gyn is the prypole.

Strength of Gyn Detachments.

One non-commissioned officer and ten men are allowed to raise and work the gyn, numbered as for gun drill.

The same number is sufficient to carry the small gyn. The large one should be drawn to the place where it is to be used in a hand cart.

At exercise the even numbers are on the right, and the odd numbers on the left.

The following is the list of stores required for the service of gyns:—

One fall, of 3½-inch white rope, seventy-two feet long, for the small gyn.
One fall, of 3½ inch white rope, ninety-six feet long.	}
One staple, fixed in the top of the prypole.	}	For
One four-inch block for whip.	}	the large
One whip fall, of 1½-inch rope, thirty feet long.	}	gyn.
Four lashing ropes, each nine feet long.	}

Two levers and lever ropes.	}
One triple block.	}
One double block.	}
One sling, of six-inch white rope, of a length to suit the	}
dimension of the gun or other object which is to be slung.	}
One single lashing rope, 2½-inch, for slinging mortars.	}
One piece of spun yarn, three-stranded, 1½ fathom long,	}
for seizing the clinch of the fall.	}
One ditto, one fathom long, for stoppering the fall.	}	With
One fid, (for which a couple of handspikes may be	}	both
substituted,) for slinging the gun; or,—	}	patterns.
One short piece of skidding, for the same purpose,	}
for slinging mortars and howitzers.	}
One hammer.	}
Three trucks, or small pieces of board, four inches thick,	}
with a hole in the centre of each, to receive the spikes of	}
the feet of the gyn on soft ground. Handspikes laid upon the	}
ground, and on each side of the several spikes, will answer	}
this purpose.	}
One pair of dragropes.	}

Disposition, and duties of the Men.

No. 1 commands.
Left side.	Right side.
3 carries the foot of the left cheek, has charge of the left lever, keys and unkeys the left capsquare, runs the carriage up, or back.	2 carries the foot of the right cheek, has charge of the right lever, keys and unkeys the right capsquare, runs the carriage up or back.
5 carries the top of the left cheek, assists 3 at the lever, runs the carriage up, or back.	4 carries the top of the right cheek, assists 2 at the lever, runs the carriage up or back.
7 carries the levers and handspikes, assists 6 to pass the fall round the windlass, holds on next to him.	6 carries the windlass, passes the fall round it, holds on the fall and makes it fast, eases off the fall, and lowers the gun.
9 carries the top of the prypole with sling, fid, trucks, &c., holds on the fall behind 7, and coils it up.	8 carries the foot of the prypole with sling, fid, trucks, &c., holds on the fall behind 6. xx
11 assists in carrying the blocks, and fall, reeves, and unreeves the triple block, assists in slinging the gun, and steadies it on his own side.	10 assists in carrying the blocks and fall, reeves, and unreeves the double block, assists in slinging the gun, and steadies it on his own side.

Put the gyn together, and reeve the tackle. Place the windlass.

To raise, and place a Gyn.

Prepare to raise the gyn. At a small gyn the tackle is hooked before the gyn is raised; at a large gyn it is not hooked until after the operation has been performed. At the Small gyn, Hook the tackle. Raise the gyn. Halt. Prepare to place the gyn, either pattern. Lift the cheeks in, out, to the right, or to the left. At the Large gyn, Prepare to hook the tackle. Hoist the tackle.

To raise a Gun, or other object, and to mount and dismount a Gun or Howitzer on, and from a standing carriage; or to shift it from one carriage to another.

Post yourselves. Pass the fall round the windlass. Put on the sling, and hook the block. Fix the sling, to a gun, or howitzer without dolphins. Or, Fix the lashing, to a mortar, or other piece of ordnance with dolphins. Fix the sling, to a mortar bed. Shift the fall to the right of the windlass. Haul taught. Everything being prepared for raising the piece, &c., which has been slung, Work the levers. Heave. Fetch. Heave, Fetch, alternately until the piece, &c., is high enough. High enough. Make fast the fall. If a gun, or howitzer is to be dismounted, the carriage is run from under by Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, and the piece is lowered to the ground—Prepare to lower the piece. Lower. The piece is unslung, and the sling removed by the same numbers that slung it. Before striking the large gyn, the tackle must be unhooked; an operation exactly the reverse of hooking. Prepare to strike the gyn. Strike the gyn. Take the gyn to pieces.

To mount a Gun, and Carriage, upon a platform waggon, by means of a triangle gyn.

The gyn is placed over the gun in the usual manner, and the platform waggon is brought to the side of the gyn, with its rear towards the muzzle of the gun. The gun is then raised, by means of the gyn; and, when high enough, and the fall made fast, the carriage is run back by Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5. Prepare to back the waggon. Back the waggon. Lower the gun. The sling is then removed, and the waggon is run forward. The gun carriage is next brought under the gyn, and turned bottom upwards—Lift. Fix the carriage sling. The carriage is now raised by means of the gyn, and is lowered upon the piece. Lash the carriage.

Article 16.

GIBRALTAR GYN.

The Gibraltar gyn is principally used for mounting, and dismounting guns, and howitzers on, and from standing carriages. It weighs 10¾ cwt., and can support three tons with safety.

The following stores are required for the service of the gyn:—

One fall, of 3½-inch white rope, eight fathoms long.

Two lashings for slinging the gun, of 2½-inch tarred rope, each twenty feet long.

One stopper, about 5½ feet long, of 2½-inch tarred rope, more than one half plaited as a gasket.

One iron triple block, with brass sheaves, to which is attached a bar of iron 2½ feet long, for suspending the gun, its ends turned up to prevent the slings slipping off.

Four common handspikes. Two dragropes.

One non-commissioned officer and six men are allowed for working the gyn, numbered as usual.

The gyn is moved by means of dragropes hooked to the staples of the front, or rear axletrees by Nos. 6 and 7. It can be drawn over hard level ground by the working detachment of six men. On ground of an unfavourable nature, a greater number than this is necessary.

The rear of the gyn is the part where the windlass is fixed.

The detachment being formed a few paces in rear of the gyn, No. 1 gives the word, “Take post for exercise—To the right face—Quick march.” The detachment wheels to the left, and the ranks open out. Nos. 2 and 3 halt one pace in rear of their respective axletree arms. The whole one pace from each other, and covering.

Disposition, and Duties of the Detachment.

No. 1 commands.
Left side.	Right side.
3 runs the carriage up, or back, heaves round the windlass, assists 7 to sling the gun.	2 runs the carriage up, or back, heaves round the windlass, assists 6 to sling the gun.
5 runs the carriage up, or back, assists to hold on the fall, stoppers, and unstoppers it.	4 runs the carriage up, or back, holds on the fall, makes it fast, and lowers the gun.
7 reeves the tackle, slings, and unslings the gun at the chase, and steadies it. xx	6 reeves the tackle, slings, and unslings the gun near the first reinforce, steadies the gun, and overhauls the tackle.

Prepare to place the gyn. Place the gyn by hand, (or BY CROSSLIFTING). Reeve the tackle. Prepare to sling the piece. Sling the piece. Haul in the slack. Heave round the windlass. Halt. Stopper the fall. Shift the fall. Halt. The carriage having been run under the piece, or away from it, as may be required, the piece is lowered, and cast loose, each number reversing the operations which he performed in lashing; and raising it.

PART VIII.
GUNNERY.

By the Parabolic Theory, the greatest range is when the angle of elevation is 45°, or half a right angle; and the ranges are equal at angles, equally above, and below 45°. In projectiles, moving with velocities not exceeding 300 or 400 feet per second of time, the Parabolic theory will resolve cases tolerably near the truth; but in cases of great projectile velocities, that theory is quite inadequate, without the aid of data, drawn from good experiments; for so great is the effect of the resistance of the air to projectiles of considerable velocity, that some of those, which in the air range only two or three miles, would, in vacuo, range between twenty and thirty miles. The effects of this resistance are also various, according to the velocity, the diameter, and the weight of the shot.

By experiments it will be found that the greatest range (instead of being constantly that at an elevation of 45°, as in the Parabolic theory), will be at all intermediate degrees between 45° and 30° (with ordinary charges about 42°), being more, or less, both according to the velocity, and the weight of the projectile; the smaller velocities, and larger shells ranging farthest when projected almost at an elevation of 45°; while the greatest velocities, especially with the smaller shells, range farthest with an elevation of about 30°. However, as sufficient experiments have not yet been made to establish true rules for practical gunnery, independent of the Parabolic theory, we must at present content ourselves with the data of some one certain experimental range, and time of flight at a given angle of elevation, and then, by help of these, and the Parabolic theory, we can determine the like circumstances for other elevations that are not greatly different from the former, assisted by the following rules:—

PRACTICAL RULES IN GUNNERY.

1.—To find the Velocity of any shot, or shell.

It has been found by experiments, that with shot of mean windage, and powder of mean strength, a charge of one-third of the weight of the ball gives an initial velocity of about 1600 feet per second: therefore, to find the velocity given by any other charge, divide three times the weight of the charge by the weight of the ball, and multiply the square root of the quotient by 1600, the product will be the velocity in feet, or the space the shot passes over in the first second.[28]

2. The first graze, with given elevation, and charge, being known, to determine the charge for any other first graze, and elevation.

Multiply the known charge, and elevation into the proposed first graze, also the proposed elevation into the known first graze, and divide the first product by the last, for the charge required in ounces.

3. Given the range for one charge, to find the range for another charge, or the charge for another range.

The ranges have the same proportion as the charges; that is, as one range is to its charge, so is any other range to its charge, the elevation of the piece being the same in both cases.

Table of Velocities, &c., of shells.

Nature of shells, in inches	13	10	8	5½	4⅖
Their weight (loaded) in pounds	200	92	46	16	8
Charge of powder (land service) do.	5	3	2	1	½
The velocities	436	500	629	693	693

From Experiments on the velocities of shot, the following results have been obtained:—

1. The time of a ball’s flight is nearly as the range, the gun, and elevation being the same.

2. The velocities decrease as the distances increase (arising from the resistance of the air, which opposes the progress of the shot,) in a proportion somewhat higher than the squares of the velocities throughout, and subject only to a small variation.

3. Very little advantage is gained, in point of range, by increasing the charge more than is necessary to attain the object, the velocities given by large charges being very soon reduced to those by moderate charges; those, for instance, given by half the shot’s weight are reduced to an equality with those by one-third, after passing through a space of only 200 feet. (Vide [8.])

4. Very little benefit is derived from increasing the length of guns, the velocity given by long guns of 22 calibres being reduced to an equality with that of short guns of 15½ calibres with similar charges, after passing through the following spaces—viz.:—

With	½	the shot’s	weight,	about	285
”	⅓	do.	do.		200
”	¼	do.	do.		150
”	⅙	do.	do.		115

5. The resistance of the air against balls of different diameters with equal velocities, is very nearly in the proportion of the squares of their diameters, or as their surfaces.

6. A very great increase of velocity may be acquired by a decrease of windage, from ⅓ to ¼ being lost by the windage of ½0 the diameter of the bore.

7. By firing the charge in different parts (separately, or simultaneously), by compressing the charge, by the use of wads, by varying the weight of the gun to lessen the recoil, or even by stopping the recoil entirely, no sensible change is produced in the velocity of the ball.

8. The velocity increases with the charge, to a certain point, peculiar to each gun; but, by further increasing the charge, the velocity gradually diminishes; yet the recoil is always increased by an increase of charge. (Vide [3.])

9. The velocities of balls fired with equal charges increase to a certain point, when the gun is longer, in a proportion which is nearly the middle ratio between the square and cube roots of the length of the bore.

10. When shot of different weights are fired with the same charges of powder, the velocities communicated to them are nearly in the inverse ratio of the square roots of their weights. Therefore, shot which are of different weights, and impelled by the firing of different charges of powder, acquire velocities which are directly as the square roots of the charges of powder, and inversely as the square roots of the weights of the shot. By making use of shot of a heavier metal than iron (lead for instance) the momentum of the shot discharged with the same charge of powder would be increased in the ratio of the square root of the shot’s weight, which would both augment the force of the blow with which it would strike, and also the extent of the range.

Compound-shot, or shells filled with lead, fired with charges increased ⅛th, will increase the power of range considerably.

11. With common shells at 45° elevation, the time of flight is nearly equal to the square root of the range in feet, divided by 4; or, more nearly, equal to the square root of the quotient of the range in feet, divided by 16-1/12.

12. The range at 45° elevation is nearly equal to the square of the time of flight in seconds, multiplied by 16-1/12 feet. The range at 15° will be about half that at 45°.

13. Upon inclined planes, at any elevation, there are always two elevations with which any range may be obtained.

The elevation which gives the greatest range, on a given ascent, is equal to half the sum of 90° added to the ascent.

The elevations which give equal ranges on a given ascent, are the complements of each other added to the ascent.

The elevation which gives the greatest range on a descent, is equal to half the complement of the descent.

14. The depths penetrated by balls of the same size into wood, with different velocities, or charges, are nearly as the squares of the velocities. Balls of different sizes will penetrate to depths proportionate to their diameters; therefore a greater ball will not only make a larger hole, but will also penetrate farther than a small one with the same velocity.

15. By experiments at a mean range, it has been ascertained that in common earth, dug up and well rammed, a musket ball buries itself nearly 1½ foot; a 6-pounder from 3½ feet to 4½ feet; 9-pounder from 6½ feet to 7 feet; 12-pounder from 8½ feet to 10 feet; 18, and 24-pounders from 11½ feet to 13 feet.

THEORY, AND PRACTICE OF GUNNERY,

APPLICABLE ESPECIALLY TO THE SERVICE OF NAVAL ORDNANCE.[29]

Double Shotting.

“Double shotting may be used with all 32-pounder guns above those of 32 cwt., at distances not exceeding 400 or 500 yards; but the most efficient practice with two shot is at 300 yards. The 32-pounders of 32 cwt. and 25 cwt. should not, however, be so used beyond 200 and 250 yards.

“With double loadings of round shot and grape, when the shot is put in first, the projectiles range more together than when the reverse process is used; such loading requires, however, more elevation to be given to the gun than when single shot are used, on account of the grape shot impeding the flight of the round shot. A double load of grape from the same gun ranges tolerably well together for 300 yards. With a double load of case shot, even with half a degree more elevation than when a single load is used, a great many balls will not range above 100 yards to the first graze; within this extent they lose much of their velocity, and few reach an object at 200 yards. A 32-pounder gun of 56, or of 50 cwt., double shotted with charges of 6 lb., requires at 400 yards 1½ degree of elevation; at 300 yards 1 degree; and at 200 yards half a degree; and, in general, half a degree must be added, with any double loading, to the elevation required with single shot.

“For round, and grape, at 400 yards, there is required 1½ degree of elevation; and at 200 yards half a degree. These projectiles range well together at a target, but they should not be used at a greater distance than 150 yards on account of their dispersion, and the differences of their striking velocities, and penetrating forces.

“With a single load of grape at 400 yards, the elevation required is 1 degree, a full charge of powder being used. With a double load of grape at 400 yards, and the reduced charge, the elevation required is 3½ degrees; at that distance, however, double grape scatters so much as to make very bad practice.”

The effects of wads.

“Experience has proved that different degrees of ramming, or different dimensions of wads, make no sensible alteration in the velocities of the ball as determined by the vibrations of the suspended gun. Stout firm junk wads, so tight as with difficulty to be rammed into the gun, have been used; sometimes they were placed between the powder and ball, sometimes over both, but no difference was discovered in the velocity of the ball. Different degrees of ramming were also tried without wads. The charge was sometimes set home without being compressed; sometimes rammed with different numbers of strokes, or pushed up with various degrees of force; but the velocity of the ball remained the same. With great windage, the vibrations of the pendulum were much reduced, although tight wads under the shot were used; so that wads do not prevent the escape of the inflamed powder by the windage, nor under any circumstances occasion any sensible difference in the velocity of the ball.[30]

“From experiments made on board the ‘Excellent,’ in 1847, it was found that a grummet wad is more efficient than one of junk, in preventing the cartridge from shifting its place in the bore when the guns were run out with a strong jerk.

“With respect to small arms, it is found that wads of different kinds have different effects upon the projectile, by modifying the action of the charge; and from experiments which have been made in the United States with a musket pendulum, the following results have been obtained: With a charge equal to 77 grains, a musket ball, wrapped in cartridge paper, and the paper crumpled into a wad, the velocity of the ball was 1342 feet; and when two felt wads, cut from a hat, were placed on the powder, with one on the ball, the velocity was 1482 feet. With a charge equal to 140 grains, two felt wads being placed on the powder, and one on the ball, the velocity was 1525 feet; when cartridge paper was used, crumpled into a wad, the velocity was 1575 feet; and when one wad of pasteboard was placed over the powder, with another on the ball, it was 1599 feet. These results seem to indicate that wads made of the stiffest materials are the most advantageous.”

Penetration of Shot.

“Experiments were made in 1848 on board H.M.S. ‘Excellent,’ by firing both solid and hollow shot against the ‘Prince George’ hulk, which was moored at the distance of 1200 yards. The guns were laid at small angles of elevation, generally between two and three degrees; and the following is a brief statement of some of the most remarkable effects which were produced, the depth penetrated being expressed by the sum of the distances in solid wood which the shot passed through, or deeply furrowed. Several 18-pr. shot, with charges of 6 lb. of powder, penetrated to depths varying from 21 to 33 inches, according to the state of the wood, and there stuck. With charges of 8 lb., the 32-pr. shot penetrated to depths varying from 22 to 48 inches. A 68-pr. shot (solid), with a charge of 10 lb. of powder, made a total penetration of 46 inches. Many hollow shot were fired with remarkable effects from 68-pr. guns, making penetrations which varied from 25 to 56 inches. One of these, with a charge of 8 lb., penetrated the side of the hulk, passing through 28 inches of good wood, tore out the iron hook, which holds the port-hinge, and fractured the after-side of the port, driving the splinters about the deck. It rent away the end of a beam, grazed the deck, passing through two planks, and cutting down a stanchion 8 inches square, making several large splinters; it then struck against the opposite side of the ship, whence it rebounded against that which it entered.

“At 800 yards, with heavy guns, a charge of one quarter of the weight of shot may always be used; at 500 yards, the charge may be reduced to one-sixth; and within 400 yards, two shot at once may be used with advantage.

“Hollow shot from a 68-pounder carronade, with a charge of 5 lb. 8 oz., penetrated to depths varying from 28 to 31 inches.

“In order to ascertain if shot reflected from water would damage a ship, shots from a 32-pounder gun, with a charge of 10 lb. and a depression equal to 7 degrees, were fired, and the following are some of the effects produced:—

“At the distance of 16 yards, the shot struck the water at 4 feet from the ship’s side; and in one experiment it lodged in the cut-water; in another, it indented the ship’s side; and in both cases it struck at 18 inches below the water-line. At the distance of 36 yards, with a depression of 5 degrees, the shot struck the water at distances from the ship’s side varying from 2 to 15 feet; and, ricocheting, entered the ship at distances above the water-line varying from 2 inches to 3 feet. In consequence of the loss of force which the balls sustained by striking the water, it has been inferred, that if a shot be fired with such a depression as a ship’s gun will bear, it will not penetrate into water more than 2 feet; and, consequently, it will be impossible to injure a ship materially by firing at her under water.

“From experiments made at Metz, in 1834, it appears that masses of cast iron, above one yard square and thirteen inches thick, do not resist the shock of balls fired against them with even moderate velocities, having been fractured not only at the point of contact, but also at points considerably distant from thence. It was found, also, that the side of a traversing gun carriage of iron was broken by an 8-pounder ball, having a velocity of 492 feet; which proves that carriages of this nature would, if struck, be rendered unserviceable: and that a collision, which, with a wooden carriage, would have damaged only an accessory part, without requiring its being replaced, would, with a cast-iron carriage, have a more fatal effect. Not only is the object struck destroyed, but the fragments scattered in different directions are highly dangerous.

“During the year 1850, various experiments were made on board the ‘Excellent,’ at Portsmouth, in order to ascertain the effects which might be produced on iron vessels by shot, both solid and hollow, with various charges of powder; for which purpose a double target, ⅝ of an inch thick, consisting of iron ribs and plates, resembling the opposite sides of a strongly-built iron steamer, was constructed, at the distance of about 450 yards from the ship. The general effect was, that the target was always pierced by the shot, and that numerous splinters were detached from it in every direction, which could not fail to be most destructive to the crew of a vessel of this description; the shot was, besides, almost always split in pieces by the shock. One 32-pounder shot broke into thirty-four fragments. Some experiments were made with grape-shot, fired from a 32-pounder, with charges of 3 lb. and 6 lb., when the shot passed through a plate, making a clean hole 3 inches in diameter, and knocking out some rivets. The effects produced by 6-inch shells were not greater than those produced by shot. Two of these being filled with powder, and having the fuze holes plugged up, broke on passing through the plate; the powder, however, did not explode, but was seen to go away in a cloud like dust.

“From the above-mentioned experiments, it may be concluded, that the splinters detached from the side of an iron ship, and the fragments of the shot themselves, would as effectually clear her quarters as the explosions of shells; in either case the effect would be more serious than any that could be produced by like means on a ship constructed of timber, incendiary effects excepted. With both raking, and diagonal firing, the effect is described as being most formidable; the holes, which were very irregular, were in all cases larger than the shot.

“In 1838, experiments were made at Gavre with two solid balls fired at once against a butt of oak timber, in order to determine the different penetrations of the shot, and the distances between their centres at different distances from the piece. Three different natures of ordnance were used: a long 30-pounder gun, a cannon obusier of 30, and a 30-pounder carronade. One ball was in contact with the charge, and the other in contact with the former. From these experiments it was evident that the ball which was in contact with the charge had the least velocity, and the least penetrating power. It is further remarkable that, at distances beyond 200 yards, the vertical dispersion greatly exceeds the horizontal dispersion.”

Excentric spherical shot.

“Experiments with these projectiles were carried on at Metz in 1841; the following were the effects observed:—When the centre of gravity was above the centre of the figure, the ranges were the longest, and when below, the shortest; when to the right, or left hand, the deviations were also to the right, or left. The mean range of a 12-pounder brass gun, which, with the usual shot, was 1640 yards, was, with the shot whose centres of gravity and of figure were not coincident, the centre of gravity being upwards, equal to 2140 yards, being an increase of 500 yards.

“When the centre of gravity is not coincident with that of figure, the projectile is made to revolve, ab initio, on the former centre, thus occasioning a compound motion in the flight of the projectile. When the centre of gravity is below the axis of the bore, the front must turn from below upwards, and a rotation in this direction continuing, the range will be diminished. In like manner, when the centre of gravity is placed on the right, or left hand of the axis of the bore, the shot will turn on a vertical axis, and produce deviations to the right, or left hand respectively. Experiments were carried on at Portsmouth, and at Shoebury Ness, in the year 1850, to ascertain whether the deviations of excentric projectiles were so regular as to admit of being allowed for in pointing the gun; and whether any result might appear to disprove the maxim, that spherical and homogeneous projectiles are the truest in their flight.


	Nature of		Charge.	Eleva-	Nature of	Greatest	Deviation.
	Ordnance.		Charge.	tion.	Projectile.	Range.	Deviation.

At Portsmouth.
			lb.	Deg.		Yards.	Yards.
		{	8	2⅛	{Common Shot	1200	2 to 6
		{	8	2⅛	{Excentric	1450	2 to 7
	32 Pr.	{	10	2½	{Common	1654	2
		{	10	2½	{Excentric	2108	6 to 27
		{	12	12	{Common	3100	10 to 58
		{	12	12	{Excentric	3710	10 to 150

		{	10	2½	{Common	1035	2 to 3
		{	10	2½	{Excentric	1181	2 to 7
	8 inch	{	10	5	{Common	1750	2 to 4
		{	10	5	{Excentric	1980	9 to 21
		{	10	10	{Common	2800	2 to 25
		{	10	10	{Excentric	3230	6 to 54
At Shoebury Ness.
		{	8	2½	{Common	1296	8⅖
		{	8	2½	{Excentric	1750	16
	32 Pr.	{	10	2½	{Common	1404	6¼
		{	10	2½	{Excentric	1776	⅓ to 5⅔
		{	10	12	{Common	3068	68
		{	10	12	{Excentric	3498	186

		{	10	5	{Common	1820	16⅖
	8 inch.	{	10	5	{Excentric	2207	19⅓
		{	10	10	{Common	2703	35
		{	10	10	{Excentric	2339	141

“The preceding table presents, in an abstracted form, the results of the experiments at Portsmouth, and Shoebury Ness. It will be observed that the ordnance used were 32-pounders, and 8-inch guns; from both of which natures were fired the ordinary solid shot, and also shot rendered excentric by the removal of certain quantities of metal. Thus, in the Portsmouth experiments, 1 lb. of metal was taken from each 32 lb. shot, and 3 lb. from each 68 lb. shot; in those at Shoebury Ness, 1 lb. or 2 lb. were taken from the 32 lb. shot, and 4 lb. from the 68 lb. shot.

“On analyzing the experiments, both at Portsmouth, and Shoebury Ness, it appears that the flight of the ordinary solid shot was the most true, the lateral deflections being frequently but one-half, sometimes one-third, or one-fourth only of the deflections of the excentric shot; that these last deflections were always in the direction in which the centres of gravity of the shot were placed in the gun; and that the increases, or diminutions of range caused by the vertical deviations were produced respectively, as the centres of gravity of the shot were placed upwards, or downwards. It appears, also, that the lateral deviations, though in general constant in direction, were very variable in amount. The results above stated prove decisively the correctness of the deductions from theory, and of the practical maxim, that errors in sphericity and homogeneity in a shot are causes of its deviation from a correct path; and it follows that spherical and homogeneous projectiles, being the most simple, and quite indifferent to the position in which they are placed in the gun and rolled home, as well as to that in which they pass through the atmosphere, are decidedly to be preferred to the others.

“The results of these very curious, and instructive experiments fully explain the extraordinary anomalies, as they have hitherto been considered, in length of range, and in the lateral deviations: these have been attributed to changes in the state of the air, or the direction of the wind, to differences in the strength of the gunpowder, and to inequalities in the degrees of windage. All these causes are, no doubt, productive of errors in practice; but it is now clear that those errors are chiefly occasioned by the excentricity, and non-homogeneity of the shot, and the accidental positions of the centre of gravity of the projectile with respect to the axis of the bore.

“The whole of these experiments furnish decisive proof of the necessity of paying the most scrupulous attention to the figure, and homogeneity of solid shot, and the concentricity of shells; and they exhibit the remarkable fact, that a very considerable increase of range may be obtained without an increase in the charge, or elevation of the gun.”

Resistance of iron plates, oak plank, &c., against musketry, canister, grape shot, hollow, and solid shot.

“From experiments in November, 1849, the following results were obtained:—

“Marine percussion musket—Charge, 4½ drams; distance, 40 yards.

“Iron plates,	⅛	inch	}	All passed through.
Oak plank,	1	”	}	All passed through.
Iron plates,	2/8	”	}	4 in 6 passed through.
Oak plank,	2	”	}	4 in 6 passed through.
Iron plates,	⅜	”	}	Both musket proof.
Oak plank,	3	”	}	Both musket proof.
Canister—Charge, 6 lb.; distance, 100 yards.
Iron plates,	⅜	inch	}	Passed through.
Oak plank,	3	”	}	Passed through.
Iron plates,	4/8	”	}	Canister proof.
Oak plank,	4	”	}	Canister proof.
Grape—Charge, 6 lb.; distance, 200 yards.
Iron plates,	4/8	inch	}
”	⅝	”	}	All passed through.
”	6/8	”	}
Oak plank,	4	inch	}	All passed through.
”	5	”	}	All passed through.
”	6	”		Generally passed through.

“Experiments were made in June, 1850, against two sections of the ‘Simoom,’ ⅝ inch thick, placed 35 feet apart; the guns, and charges were those used in all steam vessels. The result made evident that two, or three shot, or sometimes even a single one, striking near the water-line of an iron vessel, must endanger the ship. Another most serious evil is, that the shot breaks, on striking, into innumerable pieces, which pass into the ship with such force, as to range afterwards to a distance of 400 or 500 yards; and that the effect on men at their quarters would be more destructive than canister shot, supposing them to pass through a ship’s side; as when the plates are only ⅜ inch thick.

“Experiments were made in July, 1850, against an iron section similar to the ‘Simoom;’ it was filled in and made solid with 5½ inch oak timber between the iron ribs, and 4½ inch oak planking above the water-ways, which were 1 foot thick, and with 3 inch fir above the portsills; these were strongly secured to the iron plates by bolts. The results were as follows:—The holes made by the shot were not so irregular as on the former occasion, but as clear and open; all parts of the shot passed right through the iron and timber, and then split, and spread abroad with considerable velocity. With low charges, the shot did not split into so many pieces as before. With high charges, the splinters from the shot were as numerous and as severe as before, with the addition, in this, and the former case, of the evil to which other vessels are subject—that of the splinters torn from the timbers.

“In August, 1850, an iron section similar to the ‘Simoom’ was prepared with a covering of fir plank on the outside, of the thickness of 2, 3, and 4 inches, in different parts. The result of this experiment was similar to the last, when the wood was on the inside; with the exception of the splinters from the wood. The holes made by the shot were regular, of the full size of the shot, and open; every shot split on passing through—those between the ribs into a few pieces only, those that struck on the ribs into a great number; in both cases, when combined with the splinters of the iron side, the effect must prove highly destructive.

“A comparison as to the effect of shot on iron, and timber, was made by firing 8-inch hollow shot, and 32-pound solid shot, at a butt built for experimental shell-firing, with timber having 6-inch plank on the outside, and 4-inch within; the result was, that the splinters from the wood were trifling when compared with those from the iron.

“The general result of all the foregoing, and consecutive experiments for the same purpose, clearly demonstrates that the destructive effects of the impacts of shot on iron cannot be prevented. If the iron sides are of the thickness required to give adequate strength to the ship (⅝, or at least 4/8 of an inch), the shot will be broken by the impact; if the iron plates be thin enough to let the shot pass into the ship without breaking, the vessel will be deficient in strength; the shot will do its work, particularly in oblique or raking fire, more effectively than its splinters, and, in passing out, make apertures more difficult to plug or stop, than in passing in. When a clean hole is made by a shot penetrating an iron plate, the whole of the disc struck out by the shot is broken into numerous small pieces, which are driven into the ship with very destructive effects; and if the plate be so thick (viz., upwards of 4/8 of an inch) as to cause the shot to break on striking, the fragments will nevertheless pass into the ship, as in the case of a percussion, or concussion shell, and so produce a terrific compound effect by the fragments of both.

“The expedient of combining wood, and iron, either by substituting timber for the iron ribs, or the reverse, outside planking for the iron plates—makes the matter worse. The pieces of ribs struck off, sometimes of great length, pass on with the shot, to produce more extensive ravages elsewhere.”