History of the Kingdom of Siam and of the revolutions that have caused the overthrow of the empire, up to A.D. 1770

by F. H. Turpin

CHAPTER XII.

ADVANTAGES THAT MIGHT ACCRUE FROM COMMERCIAL RELATIONS WITH SIAM AND THE NEIGHBOURING KINGDOMS.

There is no doubt that owing to the ill-luck experienced by the French in Siam at the end of the last century, no new trading stations have been formed in that country. The ministers have invariably turned deaf ears to the suggestions of the missionaries, and consider that their business consists more in the saving of souls than in dabbling with commerce and politics.

But if we bear in mind the advantages that Europeans of other nationalities have obtained, we must acknowledge that the French allowed themselves to be rebuffed by the initial obstacles, and that they took no notice of sources of wealth which did not present themselves on the spot.

The King of Siam had granted permission to the French to open a trading station; the French merchants were held in high estimation and were more favoured than those of other nations. Two cities had been ceded without reservation to Louis XIV. in return for the military help sent for the defence of the kingdom. The revolution that occurred during Faulcon's tenure of office obliged the French to leave a country to which they had been summoned as its defenders, and from that time onwards, but few French vessels entered the ports of Siam.

Formerly the Council of Pondicherry had sent several ships to Siam in the course of each year and one vessel had always been bound for the port of Mergui alone. They were exempt from ordinary taxation and the French missionaries, who were respected for their rectitude, were the only foreign judges who were able to give a decision in cases between Europeans and Siamese.

The English had been for more than a century in Siam without any trading station or representative. Some of them carried on certain profitable amount of trade.

The Dutch had gained the commercial supremacy. Their factory was the finest and most beautiful building in the kingdom and they enjoyed many privileges of great value.

The King of Siam, by a policy detrimental to his interests, but as a boon to his subjects, reserves the monopoly of foreign trade. Thus trade is not in a flourishing condition as the interested despot fixes the price of merchandise at his own sweet will.

Since the last revolution the system of government has been entirely changed, and today it would be an easy matter for the French to regain their commercial supremacy by the establishment of a trading station at Mergui as in former times, or at some spot near the capital. The station could be protected by a fortress as was formerly the case at Bangkok the foundations and ruins of which remain to this day.

A wide and deep river forms a defence to the approaches and it would only be a matter of 12 leagues from the sea. The French could rebuild this fortress for the following reasons, (1) Compensation is due for the losses suffered in 1680. (2) The site had been granted to them without reservation. (3) The Siamese Government is still in debt to the India Company, and lastly owing to the fact that a weak minded nation, who tremble at the sight of an armed Frenchman, could easily be imposed upon.

Since the retreat of the Burmese, the kingdom of Siam has been governed by several petty chieftains who are at perpetual strife with each other. Bangkok and Mergui have their rulers. The French minister might make arrangements with one of these usurpers, who might feel flattered to be under French protection, and, in return might well grant a piece of land on which to build a fortress for the protection of commerce.

Such a fortified trading station would be handy as a port of call for
Pondicherry in connection with commerce with China.

The country produces all sorts of building materials, brick-clay, cement, and shell-lime.

All the neighbouring nations would crowd to the new mart, many wandering Christian families, homeless since the Burmese invasion, would take refuge there, and the Chinese who equip vessels at a cheap rate, would send at least forty ships per annum. They would hasten to bring their merchandise in the hope of a brisk trade. The India Company would be spared the expenses that are incurred in having to seek trade-openings further afield, and that absorb so much of its profits.

The Mahomedan descendants of the Arabs, Moguls, and Persians have had commercial relations with the capital for a considerable time, and to renew them, they are only waiting for a establishment of a depôt by which trade may be expedited. The foundations would be easy to lay and by the re-establishment of the college that the French missionaries had formerly in the kingdom and which enjoyed the highest respect, the success of the former project could be ensured. The old King when he was informed that Christianity inculcates obedience to rulers, had always extended a cordial welcome to the missionaries.

These men had not left their country to seek their fortunes. Their disinterestedness was favourable to the Company who trusted them, but not as paid agents for their share of the profits, nor for whatever they could appropriate. It would be of great advantage that a well ordered society should be established in this foreign country so as to become familiarised with the manners, customs, vices and virtues of those with whom they dwell. The knowledge of the principal Eastern languages is also an important matter so that the French merchants need not be at the mercy of untrustworthy interpreters. The natural history of this country tells us of the productions that are of commercial value, and even if such productions as agate, diamonds, pearls, perfumes dye-stuffs and scented woods, which are known to be found in the country, could not be discovered in paying quantities; great advantages could be gained by the trade with the neighbouring nations for which this kingdom is, geographically speaking, the meeting place.

A short sketch should be given of the peoples of the Indo-Chinese peninsula in order to lead to the better understanding of the advantages that would accrue from the establishment of trading stations as above mentioned. The northern part of the peninsula includes nine kingdoms, viz., Asem, Tipra, Aracan, Pegu, Ava, Laos, Siam, Cambodia, and Cochin-China.

The Kingdom of Asem is almost unknown owing to its situation lying beyond the usual routes favoured by travellers and to reach it, a considerable détour is necessary.

It is one of the richest countries of Asia and has no need of any of the produce of its neighbours to whom it supplies a large quantity of metals. In this country are mines of gold silver, lead and iron.

As the inhabitants are free from taxation, the King holds the monopoly of the mineral products, and, mindful of the well-being of his subjects, employs slave-labour only in the mines. This is the only country in Asia, where humanity is not crushed by the weight of despotic power.

A creature differing somewhat from our ordinary silkworm produces silk from which a glossy fabric of inferior quality is produced. Gum-lac is the most valuable product of the country and is of the finest quality produced in the East. There are two varieties. The red is used as a dye-stuff, as a varnish for articles of furniture and for wax. Silver is the currency of the country.

The inhabitants are of sturdy build, but the women and are somewhat snub-nosed. Both sexes are practically naked, and cover their private parts only. They wear blue caps trimmed with pig's teeth. Their bracelets, which display a certain amount of taste, are made of coral, yellow amber, and sometimes of tortoise shell or sea shells. Poverty, tyranny and oppression are unknown. Every man is master of his own property and has several wives, each of whom has her appointed household duties. Although four-footed animals are plentiful, dog's flesh is the favourite dish. They grow many varieties of vines and the grape is used for the preparation of brandy only. They extract salt from the green scum of stagnant pools and they obtain it also from the leaves of a tree known as Adam's fig tree. The leaves are burnt and an intensely saline residue is obtained from the ashes. They have a secret process of extraction by boiling and straining the mother liquor through a linen fabric. They manufacture gun-powder of the finest quality and Eastern peoples ascribe the glory of the invention of this agent of destruction to them, but what is more extraordinary this country has been engaged in no war for 500 years. The secret has passed to the Peguans, who in turn handed on to the Chinese, who pose as the inventors, as doubtless they were the first nation to employ it in warfare.

The kingdom of Tipra produces nothing that excites the curiosity of the traveller or the greed of the merchant. A gold mine is situated in the country, but the metal is of rather poor quality, and is exchanged for silver in China. There is also plenty of silk, but of very coarse quality and is used for common purposes only. The inhabitants are addicted to intoxicating liquors. Instead of figures, they calculate with pebbles that have the appearance of small agates. They rarely journey from their own country and have no commercial relations with other nations who know them by name only. The kingdom of Aracan has so extended a coast line that it seems to invite all commercial nations to trade. The climate is good, plague and other infectious diseases are unknown. The rich and fertile plains produce all the necessaries of life. Many tribes live in the pleasant valleys which afford pasturage to all sorts of wild and domestic animals. Horses are rarely seen. Horned buffaloes are employed for agricultural operations. Their anger is aroused at the sight of red. They let those whom they wish to attack pass quietly by and then gore them from behind with their murderous horns. These animals, intractable, by nature are obedient only to the native in charge of them, and gather around him at the sound of the horn by which he calls them.

The winter, so to speak, as it is the rainy and stormy season, begins in April and finishes in October. There is no other season but summer during which abundant crops of beans, grain and fruits are produced; but neither wheat nor rye can be grown. The capital gives a good idea of this kingdom. It is several leagues in extent, its population is equal to that of the largest towns in Europe, and it contains 600 temples. The magnificence of the King's palace shows that gold is plentiful. The Hall of Gold is thus named as it is covered with the precious metal from roof to floor. A hundred ingots of gold each weighing 40 pounds are fixed to the throne, which itself is of massy gold. There are in addition seven golden images of the size of an ordinary man. They are hollow inside, but the metal is two inches thick. They are of immense value owing to the emeralds, rubies, sapphires and diamonds which are set in the forehead, arms and girdles of these vain images. In this hall there may be seen a square stand made entirely of gold upon which is a golden cabinet inlaid with precious stones. The King owns two rubies, each as long as the little finger, and at one end of the size of a hen's egg. These rubies have been the cause of desperate conflicts between the neighbouring Kings owing to the superstition attached to these stones that the possessor will be arbiter of the fate of the others. The King wears them on the day of his coronation only. The people, contented with the products of their land, cannot understand why men risk their lives in the pursuit of wealth. They take up arms for war only, and never for trade, which is carried on solely by foreigners from all parts of the world.

The Mahommedans, especially, carry on a great trade in elephants which they export to the Coromandel Coast, to Golconda and to Persia from whence they import fabrics, silks and spices.

The most plentiful articles of commerce of the country are timber, lead, tin and ivory. It is worth while to make a few remarks on the manners and customs of a nation with which commercial relations could well be established. The Aracanese have broad and flat foreheads which results from a peculiarity of taste rather than from a freak of nature, as the work of nature is marred by the application of a leaden plate to the infant's forehead.

Their nostrils are large and open and the lobes of their ears are so long that they nearly reach down to their shoulders. Their dress consists of a cotton shirt that covers the arms, chest and abdomen. They wear, in addition, a long trailing garment, and so many other articles of attire that when they are fully dressed they look more like rolls of wadding than men. Their hair is piled on the back of their heads in the fashion of the Dutchwomen. The women have no other head gear than their coiffure which is kept in place by clasps, and this style of hairdressing is very effective. Their dishes are not appetising to European ideas. They eat rats, mice, snakes and all sorts of humble creatures. They are also fond of fish,—the staler, the better. Their principal beverage is pure water or a liquor extracted from the trunk of a certain species of palm tree. Female chastity commands no respect whatever. Husbands prefer to risk becoming the fathers of other peoples children rather than to take a virgin to wife. As a rule the Dutch sailors are paid well for their services in this matter.

The King, shut up in his palace, passes a lazy life with the Queen and his concubines.

Every year each of the twelve provincial governors selects a dozen girls of the same age in his district, and exposes them to the ardent rays of the sun in order to induce perspiration.

They are then wiped dry with pieces of fine linen which are sent to the Court so that the odour may indicate those who are most worthy to enter the harem. Those who are refused admittance become concubines of the courtiers who receive them as a pledge of royal favour. It is said that the King's body guard consists of concubines who receive a certain amount of military training.

The King takes the following pompous title.

"Emperor of Aracan, possessor of the White Elephant and of the Two
Rubies, Lawful heir of Pegu and Burma, Lord of Twelve provinces of
Bengal, Disposer of Kings who place their heads beneath the soles of
his feet."

The liberal arts are utterly ignored if one can judge by the scanty progress therein made. Medicine, especially, is only a fraud founded on superstition. The priests known as "Raulins" are summoned to the bedsides of the sick. They breathe over them and mutter mysterious incantations. A sacrifice of fowls, pigs or fat beasts is offered to the god of the four winds. This sacrifice must be repeated four times to prevent the death of the patient. The Raulins, however, devour the sacrifices offered to their gods.

In severe illness their fertile knavery prescribes a strange remedy by which the Raulins gain no small advantage. The wife, children or the relations of the patient bedeck an altar on which is placed an image, and place it in a well furnished room wherein are assembled the priests and relatives as for a grand banquet. The Master of the Ceremonies dances and hops about until he is exhausted. A rope is then fastened to the ceiling and the performer supports himself by it and jumps higher and higher until he falls down in a swoon which is considered to be a divine trance Everyone pretends to be envious of his good luck, as they are sure he is enjoying a tête á tête with his god. The priests, who solemnly preside at this fantastic ceremony, anoint the sick man with oil and perfumes, and, if he happens to die they never blame themselves. They say that his death is a blessing from the gods who have taken him from this vale of tears to the mansions of the blest.

Their gross superstitions are seen to best advantage in their funeral rites. Whilst the priests are chanting prayers and burning incense, the friends and relatives of the deceased thump copper vessels in order to scare away black cats, for if by ill luck one of these animals were to touch the corpse, the soul of the deceased would be exiled from the heavenly abode where it would have its fill of pleasures of all sorts and would be reincarnated in mortal shape.

There is a certain sect of priests who believe that they share in the power of the gods. They are summoned to a grand banquet by the relatives of the deceased, and if they refuse the invitation, it is a sign that the soul of the dead man has been cast into the nethermost hell. Hired mourners are engaged to make a loud outcry. The dead whose relatives have not been able to honour with a funeral pyre, are exposed at the water's edge, and are carried away by the stream. Sometimes the corpses are devoured by birds of prey, which latter having always plenty of available foodstuff increase and multiply and even attack buffaloes and oxen.

Sometimes they hasten the death of their friends and relations when they are seem to be suffering from the pains of old age or from some incurable malady. This action, which is a crime among civilized nations, is regarded by them as an act of piety, as they say that it is cruel to let those for whom happiness is waiting in Heaven, suffer here on earth. These peoples are sunk in the lowest depths of idolatry. Their temples are built in pyramidical shape and contain a large assortment of idols. They have gods of the house whose images they brand on their arms and shoulders with a hot iron. The barking of dogs, the bellowings of bulls, the howls of wild beasts, the songs of birds are considered as omens of coming events which the priests interpret to their own advantage. They celebrate a feast of the dead at which their fanaticism is pushed to its cruellest limits. One of their idols is dragged on a heavy car and is accompanied by Priests dressed in white. The fanatical devotees cast themselves under the wheels, and their blood is held to be a most pleasing offering to the god. Others are fastened by iron hooks to the car and, covered with blood, they are placed in a temple where they become objects of public worship. It is a matter of congratulation to all those on whose garments a drop of their blood falls. These holy madmen are worshipped as martyrs. There are three grades of priests. The head priest, who lives in the island of Munay, has control of public worship. His commands are very rarely infringed. The respect he inspires almost approaches to adoration. The King, absolute as he is, never disputes the precedence of the head-priest on ceremonial occasions and never covers himself before him. All the priests are vowed to perpetual celibacy, and should one of them break his vows of chastity, he is at once disgraced and expelled from the priesthood. Although they all obey the same head priest, they do not conform to a universal rule of life. Some live in their own houses at their own expense and are not a burden on society. Remote from the stresses of the world and despising mundane joys, they are unnoticed by the public and make their dwelling among the rocks or in deep forests or in deserts. When they are obliged to appear in public, they are of humble mien and with eyes downcast, but this show of modesty is but a clever method of attracting attention. Other, more happy and sociable, live in fine palaces in the idle enjoyment of the multifarious gifts that the King and the Princes proffer to them in profusion in order to gain the favour of Heaven.

The education of the young is entrusted to these idolatrous priests, as if men whose sole functions seem to be prayer and ascetism, could have the necessary abilities for the upbringing of magistrates, warriors, artists or statesmen.

There are hermits as well, a variety of wild men whose sanctity is in proportion to their eccentricities. They, like the priests are divided into classes, and all renounce the pleasures of life.

Although Europeans have had considerable intercourse with the Kingdom of Ava, it is really a country about which very little is known. The majority of those who have given descriptions of this land have been either soldiers or traders, whose aims have been the acquisition of wealth rather than the desire to make accurate observations. All travellers agree that the fertile soil produces an abundance of rice and fruits, and that mines of lead, copper and silver exist, but that the natives have not sufficient skill to work them. In Ava, the capital of the kingdom, there is a considerable trade in musk, and in rubies and sapphires of the finest quality. The natives are quite successful in working these mines. Trade would flourish if public peace so necessary to industrial occupations, were not so frequently disturbed by various revolutions.

The form of Government is despotic. The King who should be merely the administrator of the law has usurped the rights of making, and breaking the law at his own pleasure.

Each province has its deputy at the Court under whose protection it resides. This delegate has the right of representing the needs of his fellow citizens and as the King is always well posted in state affairs, oppressors are speedily brought to justice and punished. The following are the titles assumed by the King.

"King of Kings who should be obeyed by everyone. Friend and Relation of the gods of Heaven and Earth, who from their regard for him preserve the animals and govern the seasons. Brother of the Sun, Cousin of the Moon and of the Stars. Absolute Master of the ebb and flow of the Tides. King of the White Elephant and of the Twenty Four Umbrellas." The arrogance of the Monarch is such that on rising from table, he orders that a trumpet be sounded to announce the fact to the other Kings of the earth that they have his permission to take their repast. Foreign ambassadors as well as his own subjects must prostrate themselves before him and even the elephants are trained to crouch down when he passes.

The military forces do not draw their pay from the public treasury. Each provincial governor has certain lands in his province, the produce of which is devoted to the support of the soldiery in time of peace, and in war time he supplies them with arms, food, and clothing. Officers are distinguished from the rank and file by the magnificence of their pipes which have certain joints to indicate the rank.

The Kingdom of Jangoma is situated on the north of Siam. It is not easy to define its boundaries accurately as they have changed owing to revolutions and political events. The country is governed by the priests whose power should be limited by law since the inhabitants style themselves "free-men," a title which servile and degraded races ought not to assume. Few details are known of the country and its inhabitants and we can only draw our conclusions from certain Chinese accounts and Siamese traditions. The following is all that is at present known to us on this matter.

The inhabitants are a well-built and vigorous race. Owing to the heat of the sun they wear scanty raiment consisting of a thin loin cloth. They go bareheaded and have never used shoes. The women are as voluptuous as the Peguans, but are much more handsome and are greatly in demand for the harems of pleasure loving Kings. Although the soil produces every necessary and even some luxuries of life, corn cannot be cultivated. But instead of bread, rice cakes form the staple article of diet. Besides necessaries of life the country produces musk, pepper, silk, gold, silver, copper and gums. It is true that certain travellers say that the bulk of these products come from China. But it would be less costly for a company established in Siam to procure them from Jangoma, rather than from the remotest East, and more so as this nation having had no commercial relations is unaware of the advantages of its geographical position.

We have very little information about the customs of the country, but it is known that the devil plays an important part in the beliefs of the inhabitants. The sick promise him sacrificial offerings and if he condescends to restore them to health they celebrate their recovery by a great feast to which all their friends and relations bring gifts of fruits to propitiate the evil spirit whom they look upon as the author of all diseases.

They are quite sure that the devil has no ear for music, as it is by instrumental efforts that they endeavour to drive him out of the house. The same motive, doubtless prompts them to summon priests to chant round the bedside of the sick man, who encouraged by their dismal voices expects a speedy relief from his pains. Death, which is a cause of mourning to men of other races of the earth, is for this nation a festal and delightful event. There seems to be a total lack of regret for the departed or at least they skilfully disguise their feelings in the matter. The corpse is borne on a reed litter by sixteen men to the place of cremation. The friends and relations, preceded by a band, follow in the procession. Quantities of presents are offered to the idolatrous priests who like birds of prey, live on the spoils of the dead. When the corpse has been cremated the funeral party returns to the house and the next two days are spent in feasting and dancing. After this, the widow bedecked with the trappings of woe proceeds to the cremation ground. All groan loudly and weep as they pick up the bones left by the flames. As a sign of mourning they merely get their hair cut.

Laos, which signifies thousands of elephants, derives its name from the numbers of these animals living in the forests of that country.

The climate is so mild and the air so pure that we are told that men of a hundred and even a hundred and twenty years still retain the full powers of their manhood. The bounties of nature are manifest in the plains and valleys and even the hilly districts. The watercourses which receive the mountain torrents, distribute the water evenly over the land and there are neither marshes nor stagnant ponds. The eastern bank of the river is the more fertile, the animals on this side are larger and finer, and the trees are more lofty. Here is grown the best rice of the East. The ground on which it has been sown, becomes covered with a sort of foam after the harvest and the heat of the sun converts it into solid salt.

Benzoin and lacquer of the best quality are found in the country, and from the latter Spanish wax is made.

Although ivory of superior quality is abundant, they consider rhinoceros horn to be of more value, as it is supposed to have the property of rendering the possessors lucky. The people of the upper classes as they happen to become more prosperous, discard the horn they possess so as to buy another which is reputed to be more efficacious and none of their valuables is guarded with greater care.

The flowers that stud the plains nourish swarms of bees which supply honey and wax. Tin, lead and iron mines are an important asset to the country. Gold and silver are found in the rivers whence it is extracted by means of iron nets.

Musk, which is one of the chief articles of commerce, is not a product of this country, but a composition of ambergris and the secretion of a species of cat, which gives off an agreeable perfume is used instead. In the forests are plenty of wild animals, but cultivation is carried on by the help of buffaloes and oxen. The rivers teem with fish, some so large that two men can hardly carry one. The poor live on salt fish and rice. Although there is no salt water in the country, they find splendid rubies. Doubtless the foam that covers the fields after the rice harvest supplies the lack of salt for the formation of this precious stone in the bosom of the earth.

The Chinese carried on a considerable trade with Laos before the Tartar invasion. They brought velvets, silks, stuffs, carpets, horse-hair, cottons, gold, silver and porcelain which they bartered for ivory, opium and drugs.

In the province of Laos from whence the kingdom takes its name, there is a deep mine whence rubies and emeralds are extracted. The King possesses an emerald of the size of an ordinary orange.

Commercial relations, if established in this country, would be assuredly fruitful for the reason that the Laosians are the most upright and honest people in the Indo-Chinese peninsula. Not that they desire to possess every curious article of foreign origin they may see, but they prefer to be importunate in their demands for it rather than to attempt to gain possession of it by violence. The greatest praise that can be bestowed upon them is to remark on their fidelity to their pledged word. Robbery and murder are rarely heard of on the main routes, as the townships and villages are held responsible for any insults offered to travellers in the vicinity.

Their virtues are not unmixed with vices. By nature incorrigible idlers, they work only when absolutely obliged to. Arduous toil disgusts them, and destitute of perseverence, they cannot fix their attention for long on a single object and never examine anything more than superficially. Unbridled in their desires for the opposite sex, they seem to live merely for reproduction.

Sorcery and magic are the sources of many crimes and superstitions, but it is a weakness of the oriental mind never to undertake any important matter before having consulted and paid highly for the services of their duly qualified humbugs. The purity of the air tends to make the people long lived, and although the country is not very large, an army of 500,000 fighting men could easily be raised and it would not be difficult to raise a large force of centenarians, all healthy and vigorous. The inhabitants are less temperate than in other Eastern countries. They take four meals a day. Rice, fish and buffalo meat form their staple articles of diet. They rarely eat veal, beef or poultry. Birds are roasted with their feathers which impart a disagreeable taste to the flesh.

As a rule the magistrates and the higher officials do not take more than one wife, but this moderation is due to motives of economy. They wish to give the impression that they are so busy with state affairs that they have no time to give to their own pleasures.

However they keep large numbers of concubines which make up for the fact of their only keeping one wife. Marriage is a life-institution, but divorce is so common that marriage appears to be but a passing fancy. When a woman is convicted of adultery the husband can inflict whatever punishment he thinks fit.

Funerals are occasions of festivity rather than of mourning. The priests are well paid and are magnificently entertained. They contribute tears and funeral dirges and point out the road to the heavenly mansions to the spirit of the deceased. In the grave are placed offerings of money. It is to be presumed that the priests, as owners of the graves put the wealth buried by ignorance into circulation again. It should be noticed that the trade of this country has suffered from the various revolutions. In former times its products were taken to Siam, but since the Burmese invasion, they have been diverted to Pegu. The hatred inspired by the continuous state of hostility between these two nations has driven trade to Cambodia where the Laosians find a ready market for their gums, lacquer and other articles.

This ignorant nation boasts that it taught the Siamese the art of writing on palm leaves; the language and the characters are similar, but the Laosians cannot pronounce the letters R. and L. It is said that in the olden time, their mode of worship was unmixed with superstitious beliefs. They had no temples but worshipped a Creator god who ruled the world, and who could only be pleased by the practice of virtue and not by sacrifice and ceremony. They believe that after the lapse of a certain number of centuries, the universe will be renewed. This idea of a Periodical Great Year has been adopted by nearly all the nations of old time.

Commercial intercourse with the Chinese has altered these simple beliefs.

They had priests who became legislators and who, in order to avoid the risk of having their arguments refuted, produced books written in foreign characters. As their teachings were not understood, they appeared to be highly mysterious and were greatly respected, and it was no difficult matter for these cunning impostors to attribute a divine origin to their doctrinal hypotheses. Their learned men are divided into three classes. Some teach how the universe and the gods have been created, but they base their arguments on fables and not on facts. Others who are styled 'the enlightened' reconcile all embarrassing questions and contradictory statements.

The new doctrine proclaims the eternity of Heaven and sixteen worlds, and that, in the highest of them, the lucky inhabitants taste of perpetual felicity unmixed with sorrow. These worlds are liable to destruction and renewal and they reckon 18,000 years since the renewal of the actual earth. They grant the existence of a hell, but the priests never mention the torments prepared for the wicked, lest they should intimidate the feeble minded. Polygamy is the reward hoped for in the next world by the righteous, but as this doctrine is somewhat distasteful to the women, they are told that those who lead a godly life will be changed into men. The same reward is promised to all those who bestow their wealth on religious objects, by the assurance that the donor will have as many women as could be purchased by the treasure they have laid up in heaven.

The priests, sworn to celibacy, console themselves with the belief that after death they will have the power to create a number of women with whom they may do as they please. They practise chastity during their lifetime with the sole idea of satiating their vicious desires in the next world, and that which is regarded as a virtue in Heaven is considered to be a vice on earth. Their monasteries are schools of debauchery or are filled with men of the lowest class. Puffed up with the dignity of their office they compel such a respect that the chief of the nation himself can refuse to grant it at his peril only.

Their cells are separate and that of the abbot is magnificently appointed. Gold and silk and articles of luxury are everywhere apparent. Seated on a dazzling throne the abbot receives the worship of his underlings and of the devout public.

I shall not enter into details of their mode of life as I should then be obliged to repeat what I have already remarked about the priests, but I ought to mention certain customs which seem to justify the opinion of those who maintain that Christianity in its early forms was established among these people.

On the fourteenth day of every month they are obliged to assemble to make a public confession of their sins. A humble avowal is sufficient to gain absolution, and as the penances are not painful, backsliders are frequent. They frequently employ holy water of which they always keep a supply handy. They consider that it is a highly efficacious remedy against the severest diseases.

The priests, in fact, consider it as an article of of trade; and barter it for valuable liquors. The altars are adorned with flowers, and illuminated by torches. They also make use of rosaries, the beads of which are often of diamonds or rubies to assist the ignorance of those who are unable to read their prayers and hymns. They observe an Easter and a Jubilee. During those solemn occasions, all work is forbidden, and in consequence this time of rest in given up to debauchery. The preachers mount on pulpits whence they announce rules of conduct of a fairly pure and stringent nature, which however are broken by most people. The rich purchase indulgences, but the greedy priests only grant them for a limited period, and on expiration of the term, a new permit to transgress the laws must be purchased. Only the very poor need despair of the attainment of eternal felicity. The wealthy expend vast sums on these impostors who in return agree to expiate their peccadilloes.

The hermit priests live in dark caverns, in the midst of the forests, where in solitary retirement a large colony grows up around them in proof of their libidinous habits. It must not however be inferred that there are not some melancholy individuals who disgusted with life, bury themselves in these subterranean abodes and give themselves up to prayer and contemplation. A life of asceticism is by no means wearisome in tropical climates, where laziness is regarded as a variety of annihilation. Their occult researches have undoubtedly resulted in the discovery of certain tricks by which they impose on popular credulity. All of their mystic rites seem to have been modelled on or derived from the doctrines of Pythagoras or of the Priests of Egypt. Magic was the foundation, of these doctrines, and traces of such practice are visible in the writings of Apulius, Iamblichus and Porphery.

The Kingdom of Cambodia is known to few travellers, who having made a short visit there have given us very vague accounts. It is to be hoped that the Missionaries who have planted colonies there will give us information as to the possible advantages to be thence derived. Their scrupulous accuracy pays greater attention to that which is useful to us rather than to embellishments.

It is known that this country, protected by a mountain range, is watered by the great river that traverses the country. Its equatorial situation must of necessity give it a torrid climate, and in order to avoid the burning heat only the banks of rivers or lakes are inhabited. Travellers have much to suffer from the attacks of insects.

This country, one of the most fertile of the Indies produces corn, rich harvests of rice, vegetables of fine quality, and oil which commands a high price. Seafarers of all nationalities have landed to take in supplies. Besides these important products, sugar and indigo of good quality are produced, which form leading native industries. The country is well wooded and fruit trees are plentiful. Sapan, sandal and other rare woods occur in the forests. All sorts of drugs, opium and camphor are abundantly produced. An extremely transparent variety of crystal is found in the rocks. This happy land produces amethysts, rubies, topazes, chrysolites, agates, bloodstones and other precious stones. Raw silk and ivory are very cheap. An ox weighing 500 lbs costs only a crown, and 150 lbs of rice can be bought for eight sols. Everyone is allowed to hunt elephants, and tigers and lions are found in the forests as well as most of the wild beasts which appear to flourish only in the African deserts.

The coast line 140 leagues in extent has only five or six safe anchorages for vessels. The most noteworthy port is opposite to the Siamese coast and has a great trade in lac, gums and ivory. The harbour of Pontameas would attract a great number of foreign ships but its trade has greatly fallen off since it was demolished in 1717 by the Siamese. The other harbours are but little known. The sea lying between this kingdom and that of Siam is dotted by numerous islets which render navigation dangerous. The two largest, although fertile, have been laid waste because the pirates who infest these seas have seized the results of the work and industry of the inhabitants. It would be an easy matter to set up an advantageous trading-station in Quadrol island where there are many natural sandy harbours. There is as well a group of eight islands having a good anchorage; Pulocondor is the only inhabited member of the group. This island is called the island of Orleans by the French and is about three leagues long and one and a half wide.

The harbour is commodious and the anchorage easy. The sea abounds with many species of fish, and turtles, the shells and oil of the latter being valuable articles of trade. It is a land of monkeys and lizards some of which are ugly and covered with scales. Their bite is fatal. Others have claws and their tails, seven or eight feet long, are triangular in shape. They are good to eat. Flying squirrels and rats having ears shaped like those of human beings are to be seen. Most of the trees are balsamic, one species yielding gum has the bark and leaves like that of a chestnut tree. Oil is extracted by making an incision in the trunk and applying heat. There are many wild fruit trees bearing appetising looking fruits, but of insiped taste and frequently poisonous. A botanist could make a fine collection of plants and flowers unknown in other climates.

There is only one village inhabited by about 400 persons; frequently it is deserted as the inhabitants take up their abode in spots where they can satisfy their needs. The Cochin Chinese send the Christians to this island. It was captured by the English who set up a trading post in 1702. The governor had hired Macassar mercenaries and had promised to terminate their engagement after three years. He did not keep to his agreement and he kept them to strengthen the growing colony. This breach of trust ought to have made him wary, but he forgot that his example might cause his betrayal. As a result these savages, who although being rigid observers of treaties, thought they had a right to exact vengeance, and all the English were massacred the same night.

The Kingdom of Cambodia is inhabited by Portuguese, Japanese, Cochin-Chinese and Malays of whom some are passing traders, but others have become residents. The Portuguese have no priests and their religion is a mixture of idolatry and Christianity. They are in receipt of a small subsidy from the King, which together with the spoils of the chase forms their means of livelihood. The men are well built, and the women are distinctly handsome, but their lack of modesty counterbalances all the advantages they might otherwise derive from their personal appearance. These people never risk the perils of the sea in order to gain wealth, but they see the ships of all nations coming to their harbours for the purchase of the natural products of the land which are plentiful. They dig a fair quantity of gold and manufacture fabrics of as good quality as those of Holland. Their skill in embroidery is well known. The Dutch used to have a trading station and they had estimated that by the export of black lacquer, deer-skins, oxen and buffaloes to Japan, a profit of from 40 per cent to 70 per cent could be gained. But they met with opposition from the Portuguese who were jealous of their prosperity, and, on account of the various revolutions which have disturbed the peace of the kingdom, they have been obliged to forego all the advantages that they had hoped to gain. For these reasons, the different European nations have had no desire to form trading stations in these parts.

The religion is somewhat similar to that of Siam. They grant the existence of several heavenly abodes for the souls of the departed. In some of these heavens they are regaled with the finest liquors and the most delicious viands, and the senses are stimulated by all manner of delights. Women always young and beautiful, reciprocate the passion they inspire.

There is another heaven specially reserved for the solitary priests who have lived apart from the world. Their felicity consists in the utter absence of sensation, a sort of annihilation which is considered the height of bliss by lazy folks. The gods abide in the highest heaven and the privileged persons who imitate their virtues partake of their happiness. They also grant the existence of thirteen hells to which evil-doers are consigned according to the heinousness of their offences.

The priesthood contains many members and is divided into several classes, of which the first takes precedence even of the King himself. The second class consider themselves as his equals, and as the general belief is that they share the perfection of the deity, a profound respect is paid to them although the majority of them are of the lowliest origin. Their chief is known as the King of the priests and in certain districts he has supreme authority.

There are two ranks of nobility. The governors of towns and provinces, the ministers and judges are drawn from the first rank and are distinguished by a golden betelnut box. The nobles of the second rank have silver boxes.

The King is absolute. He can dispose of the goods of his subjects or rather slaves as he pleases. Children have no right of inheritance and whatever the King condescends to leave them is regarded as a personal favour. Although this Kingdom is of large extent it can scarcely put an army of 30,000 men in the field. This petty king is as proud and luxurious as the greatest rulers of Asia and it is this idea of imaginary greatness that frequently renders him insolent towards foreigners.

The country of Champa has a short coast-line with many commodious bays and harbours. Travellers have never penetrated the interior. No other town is known but Feneri, which used to be the royal residence before the country fell under the rule of the Cochin-Chinese, who, flying from Tartar tyranny were welcomed by the people whose rulers they have become. Their weapons are muskets, pikes and sabres in the use of which they show great skill. They are gentle and affable especially to foreigners. They show great respect for law from the King down to the lowest of his subjects. Their code is severe and the slightest faults do not fail to be punished. The people are not allowed to possess silver, and anyone convicted of its possession is severely punished. Gold is an article of trade and copper coin is the only currency. All callings are sold at a price and the consideration they enjoy is proportionate to the price. Whoever has sunk his fortune in the purchase of an office soon recovers his losses by means of exactions which are not punished, so as not to intimidate those who may wish to become office-holders. Liberty of worship is enjoined by the laws but most of the people are either Mahommedans or followers of Confucius; there are also idolators, some of whom worship reptiles and the lowest animals, while others regard the sun and moon as the creative powers.

The Mahomedans of this country do not observe the Koran strictly. They eat pork and are so hospitable that they have no shame in prostituting their wives to their guests. They however make an exception in the case of the principal wife whom they cannot repudiate unless she has been convicted of adultery.

The Chinese come annually to trade in tea, porcelain, silk and various commodities which they barter for scented woods and for gold which is of finer quality than the gold found in China.

No country has had greater commercial intercourse with Siam than Cochin-China, a name signifying Western China given to it by the Portuguese in contradistinction to China proper. The country is easy of access, the harbours are numerous and commodious and a depth of 80 fathoms is common in the bays. The country is densely populated and there are many towns and cities. Its fertility is due to the periodical inundations which leave a fine alluvial deposit on their retreat, and the heat of the sun brings the vegetable products to maturity early and imparts a fine flavour. There is a certain species of tree grown here known as the 'indestructible' as the timber never rots either in water or in the earth. It is used for ship's anchors. The mountains where this tree flourishes also produces various kinds of scented woods and all manner of flowers and perfumes. In this country are quarries of marble of various kinds and numerous gold mines. The inhabitants have learnt the art of smelting metals from the Chinese but they have not divulged the secret to them of casting iron into cannon and mortars. On the mountains are many rhinoceros of a larger size than any others in the Indies. Trade with the interior is considerable, merchants resort to the fairs at which all kinds of merchandize is offered for sale. The silk produced in this land is not of the first quality, but it is so plentiful that it is used for making ropes and sails. The land tortoises furnish oil. A considerable trade is carried on in pepper, sugar, honey and wax. The Chinese and the Japanese have the commercial supremacy. These foreigners are not subject to the laws of the country, they are magistrates who adjudicate all commercial disputes that arise between the traders of their nations. The impressions of the Cochin-Chinese given to us by travellers are partly unfavourable, and partly favourable. The Dutch who have suffered ill usage at their hands accuse them of faithlessness to their promises, of arrogance in their demeanour, and of treachery. Others who have been well received by them praise their kindliness towards foreigners, their commercial rectitude and above all their respect for the duties of hospitality. In spite of these conflicting opinions, all modern travellers concur in the view that their manners are as simple as their customs. Their gentleness of character saves them from acts of violence that in an instant ruin the impressions derived from years of exemplary conduct.

Their diet is simple, the sole articles being rice, fish and vegetables. Their usual beverage is a kind of tea that differs from the Chinese variety. They mingle sugar derived from a certain tree with their drinking water which thus acquires a pleasant taste and odour. They have a few wines, but prefer strong liquors to wine which they nevertheless use in moderation at marriages and other solemn festivals, which are the only occasions of excess. Although dependent on neighbouring nations, they allow their hair to grow long as a sign of their freedom. Their grandees keep up splendid establishments and wear robes embroidered with pearls which they prefer to diamonds. The women are veiled, but uncover their faces in salutation. Their medical men are dressed in black and wear a mitre shaped headdress. They trim neither their beard nor their nails as a sign that they are less desirous to please than to instruct. They know that respectability is well assured by the adaptation of strange habits.

Their houses have no other ornamentations than paintings and gilded sculptures. Marriage ceremonies, funeral rites and festivals are similar to those of the Chinese from whom they are descended, but in this, their new country, they have extinguished the torch of the liberal arts which illumined the land of their origin. It is not that they are without seats of learning, but such as they have are schools of error in which under the pretext of studying astronomy, they devote themselves to all the lies of astrology in order to seek for revelations of the future. They predict eclipses without being able to calculate their exact time, extent and duration and, regarding them as omens of serious evil, employ thousands of weird methods to counteract their supposed malign influence.

The King and all the chief officers of state as well as the learned, follow the doctrines of Confucius, which they have received from their ancestors. They have neither temples nor priests, but all pay deep respect to the great god Tien. The common people, plunged in the depths of the darkest idolatry, give themselves up to the most vulgar superstitions. They have bonzes who are divided into several classes. Some of them live on the produce of the land and waters assigned to them; others, subservient to a chief, live on the alms of the people; a more certain source than the hard won produce of the ground. If we can judge by the filthy state of their temples, most of which are in ruins, it seems that the priests and their devotees are the only persons who are attached to their religion. The foreign missionaries have made great conquests for the faith in these parts and it merely needs a greater number of workers to gather in an abundant harvest.

Those who believe in metempsychosis are loth to kill either the most dangerous animals, or the vilest insects, but by a strange contradiction as is usual in erroneous doctrines, they sacrifice swine to their gods and to the spirits of the departed. They believe that souls which do not pass into other corporeal forms are changed into demons, fairies or goblins. Thus it is that the fear inspired by these malign creatures gives credence to thousands of fables.

The law is no respecter of persons. The King a severe and upright judge passes sentence on the guilty, but his representatives in the provinces are more lenient, as they are amenable to bribery. A woman convicted of adultery is trampled to death by an elephant. A first act of theft is punished by the loss of a finger, the second by the loss of an ear, and the third by death. This graduated system of punishment should be a lesson to those nations generally whose laws inflict the same penalty on one, who by a passing weakness has committed some crime, or on another who is a hardened criminal. False witness is punished according to the nature of the charge brought. When the King pronounces sentence he is mounted on a fine elephant and petitioners may only approach within eighty paces of the royal presence.

This Prince is wealthy for the reason that many of his neighbours pay a high price for his protection. He derives a considerable revenue from the elephants, wax, and ivory produced in his country; the tribute paid in scented woods and gold dust by his vassals forms another source of income. Besides the tribute exacted from the vassal states, there is a general poll-tax, and every man from the age of 18 to 60 has to pay about fifteen livres. This tax is less derogatory than the forced labour of eight months to which every slave or subject is liable. The grandees are obliged to offer valuable gifts on certain days of the year to the King, and these would exhaust their resources if it were not for the gifts which they in return extort from their inferiors to replace the losses caused by these forced benevolences.

At the death of each land-owner, the King takes possession of the landed property and leaves only the money and personal effects of the deceased to the heirs. The tariff dues on foreign merchandise are still another source of revenue.

The Government of the Kingdom of Cochin-China is purely military. The weapons of the country are muskets, bows and daggers. Drill is performed in silence. The leader directs all the evolutions by motions of his baton, and if he makes a mistake he is reduced to the ranks. The Court is an example of Asiatic pomp. The first dignities of the state are conferred on eunuchs, as it is supposed that as they are unable to beget children, they will be all the less avaricious.

This policy has not succeeded in Europe, where experience has shown that celibate ministers have accumulated vast wealth. The heir-presumptive to the throne has command of the navy, and of his private body guard of 5,000 men. The younger son is commander-in-chief of the army. He has also a body guard of 2,000 men. A standing army is maintained as a protection against rebellions.

Crimes against the King's person are cruelly punished. The guilty party is tied up to a post and each soldier cuts off a piece of his flesh until nothing but the skeleton remains. The severity of the code in force proves that the nation is prone to crime. The law endeavours to deter crime by the threats of severe punishment. The soldiers are clad in satin and the uniforms of the officers are of velvet and silver.

There are military schools in which children are trained at the public expense. The spirit of emulation is fostered by rewards which pander to the growing mind. They receive silk dresses and other accoutrements that flatter their vanity. Those who take no advantage from their lessons are dressed in linen.

Christianity has made great progress in this land, but has had much to fight against. The ignorance of the idolatrous priests, and the foolish nature of their doctrines, have been favourable to the progress of Missionary enterprise.