METHODS
There are certain points in regard to methods of preventing conception which should be made clear.
It is, of course, obvious that conception can be voluntarily controlled by abstention from intercourse except when children are desired. This has been called a counsel of perfection. It could only rightly be so described where such a method of life was both desired and approved by both husband and wife. It would not be a fair thing for either to enforce a practically celibate life on the other without the fullest understanding and consent before the marriage vows were taken.
But conception can also be controlled by avoidance of those parts of the monthly cycle in which conception most commonly takes place. That in the great majority of women there is a time in the monthly cycle when no conception occurs has been noted for a long time. The rough-and-ready method of reckoning the date of birth in relations to the last menstrual period is an example of the assumption that conception will probably have taken place a week later, and the frequency with which such reckoning is justified shows that it is not altogether unfounded. During the war it was possible to make some more exact observations owing to the short leave granted to soldiers to visit their homes. Seigel has published a paper in the "Münchener Medizinische Wochenschrift," 1916, in which he gives information regarding the conception of between two and three hundred children born during the war. He finds that the likelihood of fertilisation increases from the first day of menstruation, reaching the highest point six days later, the fertile period remains almost at the same height till the 12th or 13th day, and then declines gradually until the 22nd day, after which there is absolute sterility.
This suggests that conception control can be attained without artificial methods if intercourse is confined to one week in the month.
Such control of conception, though natural, does not make it any more desirable to space the births unduly so that the children are brought up in separate units instead of in a happy family group in which they can share games and interests—but it does avoid the risks which are associated with artificial methods of conception control.
It is not proposed to discuss in detail artificial methods in this pamphlet, because no advice can be wisely given on this subject in a general way. Those who after careful consideration choose to use artificial means to prevent child-bearing will be wise if they consult their medical attendant as to those methods which are least harmful for their individual case, and ask for careful instruction in their use.
Most of the methods so widely advertised are productive of diseased conditions, whether from the nature of the method itself or from the way in which it is used, and all of those recommended to women interfere with normal physiological processes. The object aimed at in methods recommended to women, is either to produce, by drugs or otherwise, conditions in the vagina inimical to the life of the male cell, or to prevent by mechanical means the reception of the semen into the uterus. Owing to the uncertainty in the results of either of the above methods of prevention, the later editions of books which teach conception control now advocate the use of both methods at the same time in order to approximate more closely to certainty of result.
All these artificial preparations for intercourse demand from the woman an investigation of and interference with her own internal organs, which is revolting to all decent women, and such teaching is directly opposed to the advocacy of cleanliness and non-interference with the genital organs, which is the natural habit of healthy-minded women.
The effects, however, go further than this. Nature has provided in the healthy vaginal secretions an antidote to infection which quickly destroys harmful germs. If the natural secretions are altered it is difficult to restore them to their natural quality.
Professor Arthur Thomson, F.R.C.S., has shewn ("British Medical Journal," January 7th, 1922) from observations of the lining of the womb in animals and in women that "the weight of evidence goes to prove that its function is more likely to be absorbent than excretive, and that as such it plays an important part in the animal economy."
After describing at length the evidence that the male secretion consists largely of the secretions from special glands as well as the sex cells, he refers to the fact that these are all largely received into and absorbed by the glands of the womb, and he discusses the probability that such absorption profoundly and beneficially affects the physiological reaction in the woman. He points out that the use of artificial checks "while preventing fertilisation may also be the means of depriving the female of certain secretions which may exercise a far reaching influence on her economy"; and he concludes, "As a rule we cannot interfere with the normal course of nature without some consequent evil result. May this not be an instance in which for some apparent gain in one direction, the woman pays the penalty?"
CHAPTER IV
THE EFFECT OF WIDESPREAD CONCEPTION CONTROL
ON NATIONAL EFFICIENCY
In every nation individual capacity varies within wide limits. We have men and women of brilliant attainments, and of all grades of intelligence ranging downwards to the mentally defective. There is no doubt that all grades of intelligence can be improved by education, but there appears to be a limit to the capacity of development of each individual. Lower intelligence, therefore, is not only due to lack of opportunity, but to an inborn constitutional defect.
Further study has shewn this defect to be hereditary—the parents or grandparents of such people shew defective intelligence, and their offspring are likely to do the same; indeed, if two mentally defective people marry it is fairly certain that their children will all be mentally defective.
There are, however, no sharply defined classes of intelligence; just as the mentally defective are in many grades, so ordinary men and women vary from low or average intelligence up to outstanding cases of genius or capacity.
By the newer methods of mental testing it has been shewn that children of various classes of the community, as well as men and women of different races, can be grouped according to their intellectual capacity, and that no educational facilities will develop that capacity beyond a certain point.
Professor W. McDougall, F.R.S., in his most useful and interesting book on National Welfare and National Decay, reaches the important conclusion "that innate capacity for intellectual growth is the predominant factor in determining the distribution of intelligence in adults, and that the amount and kind of education is a factor of subordinate importance." He claims that the evidence is overwhelming as to the validity of the results obtained by mental testing.
A few examples of experimental work given in Professor McDougall's book will suffice to show the trend of these results.
Tests of intelligence were carried out on recruits for the American Army, white and coloured, and they shewed marked superiority of the white race.
A special test was carried out in Oxford by Mr. H.B. English, who compared the capacity of boys in a school attended by children of the intellectual classes with that of boys in a very good primary school, whose fathers were shop-keepers, skilled artisans, etc., coming from homes which were good, with no sort of privation. The result showed marked superiority of the sons of intellectual parents. Mr. English concludes that the children of the professional classes, between 12 and 14 years of age, exhibit very marked intelligence, and he is convinced that the hereditary factor plays an altogether predominant part.
In another experiment, Miss Arlitt, of Bryn Mawr College, tested 342 children from primary schools in one district, who were divided into four groups:—
| Group 1 | Professional. |
| Group 2 | Semi-professional and higher business. |
| Group 3 | Skilled labour. |
| Group 4 | Semi-and unskilled labour. |
Marked differences between the groups were shewn. The intellectual capacity was represented by figures as follows:—
| Group 1 | 125 |
| Group 2 | 118 |
| Group 3 | 107 |
| Group 4 | 92 |
A further research of 548 children, grouped according to the occupation of their father, gave its results in terms of the percentage of children in each group who scored a mark higher than the median for the whole 548. They are as follows:—
| Professional group | 85% |
| Executive group | 68%. |
| Artisan group | 41% |
| Labour group | 39% |
In the "Journal of Educational Psychology," Vol. IX, 1916, Mr. A.W. Kornhauser gives evidence from the examination of 1,000 children drawn from five schools in Pittsburgh.
Schools A and B were attended by children of unskilled manual workers.
Schools C and D by children of skilled artisans and small shopkeepers.
School E by children of parents in very comfortable circumstances.
The results are tabulated as—
Retarded, i.e., below average.
Normal, i.e., average.
Advanced, i.e., above average.
| Retarded. | Normal. | Advanced. | |
| A Manual workers B | 45.2 36.7 | 47.1 55.9 | 7.7 7.4 |
| C Artisans, etc. D | 29.4 28.8 | 50.2 50.2 | 20.7 19.5 |
| E Most comfortable | 12.7 | 62.7 | 24.6[[A]] |
[A] I am indebted to Professor McDougall's book for information here given.
These experiments all shew the trend of intelligence (and with it will power or power of concentration, and what we may call general capacity) to be more concentrated in the so-called higher grades of society, and to be less and less evident as we descend in the scale from skilled to unskilled workers. It would, of course, be clear to all that the children of mentally deficient parents can only be a burden on the State or can rarely contribute anything of value to the common weal.
Now the teaching and advocacy of methods of conception control is most easily assimilated and practised by the intelligent classes; indeed, we may say with certainty that such methods can only be used effectively by the intelligent members of the community, such as leisured, professional and mercantile classes, skilled artisans and better class workers, whereas the lowest type of casual labourers whose home conditions render the use of preventive methods difficult or impossible, and the mentally deficient and criminal classes, are unaffected by such teaching.
The result in a few generations must be a marked decrease in the numbers of the intellectual and efficient workers, while the hopelessly unfit continue to produce their kind at the same rate as before.
The figures given do not suggest that individuals with marked ability are to be found in the upper classes only, but they do indicate that there is a larger proportion of boys and girls in the more comfortable classes whose inherited ability is above the average, though this may be partly due to the more intellectual atmosphere in which their early childhood has been passed.
The provision of education for all, with facilities for children of every class to pass on to higher grades of work, is essential if the latent powers in all, whatever they may be, are to be developed to the utmost.
The point for our consideration at the moment, however, is that if the production of all capable workers, whether mental or manual, is to be curtailed and the numbers of the population maintained in greater proportion from the mentally deficient or criminal classes, the result must be national disaster. For in a very short time there will not be enough leaders of real capacity to occupy positions of initiative and responsibility in the various activities of the country at home and abroad, nor will there be an adequate supply of good practical work: a lowered standard of efficiency must result. From a national point of view, therefore, we regard the propaganda in favour of conception control to be a real and increasing danger.
The problem of the mentally deficient is of another order. In this case another kind of control is urgently needed, but it is one which can only be undertaken by the State, and not by the individual. It is to put in force such a method of compulsory segregation as would ensure the comfort and contentment of the mentally deficient, and safeguard them and the nation from the reproduction of their kind.
The problem also of the insane and criminal classes in relation to heredity is one which demands careful consideration by those competent to give it.
SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS
1. There are certain women who for medical reasons should be prevented from bearing children.
2. There are couples with undesirable inheritance who rightly decline to bear children.
3. There are many women of the poorer classes in whom child-bearing is sometimes the last straw in circumstances all of which tend to destroy health and vitality.
4. Public teaching on contraceptives, like medical advice advertised in newspapers, is generally applied to cases for which it is unsuitable and applied in the wrong way.
It is therefore detrimental to public health as well as being detrimental to public morality.
5. A public opinion in favour of small spaced families does not serve the best interests of the children or of their mother.
6. Married love should express itself at once in the usual way without the use of artificial contraceptives.
7. The diminishing fertility of the more capable classes is a national peril.
To counteract this tendency every encouragement should be given to the intelligent and efficient classes of the community to bear healthy children.
The study of problems which give rise periodically to a propaganda in favour of the practice of conception control reveal the fact that excessive child-bearing is found in those classes who suffer the greatest privation, and in whom large families are a real hardship, while many couples among the well-to-do are childless though greatly desiring children.
Such facts suggest that the true remedy for the general problem lies in raising the standard of living among working-class mothers and advising a more simple life to the more richly endowed.
8. It is desirable that the Government should make provision for methods which will arrest the propagation of the mentally deficient, insane and criminal classes.