RAILROADS AND INDUSTRY
§ I. TRANSPORTATION AS A FORM OF PRODUCTION
Productivity of transportation
1. Transportation of goods and men is one of the most important modes of production. When utility was thought of as inherent in things rather than as resulting from a relation between things and wants, it was usual to consider only those industries as truly productive that brought something physical into existence, as do agriculture and the extractive industries. Even after it was recognized that a change of form also imparted value, it was still denied that a changing of place could be truly productive industry. But when production is seen to be the bringing of things into right relations with wants, transportation may be deemed to be the primary and typical mode of increasing income. Movement is necessary to the existence of animals. The animal, in the order of evolution a higher form of life than the more fixed plants, goes to seek food, and has open to it a wider range of possibilities in life. With slight exceptions, it is true that the only way in which animals can bring about better place-relations between their wants and goods is by moving themselves. To this power man has added that of moving goods and thus adds enormously to income. Agents being valued in accordance with their net productiveness, the nearness to market and the ease of transporting the product are large factors in price. The location of a field enters into its value as truly as do the chemical qualities of the soil. A rocky field near a market may be richer, in an industrial sense, than the richest soil far remote, which can be used by men only at the cost of their alienation from society. Means of transportation set a limit to social and political groupings, to the size of the market, and to the possibility of exchange. Indeed, all exchange value is conditioned upon the possibility of transportation.
Original local advantages
2. Natural differences in the grades of fertility and of accessibility determine first the most valued locations. Primitive man, dependent on the bounties of nature, had to take things as he found them. Few places unite the best grades of the essential things: water, food, fertile soil, a favorable climate, protection against enemies. Between tribe and tribe went on ceaseless war for the few favored spots of the earth. Where transportation is possible, trade can supply one or more of the missing elements. International trade began early, wherever it could, to strengthen economically the weak localities. Advantages in transportation are sometimes better than fertile soil and rich resources. The early centers of civilization were on the banks of rivers and the shores of seas. Around the Mediterranean were the ancient empires. Trading-towns grew up at ports and at the favored points of trade: Tyre, Sidon, Carthage, Florence, Genoa, Venice, Antwerp, London, New York. The early settlements in America were grouped along the coast. Without the cheap communication afforded by water, the colonies would have been cut off from the benefits of continuing contact with the older civilization. It would have been a great price to pay, even for a rich continent.
Influence of waterways on local advantages
3. The opening up of new water-routes of travel has profoundly altered the prosperity of nations. Sometimes the relation of cause and effect is the reverse of that just noted. The conquest of Asia Minor by the Turks closed the lines of travel with the East, destroyed the trade of the Italian cities, and stimulated exploration for new routes. The War of 1812 in America stopped the coast trade and forced on the wagon-roads between the New England and the Southern states a great traffic, which declined quickly at the close of the war. Again, the growth of population and industry shifts the center of trade, as it did from the south to the north of Europe, and as it is doing from England to America. The discovery of new routes, however, has wrought the most rapid and sweeping changes. These three causes united, about the time of the discovery of America, to overthrow the prosperity of the older cities of Europe, while the opening of the resources in America, the abundance of silver and gold, trade with the colonists and the Indians, showered wealth and trade into the lap of Spain, Holland, Belgium, England, and the northern cities of Germany. Such changes continue under our eyes. The Erie Canal has an influence on values in every township from New York to Buffalo, and along the lake shores to the head of Lake Superior. The Suez Canal marked an epoch in ocean travel. The American Isthmian Canal will affect the value of many investments, from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Coast. A marked change in transportation thus shifts the level of values in a locality. Fortunes are made and lost. One community rises and another sinks. Increments and decrements of value on a great scale are unearned, and all classes of goods are affected, though in varying degrees.
§ II. THE RAILROAD AS A CARRIER
Technical vs. economic efficiency of transportation
1. Different modes of transport are more or less economical relatively to the other industrial conditions. Not only new routes but new agents of travel change the scale of values. In early societies, undeveloped industrially, first men, then domestic animals, were used as beasts of burden. The first vehicles are technically simple in design and construction; on land are used drags, sleds, carts; on waterways are used rafts, canoes, barges, and boats. Primitive means of transportation had to be inexpensive, for poverty and the uncertainty of early society forbade the tying up of large resources in them. Technical efficiency of means of transportation may be contrasted with economic efficiency. Technical goodness is absolute, and is measured in speed and weight of cargo; economic efficiency is relative, and varies with the money cost and money value of the services. A turnpike is more efficient than a mud road, yet in some districts it is bad economy to build it. A railroad is more efficient than a cart, yet in some places even pack-horses are more economical. To be economical, the expenditure needed to supply the efficient agent must be warranted by the volume and value of traffic.
Economic advantages of natural waterways
2. The most economical means of transportation before the railroad were the waterways, natural and artificial. Some natural waterways still afford the most economical means of transportation between favorably situated ports. Coal is shipped most cheaply in sailing vessels from Wales around Cape Horn to ports along the western coasts of America. A part of California's regular fuel-supply is obtained in this way. Coal has been shipped from Pennsylvania to Europe, and in the anthracite coal-strike in 1902, some was shipped from England to America. Invention has reduced the cost of construction and operation of vessels and has increased their safety and speed, thus multiplying the efficiency of the natural waterways. The large cities in America are situated on waterways, usually where there is a break in transportation requiring reshipment, as, for example, at New York, San Francisco, Buffalo, New Orleans, Cincinnati, Chicago, Minneapolis, and St. Paul. Likewise many of the small cities and villages, serving as local trading centers, owe their existence to similar though less powerful influences.
Merits and defects of canals
Canals are begun as connecting links in a system of natural waterways to extend the advantages of cheap transportation. The Erie Canal not only serves the three hundred miles of territory along its banks, but it opened to commerce all the lands tributary to the Great Lakes. The great advantage of canals is cheapness of operation due to the simplicity of the machinery needed and to the great loads that can be moved with small power. A cent a ton-mile is a paying rate on a canal. For heavy, slow-moving freight, the railroads can hardly rival the canals at their best. As canals, however, can be built only along a level country and where the water supply is at a high level, their construction is limited to a small portion of the country. The law of extensive diminishing returns applies strongly to the construction of canals. The first canals are easily constructed and economically operated, but it is only with greater cost and difficulty that the system can be successively extended. In temperate climates their use is limited by ice to a part of the year, and the summer's drought sometimes limits it still further. At its best, therefore, the small land-locked canal is fitted only to be a supplementary agent in the system of transportation wherever industry demands high speed and great regularity. Far different is the case of the oceanic canal in a tropical climate.
Superior advantages of railroads
3. The railroad is rapidly surpassing in importance every other agency of transportation. Even in respect to cheapness, the unique virtue of waterways in favored localities, the railroad has been making rapid gains. Improvements in roadbed, rails, cars, engines, and other equipment are reducing greatly the cost of conducting traffic on the main lines of roads. The adaptability of the railroad excels that of any other agent of transportation; it can go over mountains or tunnel through them. In certainty its superiority is marked; floods and snows may delay it for a day, but there is no seasonal stoppage of traffic. In speed, the railroad so far excels that the canal can survive only by dividing the traffic, taking the lower grades of freight, and leaving to the railroad the passenger traffic and fast freight.
Results of the rapid growth of railroads
Because of these qualities, the extension of the railroads in the last fifty years has been so rapid that it has not given time for a gradual adaptation of industry. It has worked in many places revolutionary changes. The building of railroads in the Mississippi valley in the seventies lowered the value of Eastern farms, ruined many English farmers, and depressed the peasantry in all western Europe. With the prices that resulted when the fertile lands of the Western prairies were opened to the world's markets, the stony and worked-out lands of the older districts could not compete. Great regions are still to be opened in this manner in Russia, Siberia, Africa, and South America. While one can only speculate upon the effects this development will have, the changes promise to be less sudden and tremendous than those of the last twenty years. Many minor changes, of no less moment in limited districts, result from the building of railroads. Local trading-centers decrease in importance. Villages and towns, hoping to be enriched by the railroads, see trade going to the cities. Commerce becomes centralized. Enormous increase of value at a few points is offset by losses in other localities.
§ III. DISCRIMINATION IN RATES ON RAILROADS
Monopoly power of railroads
1. The railroad has more monopoly power in fixing rates at points along its lines than is the case with other agents of transportation. The ownership of the wagons, ships, and canal-boats of a country is usually divided. Every point along the line of the turnpike or the canal and at ocean ports enjoys competition between carriers, the great shipping combinations not having been successfully formed as yet. In the early days of the railroads it was believed that a company or the government would own the rails and charge toll to the different carriers, who would own cars and conduct the traffic as was done on the canals. Experience soon showed the utter impracticability of this scheme and the need of unified management. The railroad, therefore, has a monopoly at all points on its line not touched by other carriers. This, like all other monopoly, is limited by the need to secure some business and to meet competition at terminal points. The railroads in private hands early began to "charge what the traffic would bear" at every station, thus practising various forms of discrimination disastrous in their effects on the citizens.
Discrimination as to goods
2. Discrimination as to goods is charging more for transporting one kind of goods than for another without a corresponding difference in the cost. When reasonably understood, this proposition does not apply to a higher charge for goods of greater bulk, as more per pound for feathers than for iron, the "dead weight" of car being much greater in one case than in the other. It does not apply where there is a difference in risk, as in carrying bricks and powder, or coal and crockery; nor where there is a difference in trouble, as in shipping live stock and wheat. Any difference that can reasonably be explained as due to a difference in cost is not discrimination; on the other hand a difference in cost without a difference in rate is discrimination. Discrimination as to goods may be by value, as low rates for heavy, cheap goods and high rates for lighter, valuable ones. Coal always goes at a low rate as compared with dry goods, and sometimes more is charged for coal to be used for gas than for coal to be used for heating purposes. Discrimination as to goods is the most usual and, if reasonably employed, one of the most justifiable of the various kinds of rate discriminations.
Local discrimination
3. Discrimination between places (local discrimination) is charging different rates to two localities for substantially the same service. This occurs when local rates are high and through rates are low; when rates at local points are high and at competing points are low; when less is charged for shipments consigned to foreign ports than for domestic shipments; when more is charged for goods going east than for goods going west. The causes of local discrimination are: first, water-competition, found at great trade centers such as New York and San Francisco; second, differences in terminal facilities, making some places better shipping-points than others; third, competition by other railroads, which is concentrated at certain points, only four thousand (one tenth) of the stations of the United States being junctions; fourth, the influence of powerful individuals or large corporations and the personal favoritism shown by railroad officials.
Its effects
The effect of discrimination is to develop some districts and depress others; to stimulate cities and blight villages; to destroy established industries; to foster monopolies at favored points; and to sacrifice the future revenues of the road by forcing industry to move to the competing points to get the low rates. The power of railroad officials arbitrarily to cause rates to rise or fall is happily limited in practice by the need of earning as large and as regular an income as possible, but even as exercised it has been at times as great as that possessed by many political rulers.
Personal discrimination
4. Discrimination between shippers (personal discrimination) is charging one person more than another for substantially the same service. This most odious of railroad vices, rarely practised openly, is done by false billing of weight, by wrong descriptions or false classification to reduce the charge below published rate-sheets, by carrying some goods free, by issuing passes to one and not to all patrons under the same conditions, or by donations or rebates after the regular rate has been paid. In some cases a subordinate agent shares his commission with the shipper, and the transaction does not appear on the books of the company. In other cases favored shippers are given secret information that the rate is to be changed, so that they are enabled to regulate their shipments to secure the lower rate.
Causes of personal discrimination
One group of reasons for personal discrimination is connected with the interests of the road. It is to build up new business; it is to make competition with rival roads more effective by favoring certain agents, as is very commonly done in the Western grain business; it is to exclude competition, as by refusing to make a rate from a connecting line or to receive materials for a new railroad which is to be a competitor; and it is to satisfy large shippers whose power, skill, and persistence make the concession necessary. Another group of reasons has to do with the interests of company officials. It is to enable them to grant special favors to friends; or it is to build up a business in which they are interested; or it is to earn a bribe that has been given them.
Evils of personal discrimination
That the evils of personal discrimination are great, need hardly be said. It introduces uncertainty, fear, and danger into all business; it causes business men to waste, socially viewed, an enormous fund of energy to get good rates and to guard against surprises; it grants unearned fortunes and destroys those honestly made; it gives enormous power and presents strong temptations to railroad officials to injure the interests of the stockholders on the one hand and of the public on the other.
Apart from government, the railroad represents the greatest single economic factor in personal distribution. It has introduced a new form of problem into economic society. It has created a monopoly comparable to the prerogatives of feudal lords. No other industrial agency in private hands so affects all the producing forces of society and exercises such a potent influence on values.