CONE CLUTCH CLEANING
Cone clutches are always in perfect condition when leaving the factory and should not require any further attention during the first season or for eight to ten thousand miles of service.
After that it is usually necessary to replace the leather, or reline the cone, which makes it as good and as serviceable as when it was new.
New Clutch Leathers.—New clutch leathers may be obtained from the manufacturer, or from the service station, by giving the number and model of the car. New clutch leathers obtained in this way are cut, shaped, and have the ends cemented, and are ready to be slipped on or off, over the cone and riveted into place. However, the leather must first be soaked in water or Neat’s foot oil to make it soft and pliable. This allows it to be driven or stretched over the cone. The rivets must be counter-sunk to prevent the heads from extending above the top surface of the leather, which would cause the clutch to “grab” or jerk upon being engaged.
Fig. 108. Cone Clutch Leathers—Pattern—Cutting
Measuring and Cutting Clutch Leathers.—Whenever possible it is advisable to purchase clutch leathers cut and cemented, ready to put on. But in case of emergency or when the proper size cannot be obtained, a new leather may be cut from a piece of leather three-sixteenth of an inch in thickness using the old leather as a pattern. But in case the old leather is not available to serve as a pattern, proceed in the following manner which is illustrated in [Fig. 108], which shows how to make an exact pattern out of paper without going into technicalities. Take a piece of heavy wrapping paper, forty or fifty inches long and twenty inches wide, lay the cone on the left hand edge about one inch from the bottom of the sheet, roll the cone keeping the paper flat on the face until the starting edge meets the sheet, hold the wrapped cone and draw a line around the inside of the paper, letting the pencil rest against the edge of the large diameter of the cone; repeat at the small end of the cone, then draw a line parallel to the starting edge where it meets the sheet. This will give you a pattern similar to that shown with the dotted lines in [Fig. 108].
Now secure a piece of unstretchable leather (belting is preferable). This belting or leather should be slightly longer than the pattern you have just completed and sufficiently wide to embrace the curve; about twelve to fifteen inches wide for the average clutch will be sufficient, and about three-sixteenths of an inch thick.
Cut out the paper pattern and lay it on the leather belting as shown in [Fig. 108], and cut out with a sharp knife, leaving one-half inch over at each end as a safety measure and for mitering the joints. Fit this leather to the cone and cut the ends the exact size, miter the ends and cement with a good leather cement. Be sure that you have the rough or flesh side of the new facing on the outside; rivet it firmly in place and smooth down the rough spots with a piece of coarse sand paper, clean off all dirt, grease, and grit, especially the grit from the sand paper, as this will grind and score the smooth surface of the flywheel and cause clutch slipping. Paint the leather with Neat’s foot oil and the clutch is ready to be assembled and adjusted.
Cone Clutch Cleaning.—Cone clutches usually do not require any special care or cleaning unless oil or grease, other than (Neat’s foot or castor) are applied accidentally or by mistake to the leather face. If this happens the grease must be thoroughly cleaned off of the leather face with kerosene or gasoline otherwise the clutch will not hold. After the clutch leather has been washed allow it to dry for twenty minutes and apply a thin coat of Neat’s foot oil evenly on the leather face before reassembling the clutch.
CHAPTER XXIX
TRANSMISSIONS, TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE
Transmission came into use with the application or adoption of the internal combustion engine as a factor in motor car propulsion.
As this type of engine develops its power by a rapid succession of explosions in the combustion chambers, each explosion delivers an impulse or power stroke to the piston, which in turn sets the crank shaft and flywheel to revolving. The momentum gathered by the crank shaft and flywheel may therefore be termed the power for duty, or in other words, unless there is momentum or carrying motion at this point, there will be little or no power for duty.
This brings us up to a point where it is easy to see that a rapid series of explosions are necessary to gain carrying momentum or power to move a dead weight load. As this motional power could not be applied to the load without serious damage to the gears and bearings, it was necessary to invent a device to gradually transmit or apply the power to the movable load by graduating the leverage. This resulted in the development of the automobile transmission. The natural way of doing this at first seemed to be by applying the power to the load by frictional slippage. Many ingenious devices of this sort were tried out without much success until the driving and driven disc type made its appearance.
[Fig. 109] shows the driving and driven disc type of friction transmission. This type of transmission is not being used by any of the present day manufacturers of automobiles, but may still be found on some of the three and four-year-old models still in operation.
A, the drive shaft, is squared and slides backward a distance of three inches through a squared sleeve extending from the hub of the flywheel. The action of this shaft is controlled by a leverage arrangement to a foot pedal. B, the steel plate driving disc, is attached to the end of shaft A, and drives C, when held back against it by pressure on the foot pedal. Disc C can be slid in any position on the jack or cross shaft D, and is controlled by a leverage arrangement connected to a hand lever. The various speeds are obtained by sliding disc C into different positions and contacts on the left side of disc B. Reverse speeds are obtained by sliding disc C over center where it forms contact on the right side of B and is driven in an opposite direction.
Fig. 109. Friction Transmission
The Planetary Type of Transmission.—The planetary type of transmission made its appearance along about the same time as the friction type. The power is transmitted to the load through a set of reduction gears arranged in a drum. A king gear on the engine shaft operates a set of small gears in the drum. These small gears reduce the leverage speed and transmit the power to the drive shaft, a band similar to that used on brakes is fitted to the face of the drum. When this drum containing the reduction gears is not in use it turns at crank shaft speed. The speed is used by pressing a foot pedal which tightens the brake band and holds the drum stationary, thereby forcing the smaller gears into action.
Planetary transmissions are shown and fully explained in a later chapter. (See [Model T Ford Supplement].)
The Sliding Gear Transmission.—This type of transmission has proved very successful, and is used by 98 per cent of the present day automobile manufacturers. This type of transmission made its first appearance with a progressive gear shift, that is, it was necessary to proceed through one speed or set of gears to engage the next. This arrangement caused considerable confusion at times, as it was necessary to reshift the gears back through these speeds to attain neutral, when the car was brought to a stand still.
| Neutral | ||||
| 2nd. | Rev. | Rev. | ||
| 2nd. | ||||
| Neut. | ||||
| 1st. | ||||
| 3rd. | ||||
| 3rd. | 1st. | |||
| Ball-and-Socket Shift | H or Gate Type Gear Shift | |||
Fig. 110. Selective Type of Gear Shifts
Fig. 111. Sliding Gear Transmission—Sectional View
The control lever operated on a straight forward and backward direction on a quadrant, having a notch for each speed change. This gear shifting arrangement has also been abandoned by manufacturers in favor of the selective gear shift which is arranged so that the driver may choose any speed at will. [Fig. 110] shows the control lever which operates in a frame resembling the block letter H and the ball and socket shift which operates in the same manner. [Fig. 111] shows the complete assembly of the selective sliding gear transmission. The sliding gears are arranged on a separate core and are operated by an individual throw fork, which seats in a groove on the shoulder of the gear. Low and reverse are always opposite each other on the same core. High and intermediate are located on another core, and are controlled by another individual shifting fork. The gear box arrangement ([Fig. A]) shows the cast gear box which contains the gears, shafts, and bearings, and a roomy compartment below the gears in which grease is carried, as the gears in this type of transmission always operate in an oil bath which prevents excessive wear and causes them to operate noiselessly. [Fig. B], the gear case cover, contains the slotted sliding shafts, to which the gear in shifting forks are attached. [Fig. C] shows the arrangement of the gears in the case and explains their operation. Gear No. 1 is attached to the extreme end of the engine shaft, and is continually engaged with gear No. 4, which causes the counter shaft No. 11, containing the stationery gears, to revolve whenever the engine shaft No. 9 is in operation. The drive shaft No. 8 does not run straight through and connect with No. 9, the engine shaft, but ends and takes its bearing in the core of gear No. 1. Consequently, when the gears on the drive shaft are slid into mesh with the gears on the counter shaft, variable speeds are attained. Low speed is obtained by sliding gear No. 3 into mesh with gear No. 6; second or intermediate is obtained by meshing gears No. 2 and gear No. 5.
High, or engine speed, is obtained by sliding gear No. 2 which is cored and shouldered over the end of gear No. 1, making a direct connection of the drive shaft No. 8, and the engine shaft No. 9, at this point. Reverse is obtained by meshing gear No. 3 on the drive shaft with gear No. 10, which is an extra or idle gear mounted on a stub shaft on the rear of the gear case. Idle gear No. 10 is always in mesh with gear No. 7, on the counter shaft.
Functional operation engine shafts always turn to the right or clockwise, which causes the counter shaft to turn to the left or anti-clockwise. This causes the drive shaft to turn to the right when low or intermediate speed gears are engaged, driving the car forward. Reverse, is obtained by the use of an extra gear in this way. Counter shaft turning to the left turns idle gear to the right, and this gear turning to the right, turns gear on the drive shaft to the left, and causes the car to be driven in a backward direction. In the unit power plant shown in [Fig. 112], the operation and gear shifting are identical with that of the separate gear case. The crank case of the motor is either extended or another case attached to the motor which has a compartment arranged to contain the clutch and transmission gears. This arrangement results in compactness, and does away with the supports required to carry the transmission separately.
Transmission Care.—The transmission should be thoroughly cleaned and refilled with fresh grease or heavy oil once in every thousand miles that the car is driven to prevent excessive wear and much noise. To clean, remove the plug at the bottom of the case, and the cover from the top. After the old oil has drained out, replace the plug, fill the case half full of kerosene, replace the cover, and let the motor run for a few minutes with the gears in neutral. Drain the kerosene off, and wash the case and gears off with a paint brush which has been dipped into fresh kerosene. Then examine the gears for blunt burrs and the bearings for looseness. If the gears are burred or chipped, file, or grind them down to level. If the bearings are loose they will have to be replaced, as the bearings used to carry both the counter and drive shaft are seldom provided with means of adjusting. These bearings, however, will not show wear for years if properly cared for. Next, see that the gear case is free from grit and filings, replace the drain plug, and fill the gear case to within one half inch from the drive or propeller shaft with a light graphite grease or heavy oil, and replace the cover using a new gasket.
Fig. 112. Clutch and Transmission Assembly—Unit Power Plant
CHAPTER XXX
UNIVERSAL JOINTS
Oil Plugs
Slip Joint
Oil-tight Washer
Oil Plugs
Slip Joint
Oil-tight Washer
Fig. 113. Slip Joint and Universal
Universal joints were designed to transmit power from one shaft to another at constantly changing angles. An automobile engine cannot be hung at the low level required to allow straight line drive, as it would have to be carried from six to eight inches lower than it is in present construction, and this would allow very little road clearance if any. And as the rear axle receives the power transmitted to it at a constantly changing level due to torque and spring action, it is necessary to have a flexible coupling on the propeller shaft between the engine and the rear axle to prevent the gears and bearings from being damaged from distortion.
Universal joints are made of the best steel or bronze, do not require any adjusting, and will outlast the life of a car, providing they are not driven at too great an angle, and are kept well lubricated. A metal shell or leather boot is fitted to the joint to carry and provide constant lubrication. This boot or container should be kept well-packed with a heavy oil, (600-W steam oil, Whitemore’s compound or a light graphite grease).
No 3001
No 3004
No 3003
No 3002
No 3006
No 3007
No 3008
No 3005
No 3009
No 3010
No 3011
Fig. 114. Universal-Joint Construction Diagram
Remove the oil plug every thirty days and pack the housing. Use a dope or oil gun to force in the lubricant. The housing should be subjected to regular inspections quite frequently as the lubricant often escapes from the end boot due to distortion and wear.
[Fig. 113] shows the rigid construction of a heavy duty universal joint and slip joint. The ends of the shafts are yoked and fitted to a swivel cross block; the leather boot follows the angle of the shaft and makes the housing oil tight.
[Fig. 114] shows a sectional view of the “Standard” universal joint, manufactured by the Universal Machine Co., of Bowling Green, Ohio. The left-hand cut shows the forward section and tapered shaft seat. This joint gives a combined universal action and slip on a two inch square. All points are concentric and always in balance. The bearings are provided with grooves and holes for lubrication. A metal and leather boot is also provided for protection, and as a grease retainer. And owing to the flange type there are but four bolts to remove in order to disassemble this joint.
The names of the various parts are given according to corresponding numbers.
- 3001—Flange
- 3003—Adapter for same
- 3002—Socket
- 3006—Bronze caps
- 3007—Trunion head
- 3008—Metal boot
- 3009—Leather boot
- 3010-11—Boot clamps
- 3004—Oil plug
- 3005—Bolts
CHAPTER XXXI
THE DIFFERENTIAL GEAR
Differential gears were designed to allow for equalization of the power strain transmitted to the rear axles.
The rotary movement is transmitted to the axles joining the wheels by a bevel gear, which if simple would drive both wheels at the same speed. This is satisfactory on the “straight ahead” drive, but it is clear that in turning a corner the car is describing a portion of a circle, and the inner wheel having a smaller circumference to traverse, must go at less speed than the outer. The differential gear was devised to allow for this difference in power stresses.
Fig. 115. Differential Action Diagram
It is perhaps the functional action more than the simple mechanism that one finds the most confusion about. The diagram given in [Fig. 115] shows how the functional action is mechanically carried out.
In the first place, each wheel, W, is fixed firmly to an independent axle turned by pinions, D and E. These pinions are connected by another, C. Now if D turns, E will rotate in the opposite direction due to the action of C. If D and E are rotating in the same direction at the same speed, C will merely lock with them and not rotate. If now, D accelerates slightly, C will turn, slowly retarding E, while if E accelerates, C will turn slowly in the opposite direction retarding D. This is precisely what is required in turning a corner. Now fix these in a box, driven as a whole by the bevel or ring gear B driven by the driving pinion gear A. When the car is on the straight ahead drive D, C, E are locked. C does not rotate and the three act as a single axle. As the car turns, C turns slowly, acted upon by the outer wheel, and gives the differential action.
The Worm Gear Drive.—The worm gear drive differential action is practically the same as the bevel gear action, the only difference being that there is a worm gear on the end of the drive shaft which engages with a helical toothed gear, which takes the place of the bevel gear B.
Fig. 116. Differential Assembly
[Fig. 116] shows the differential gear assembly which is carried by a set of bearings. These bearings are held in place by a set of shoulders, or retainers which are built into the housing on each side of the differential assembly. These bearings may be of either the radial, roller, or ball type. However, when the ball or roller bearing is used for carrying the differential, an end thrust bearing must be used in conjunction to take the end thrust and for adjusting purposes. The differential assembly shown is known as the bevel gear and pinion drive. The pinion gear is keyed to the tapered end of the drive shaft and usually does not carry an adjustment. The bevel gear mesh adjustment is made by setting the bearing supporting the differential assembly backward or forward. This adjustment, however, applies mostly to the full floating axle, as the axle shaft in this case usually has a square end which slides into the small bevel gear of the differential. The shaft used in this type of axle may be drawn out through the wheel and replaced without disassembling the axle or removing the weight from the wheels.
Fig 117. Differential Adjusting Points
When the Hotchkiss drive is employed in combination with the semi-floating or three-quarters floating axle, three adjusting points will be found. [Fig. 117] shows the three points at which adjustments are made. The short drive shaft carries the pinion gear at the rear end, and a universal joint at the front end is supported by a set of radial bearings inside of the front and rear ends of the housing.
The adjustment on this shaft is made by turning the notched cone A1 to the right, which pushes the bearings farther upon the bearing cones and reduces the looseness. After the short shaft has been properly adjusted, remove the lugs B, which fit into the notches of the adjustment nuts, A2 and A3, and turn A2 to the left to loosen, now turn A3 to the right until the bevel gear is meshing properly with pinion gear, then replace the lugs, B, to hold the adjustment. It is only necessary to make this adjustment when play occurs from natural wear, which will happen probably once in every five to seven thousand miles.
CASE
CAM
CAM FULCRUM PIN
PAWL
PAWL BLOCK
LUG
RETAINING PLATE
RATCHET RING
Fig. 118. Allen Gearless Differential
[Fig. 118] shows a cross-section of the Allen gearless differential. The main gearing is bolted to the casing. The wheel shafts are splined to ratchet rings. The two lugs of the pawl block are secured in slots in the casing so that the block turns with it. Eight pawls on the pawl block drive, the ratchet rings two on each side operate for forward, and two on each side for reverse. The pawls permit either ratchet ring to overrun them and move freely in the direction of motion, so long as it is moving faster than the pawl block. The lugs of the pawl block have a little motion, about 3⁄16″, in the slots, so that the casing moves this distance before engaging them for forward or reverse motion. This operates the rocking cams by their heads inserted in slots in right angles to the lugs, having the effect of pressing on and disengaging the forward or reverse pawls according to the direction of the motion.
When the car is running by its momentum with the clutch out, the action is reversed and the ratchet rings drive the casing and driving gear through the pawl block.
The adjustment given above also applies to the setting of the Allen differential.
Lubrication.—See Chapter on [Axles].
CHAPTER XXXII
AXLE TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE
Two types of rear axles are being used by the manufacturers of automobiles—the live axle, and the dead axle. The live axle which carries the weight of the load and transmits the power of rotation to the wheels, is built in two distinct designs called the semi-floating axle, and the full-floating axle. The semi-floating design is used extensively in manufacturing cars of light weight, while the full-floating design is favored more by the manufacturers of cars of medium and heavy weight. Both designs give equally satisfactory results.
The dead axle carries the weight of the car and load in much the same manner as a horse drawn vehicle. The power is conveyed to the loose wheels on the axle, by means of a chain which operates on a sprocket attached to the hub of the wheel, or by an internal gear drive arranged and housed in the brake drums.
The Semi-floating Axle.—In the semi-floating design of axle, the axle shaft carries the weight and transmits the rotation power to the wheel, which is keyed and locked to the outer end. The axle shaft is provided with a bearing at each end which operates on the inside of a closely fitted housing. The inside end of each axle shaft is bolted directly to the differential. The housing is split or divided into two halves, and bolts together in the center over the differential. This design of axle gives excellent service, but has one disadvantage in that it is somewhat difficult to disassemble, as the rear system must be disconnected from the car to take the housing apart. [Fig. 119] shows a part sectional view of a semi-floating axle used by the Detroit Taxicab Co. The wide series of S. K. F. ball bearings used on this axle are self aligning, which prevents any binding action from shaft deflection.
Fig. 119. Semi-Floating Rear Axle
The Full-floating Axle.—The full-floating design of axle serves the same functional purpose as the semi-floating design, but is constructed differently and operates on a widely different plan. In the full-floating design of axle, the axle shaft does not support any of the weight of the car or load, but serves simply as a member to transmit the power rotation to the wheels. The wheels are mounted on separate bearings, which operate on the outside of the outer end of the housing. The inner ends of the axle shafts are squared, or splined and slide into slots or seats in the differential gears. The differential assembly is in a separate unit, and is floated on bearings held by retainers extending from the forward end of the large ball-shaped center of the housing. The outer end of the axle shaft extends through the hub of the wheel, and has an umbrella-shaped plate on the end which bolts to the outside face of the wheel, as shown in [Fig. 120], thus transmitting the power directly to the outside of the wheel, without the axle shaft taking any bearing. The axle shaft may be drawn out through the wheel, by removing the nuts which secure the umbrella plate, without removing the weight of the car from the wheels. The differential unit can also be removed without disassembling the housing, by removing a large cover plate from the center of the housing. [Fig. 121] shows a typical full-floating axle, with a spiral bevel gear drive. The wheels in this case are mounted on a set of double series radial and thrust ball-bearings. The Hotchkiss type of short shaft final drive is carried in the forward extended part of the housing.
Fig. 120. Full-Floating Axle—Wheel-End Arrangement
Fig. 121. Full-Floating Axle
Two types of front axles are used by the manufacturers of automobiles. The I-beam type, which is a one piece drop forging, and the tubular or hollow type, which is round and has the yoke fitted into the ends. Both types operate on the same principle and plan, the only distinction between the types is that one type has the I-beam cross member and the other type has a pipe or tubular cross member.
Fig. 122. Steering Knuckle and Front Axle Parts
The front axle consists of an I-beam or tubular cross member, which is yoked at each end as shown at A, in [Fig. 122]. A steering knuckle B is held between the ends of the yoke by C, a king pin, which allows the knuckle to swing in a half circle. D, the spindle or short axle, is provided with a set of radial thrust bearings. The wheel is adjusted snugly to the bearings E by a castillated nut F. The adjustment is held by a cotter pin which extends through the spindle and head of the nut F. A short arm extends backward from each steering knuckle, shown at G, in [Fig. 122], and are connected together by an adjustable tie or spread rod shown at H. A half circle ball arm extends from the knuckle and circles over the axle. A rod or drag link forms the connection between the ball arm and the steering arm of the steering gear. [Fig. 123] shows the location of the parts assembled on a typical drop forged I-beam front axle. A section of the hub has been removed to show the location of the double row radial end thrust ball bearings. This type of bearing is becoming very popular for automobile uses.
Adjustments of the Semi-floating Type of Axle.—The short shaft carried in the forward part of the housing has a center nut adjustment between the universal joint and the pinion gear; moving this notched nut to the right facing the rear axle draws the shaft backward and meshes the teeth of the pinion gear deeper with the teeth of the ring gear. After this adjustment is made, examine the teeth for even mesh; it may be necessary to shift the differential unit to secure an even bearing. (See chapter on [differential gears] for detailed instructions in regard to differential adjusting.)
Fig. 123. I-Beam Front Axle
Adjustments on the Full-floating Axle.—The adjustments on the full-floating axle are usually made by shifting the differential unit, although a pinion gear adjustment is usually provided as described above.
Care.—The housing of both the semi-floating and the full-floating axle should receive a fresh supply of medium fiber or graphite grease every thousand miles. To grease, remove the plug on the large part of the housing and force in grease with a dope gun until it begins to bulge out of the hole.
Wash out the housing every five thousand miles, and replace the lubricant, as small metallic particles are worn off the gear teeth and this grit, which is destructive to the gears and bearings, mixes with the grease making it necessary to remove it that often.
A grease cup will be found located at the outer end of each half of the axle housing, which supplies the lubricant for the outer bearing. This grease cup should be filled weekly with a medium cup grease and given a half turn each day.
Care of Front Axle.—Pack the space between the bearings in the hub of the wheel every thousand miles. Use a heavy cup grease. The king bolts which hold the steering knuckles between the ends of the yokes are hollow and carry a grease cup on the head, which forces the grease out through finely perforated holes, and lubricates the bushings on which the pins take their bearing. This cup should be filled weekly and given a half turn each day.
CHAPTER XXXIII
BRAKE TYPES, OPERATION AND CARE
An automobile is always equipped with two sets of brakes, as they are required by law. The functional action of the brakes is to check the motion of the car when the driver wishes to stop or reduce the rolling speed. The service brake usually operates on the external surface, or on the outside of the drum flange, and is connected to the right foot pedal through a set of linkage. The emergency brake operates on the internal surface of the drum, and connects through linkage to a hand lever operating on a notched quadrant. The service brake is used in ordinary driving to check the rolling motion and to stop the car. The emergency brake is used to assist the service brake and to hold the car, in case the driver wishes to allow it to stand on a grade.
[Fig. 124] shows a set of brakes assembled on the axle ready to receive the horizontal flange of the brake drum. The brake drum is attached to the wheel; consequently when a wheel has been removed and is about to be replaced, the first operation consists of starting the drum flange into the space between the lining of the external and internal bands; care should always be exercised in making this adjustment, in order not to burr the outer edge of the lining, as a brake with an uneven frictional contact surface is of little value in checking the motion of the car.
In [Fig. 124], A shows the position of the band on the inside of the drum; B shows the contracting tension coil spring which holds the bearing surfaces of the band in contact with the flat surface of the cam when the brake is not in use; C shows the cam shaft, and the flat surfaces of the double action cam, which expands the band and brings it into even contact with the inner horizontal surface of drum flange, thereby checking the motion of the wheel by frictionally grasping the drum.
The service brake shown in [Fig. 124] is of the external contracting type, which operates on, or frictionally grasps the outside horizontal surface of the drum. D shows the lined band, which is held in a stationary position from the rear; E shows the leverage arrangement with its expanding coil spring, which holds the band free from the drum, when the brake is not in use; F is the lever to which the pull rod is connected; G is the lever on the internal brake cam shaft to which the hand lever is connected by the pull rod.
Fig. 124. Brake—Types and Adjustment
[Fig. 125] shows a new type of internal expanding brake, which is being used on many of the late models. The brake band in this case is supported at three points and has an adjustment at the rear main point of support. The cam has been done away with, and the band is expanded by a leverage toggle arrangement which operates through a much larger area, and is more dependable as there is no danger of its “sticking” or turning over, as was often the case with the cam.
[Fig. 126] shows another type of service brake which may be encountered on a few of the former models. This type of brake is usually located on the propeller shaft at the rear end of the transmission case. This type of brake operates in the same manner as the service brake at the end of the axle.
Fig. 125. Brake—Showing Toggle Arrangement
[Fig. 126] shows an equalizer which allows for any difference that may occur in making adjustments.
Fig. 126. Transmission Brake—Equalizer
[Fig. 127] shows the complete brake assembly, and the points of adjustment on late Buick cars.
Brake Adjustment.—All types of brakes are adjustable. The service brake usually has two adjusting points, one at the drum, which is made by turning the nut on the leverage pull pin, and another on the pull rods. A long neck clevis, or a long butted turn buckle will always be found on the pull rods, or on the rod leading to the equalizer. The adjustment is made by turning either to the right to shorten, or take up, and to the left to lengthen. The clevis is always threaded to the right, while the turn buckle has a right and left thread which carries each end of the rod into the butt when it is turned to the right. The lock nuts must always be turned up tight to the butts after the adjustment is made in order to hold it.
| BRAKE SHAFT | SERVICE BRAKE PEDAL | |
| PULL RODS | ||
| ADJUSTING TURNBUCKLE | EMERGENCY BRAKE LEVER | |
| INTERNAL BRAKE SHAFT | ||
| EXTERNAL BRAKE SHAFT | ||
| ADJUSTING THUMB SCREW | ||
| ADJUSTMENT | ||
| INTERNAL BRAKE BAND | ||
| EXTERNAL BRAKE BAND |
Fig. 127. Brake—Arrangement and Adjustment—“Buick”
Brake Care.—A great deal depends upon the proper operation of the brakes. They should be regularly inspected at least once a month for loose adjustments and uncleanliness. The need of adjustment usually occurs from natural wear, while an unclean frictional surface is usually the result of oil or grease seepage through the outer axle bearing. A felt washer is provided to prevent this from taking place, but as these washers are subjected to considerable pressure, they often become caked and hardened and lose their absorbing effectiveness. These washers can be purchased at any accessory store for a few cents apiece, and applied with very little trouble.
Cleaning the Surface of the Brake Bands.—This is accomplished by removing the wheel and washing the friction contact surface with gasoline, after the surfaces have become thoroughly dry. Drop three or four drops of castor or Neat’s foot oil on the contact surfaces of the drum, and replace the wheel and spin it a few times before releasing the jack.
Caution.—After you have set the gears for starting, and before you release the clutch pedal, always reach and make sure that the emergency brake lever is in the neutral position. New drivers invariably forget to do this, which results in severe strain on the bearings, and causes them to get loose; the average brake band will not stand more than fifteen to twenty minutes of continuous contact before it burns or wears beyond the point of usefulness.
CHAPTER XXXIV
SPRING CARE TESTS
Information recently gathered from observation and interviews shows that the average owner who operates and cares for his car, invariably overlooks the springs and their connections while giving the car the bi-monthly or monthly tightening-up and greasing, while the balance of the car usually receives the required attention.
This fact seems to be due mostly to an oversight, for the springs are usually inspected while the car is motionless and at this time they do not show defects readily, and have the appearance of being rigid, inactive, and compact.
Weekly Spring Care.—Weekly spring care should consist of filling the grease cups (with a medium hard oil cup grease) and turning them down until the grease makes its appearance at the outer edge of the spring eye. This, under ordinary driving conditions, will be sufficient lubrication for one week. But in cases where the car receives more than ordinary use the grease cups should be given one-half turn every second day. The shackle connections should then be wiped dry to prevent dust and grit clinging and working into the bearing, which causes much wear on even a sufficiently lubricated bearing surface.
Bi-monthly Spring Care.—Special attention should be given at this time to the U-shaped clips which connect the spring to the axle. A loose clip means a broken spring at the first severe jolt, caused by the rebound taking place between the clips. Therefore, tightly adjusted clips will prevent action from taking place at the point between the clips where the leaves are bolted together and will entirely eliminate spring breakage. Tighten up the nut on the leave guide clip bolt to prevent rattling. The shackles should be inspected for side play. To determine whether there is side play, jack up the frame until the weight is off the spring, then grasp it near the shackle and shake with an in and out motion. If there is play a rattle thump will be heard. To take out play, remove cotter pin and turn up castillated nut snugly on the shackle pin. If the nut cannot be turned up a full notch, place a thin washer over the end of the pin. The nut, however, should not be turned up too tight as a certain amount of action is necessary.
Lubrication of the Spring Leaves.—Lubrication of the spring leaves should take place once every month. This point must be kept in mind and adhered to, as a spring cannot produce the marked degree of action necessary for smooth and easy riding, when the sliding surface is dry and rusty. The leaves slide on each other when the spring opens and closes, and if the sliding surface is not well lubricated the movement will be greatly checked by the dry friction; these dry surfaces also gather dampness which soon forms into dry-rust, which, in time entirely retards action and results in a very hard riding car.
It is not necessary to disassemble the spring at the monthly greasing period, unless the spring has been neglected and rust has formed on the sliding surfaces. In this case the sliding surface of each blade must be cleaned with a piece of sand or emery paper.
When the springs receive regular attention, it is only necessary to jack up the frame until the wheels and axles are suspended, the weight of which will usually open the leaves sufficiently to insert a film of graphite grease with a thin case knife. In some cases where the leaves are highly curved, it may be found necessary to drive a small screwdriver in between them. However, great care should be exercised in doing this, as the blades are highly tempered and spring out of position very easily.
Wrapping Springs.—Car owners in some parts of the country grease their springs and wrap them with heavy cord or adhesive tape. While this serves to keep the grease in and the dust and dirt out, it also binds the leaves and prevents free action. If the car is to be driven for any length of time on sandy or muddy roads, wrapping may be found very beneficial. But use only a water-proof material (heavy oil paper or canvas) to wrap with. Cut the material into one and one-fourth inch strips, and wrap from the center toward the outer end to prevent binding.
The following shows the results of a spring care test conducted by the writer. The cars were chosen at random and only those accepted which had seen six months or more service.
Eighteen owners were interviewed. Six of this number gave their springs a thorough greasing and tightening up every two weeks, and not one of this group made a complaint of any nature regarding breakage, stiffness, or noise.
Five of the remaining twelve, gave their springs occasional attention. Their reports were not entirely unsatisfactory, but had a tendency toward such troubles as rattles, squeaks, and stiffness in action.
The remaining seven did not give their springs any attention whatever, and all made unsatisfactory reports ranging from broken leaves, to side play, jingles, squeaks and hard riding.
Therefore the results of careful and regular attention may readily be seen by the reports of the first six owners. All nuts and connections were tightened, and the sliding surfaces of the leaves greased on an average of once every two weeks. The springs gave satisfactory results, and the cars retained that easy, soft, springy action, so noticeable in a new car.
The reports of the five who gave their springs occasional attention would probably have been the same as the first six, had they given the proper attention more frequently. But they usually waited until the trouble became annoying, which caused wear on the spring eye, shackle strap, and pin, on each occurrence making a good adjustment impossible. The stiffness in action and squeaks were caused by dry fractional surfaces between the leaves which prevented free action.
Types.—There are five standard types of springs, and two or three types of special design. The riding qualities of all types of springs depend on their length and resiliency, which is taken into consideration by the engineer and designer. Consequently there is not much choice between the different types.
Fig. 128. 1⁄2-Elliptical Front Spring
[Fig. 128] shows the semi-elliptical type of spring used principally for front suspension. The front end of this spring is bolted rigidly to the downward end slope of the frame while the rear end carries a movable shackle arrangement.
Fig. 129. Full-Elliptic Spring
[Fig. 129] shows the full elliptical type of spring which may be used for either front or rear suspension. The ends may be fastened together solidly with a yoke and eye arrangement, or shackled as shown in the above cut.
[Fig. 130] shows a spring of the three-quarters elliptical type used in rear suspension only. This type of spring carries a shackle arrangement at the front and rear end which allows backward and forward motion to take place very freely, consequently it is very necessary to use a very substantial set of torque rods to keep the proper alignment.
Fig. 130. 3⁄4-Elliptical Rear Spring
[Fig. 131] shows the three link or commonly termed platform type of spring used only in rear suspension on the heavier models.
Fig. 131. Platform Spring
[Fig. 132] shows the front type of cantilever spring. The front end of this type of spring is bolted to a seat on the front axle, while the rear end may be fastened directly to the under side of the frame or attached to a specially arranged casting seat at the side of the frame. This type of spring is sometimes employed in multiple formation.
Fig. 132. Cantilever Spring, Front
Fig. 133. Cantilever Spring, Rear
[Fig. 133] shows the rear type of cantilever spring, which may employ a shackle arrangement on one or both sides, while a hinged seat is usually employed near the center or slightly over-center toward the front end.
CHAPTER XXXV
ALIGNMENT
Attention should be given quite frequently to wheel alignment, as the life and service of tires depends almost entirely upon wheel alignment.
When either of the front wheels become out of line, through a bent spindle, worn spindle pin, loose or worn bearing the tire on this wheel is subject to cross traction. That is, when the car moves forward, the tire on the out of line wheel is forced to move forward by the other three points of traction, and as it is not in line with the forward movement the tire must push or drag crosswise at the traction point. This results in the tread being worn or filed off in a very short time, exposing the layers of fabric to dampness and wear which results in a “blow-out” and ruined tire, which would probably have given several thousand miles of service had proper attention been given to wheel alignment.
Alignment Test.—To test the alignment, first look at the lower side of the springs where they rest on the axle seats. If one of the springs has slipped on the seat through a loose clamp, the direction and distance of the slip may be noted by the rust mark left by the movement. Drive the axle back, leave the clamp loose, measure the distance between the centers of the front and rear hub caps on the unaffected side with a tape or string, move the tape to the affected side and make the center distances the same, tighten the nuts on all clamps using new spring or lock washers.
Lengthwise Wheel Alignment.—Before lining up the wheels lengthwise, jack each wheel separately and shake it to detect a loose bearing or worn spindle pin which is usually the seat of the trouble. After the defective part has been readjusted or replaced, test the alignment as follows: Using a string or straight edge, which should be placed or drawn across the front and rear tire, making four contacts as near center as possible without interference from the hubs. The string or straight edge is then moved to the other side of the car and three contacts are made, one on the rear center of the front tire, and two across the center of the rear tire. The spread rod should then be adjusted to allow the front contact point to converge or lean from the line toward the other front wheel.
Fig. 134. Wheel-Alignment Diagram
Mechanical Alignment.—When a motor vehicle turns the inside wheel has to describe a curve of smaller radius than the outside wheel. A line drawn lengthwise through the steering arms, extending from the spindles or knuckles, should meet at a point in the center of the rear axle to determine the correct wheel base, otherwise the car will turn in two angles, which causes the tire on the outside to slide crosswise at the traction point. [Fig. 134] shows the position of the wheels and the direction they travel in describing two distinct curves in turning to the left. The correct mechanical alignment and wheel base will be seen in the diagram, A B. The front wheels have been turned to a 45 per cent angle, e-e1 lines drawn through the spindles will meet at E, a line drawn through the rear axle. E1 in this diagram shows the effect on the steering of lengthening the wheel base of the car. In this case the wheel base has been lengthened 10″ and the lines e and e1 meet at different angles at a point on E1. The car tries to turn about two distinct centers, as this is an impossibility, sliding of the tire occurs.
CHAPTER XXXVI
STEERING GEARS, TYPE, CONSTRUCTION
Operation and Care
The steering mechanism used in automobile construction is arranged to operate independent of the axle, or in other words the wheels turn on a pivot, or knuckle, held between the yoked ends of the axle. A spindle or axle extends outward from each steering knuckle to accommodate the wheels. A set of short arms extend to rear of the steering knuckles; an adjustable spacer bar, commonly called a tie or spread rod, serves as the connection between the arms. The arms incline slightly toward each other; which causes the inside wheel to turn on a shorter angle than the outside wheel when turning a corner. Another steering arm carrying a ball at the outer end, describes a half circle over the axle, and is attached to either the spread rod arm or the steering knuckle. An adjustable rod, or drag-link, carrying a ball socket at each end serves as the connection between the steering arm extending from steering gear and the half circle arm of the knuckle. To adjust wheels see chapter on “[Wheels and Axle Alignment].”
Steering Gear Types.—Three types of steering gears are commonly used by automobile manufacturers. They are namely, the worm and sector, worm and nut, and rack and pinion types.
[Fig. 135] shows the construction and operation of the worm and sector type. The lower end of the steering shaft carries a worm gear which meshes with the sector gear supported by a separate shaft. The sector has a ball arm extending downward, which moves in a forward and backward direction when the steering shaft is turned.
Steering Wheel
St. Column Worm
Sector
Spark
Throttle
Frame
Fig. 135. Worm and Sector Steering Gear
Adjusting the Worm and Sector Type of Steering Gear.—An eccentric bushing is provided to take up play between the worm and sector. This adjustment is made by driving the notched cone to the right to take out play, and to the left to slack up or take out stiffness.
[Fig. 136] shows the worm and nut type of steering gear. This type of steering gear as well as the worm and sector, is called the irreversible steering gear, which means that no reverse action takes place, or is present at the steering wheel, should one of the front wheels encounter a stone in the road, or drop into a deep rut. The worm and nut type consists of a double armed and pivoted steering arm. Each arm carries a ball. The drag link socket is attached to the ball on the lower arm while the ball on the upper and shorter arm fits in a socket in the nut through which the worm on the steering shaft passes. This nut is threaded to fit the worm which passes through it and moves up and down on the worm according to the direction which the steering wheel is turned. The housing of this type of steering must be well packed with a light cup or graphic grease to prevent the screw or worm from binding, which will make steering difficult and tiresome.
| Steering Column | |
| Worm Screw | |
| Nut | |
| Pivot | |
| Frame | |
| Drag Link | |
| St. Arm |
Fig. 136. Worm and Nut Type Steering Gear
Steering Shaft
Ball
Gear
Housing
Sliding tooth Shaft
Fig. 137. Rack and Pinion Type Steering Gear
[Fig. 137] shows the rack and pinion type of steering gear. This type of steering gear is used on a few of the lighter weight cars and is not as dependable owing to a reverse action through the steering mechanism when an obstruction is encountered by one of the front wheels. This type of steering device consists of a solid shaft with the steering wheel keyed to the upper end.
A small spur gear is keyed and locked to the lower end, and meshes with a horizontal toothed shaft which slides inside of a housing. The connection between the steering gear and the steering knuckles is made by a short rod or drag link carrying a split ball seat on each end. One end of the drag link socket is fitted to a ball on the end of the horizontal toothed shaft, while the socket on the other end is fitted to a ball on the upper end of the bolt which connects the tie rod and knuckle.
Steering Gear Care.—Steering gears should be closely adjusted. The housing should be packed with a medium hard oil or graphite grease at least once in every thousand miles that the car is driven. All bolts and nuts connecting the different parts of the steering gear should be regularly inspected and kept in a perfectly tight condition.
Fig. 138. Steering Wheel
[Fig. 138] shows the location of the spark and gas control levers which usually operate on a quadrant on the upper side of the steering wheel. The short lever always controls the spark, which may be advanced or retarded by moving it. The long lever is attached to the carburetor, and controls the speed of the motor by regulating the volume of gas vapor supplied to the motor.
CHAPTER XXXVII
BEARING TYPES, USE AND CARE
Three types of bearings are being used by the manufacturers of automobiles and gasoline engines. They are, namely, the plain bearing or bushing, the solid and flexible roller-bearing, and the double and single row of self-aligning ball bearings.
Bearings were designed to prevent wear and friction between parts, which operate on, or against each other.
[Fig. 139] shows three types of plain bearings. A, the split type of plain bearing, is used widely by the manufacturers of engines as main bearings to support the crank shaft and at the large end of the connecting rod. B is a cylindrical type of plain end bushing, used to support light shafts in end walls. C is a center or sleeve type of plain bushing.
Fig. 139. Plain Bearings or Bushings
All three types of plain bearings described above will stand unusually hard use, but must be kept well lubricated or run in an oil bath to prevent frictional heating and excessive wear. [Fig. 140] shows two types of shims used between the retainer jaw of a split bearing, which allows the wear to be taken up when the bearing gets loose and begins to pound. The shims may be either solid or loose leafed, and are of different thickness. The loose leafed shim has an outer casing, which contains seven to ten metal sheets of paper-like thinness, which may be removed to the exact thickness required for an accurately fitted bearing.
Fig. 140. Shims
Fig. 141. Bock Roller Bearing
[Fig. 141] shows the Bock type of radial and end thrust roller bearing. The end of each roller is provided with a section of a perfect sphere which rolls in unison with the tapered rollers and makes the end contact practically frictionless. The advantage claimed for this type of bearing is that it embodies both the ball and roller bearing strength and reduces the friction on the roller and thrust end to a minimum. This type of bearing is used in the hub of the wheel, which must be cleaned and well packed with a medium grease every thousand miles. The bearing is best cleaned by dropping it into a container of kerosene and scrubbing it with a stiff paint brush. Do not run the car with the hub cap off.
Fig. 142. Hyatt Roller Bearing
[Fig. 142] shows the Hyatt flexible type of roller bearing. This type consists of an inner and outer race and a cage which holds the flexible rolls. The flexible rolls are spirally wound from a high grade sheet alloy steel. The rolls are placed in the cage in alternative positions. This arrangement of rollers has a tendency to work the grease back and forth on the surfaces of the races. Another advantage claimed for this type of bearing, is that the weight is more evenly distributed at the point of contact, due to the fact that the wound rolls allow a certain amount of resiliency, and accepts road shocks easily, which reduces the amount of frictional wear to a minimum. This type of bearing requires the same attention as the Bock, described above.
Fig. 143. Double Row Radial Ball Bearing
[Fig. 143] shows a type of double row ball bearings. Ball bearings are being used more extensively each year by the manufacturers of light and heavy duty motor vehicles. The efficient reliability and ease of action has proven to be the main factor in the development of this type of bearing. One of the big features in considering ball bearings is that a ball rolls equally well in any direction, and the slightest effort will start it to rolling. It is a proven fact, that a ball is started more easily than any other type of supportive element. This explains why ball bearings of all types come nearest to being frictionless. Once upon a time people believed that the ball in ball bearings carried the load by point of contact, which is not true, as ball bearings carry the load on a definite area. And in bearing construction, such as shown in [Fig. 143], where the inner and outer race curves around the balls and increases the contact area, the contact capacity is greatly increased. Thus a one-fourth inch S. K. F. ball showed a crushing resistance of nine thousand and seven hundred pounds, while the one-half inch ball showed a crushing strength of twenty-five thousand pounds. The sectional view of a radial bearing, shown in [Fig. 142], consists essentially of four elements, which are the following: (a) The outer ball race, (b) the two rows of balls, (c) the ball retainer, and (d) the inner ball race.
The inner surface of the outer race is spherically ground in the form of a section of a sphere whose center is the center of the axis of rotation. This provides that both rows of balls shall carry the load at all times. This reduces the load carried by each ball to the least amount.
The ball retainer is made of a single piece, which provides for proper spacing of the balls, and positively circulates the lubricant. The retainer is open at the sides, which permits free access of lubricant, and makes inspection easy.
The inner ball race contains two grooves to accommodate the two rows of balls, and the curvature of the outer race is slightly larger than that of the balls. The fact that both inner and outer races are curved gives an ample surface contact between the balls and the races.
[Fig. 144] shows a double thrust bearing. This type of bearing was designed to take end thrust in both directions. It is used to stabilize the shaft against lateral motion and to accept reversing thrust loads. It is also automatically self-aligning.
The assembly of balls and races forms a section of a sphere within a steel casing. The inside of this casing is ground spherically to the same radius as the spherical seats, thus permitting the assembled bearing parts to adjust themselves to any shaft deflection.
This type of double thrust bearing is so designed that the central rotating disc, two rows of balls, and the aligning seats are combined in a single unit within the casting.
The unit construction of this type of bearing insures ease in mounting, and eliminates much costly machine work usually encountered in setting double thrust bearings, and renders the bearing practically dirt, dust and fool-proof. If it becomes necessary to disassemble the machine upon which these bearings are mounted, the user has every assurance that the shafts can be relocated precisely in its original position, with the minimum of time, labor and expense. This type of bearing is also entirely free from adjustment, loose parts, costly machine work, and the possible abuse at the hands of inexperienced workman are entirely done away with.
Fig. 144. Double Row Thrust Bearing
Fig. 145. End Thrust Bearing
[Fig. 145] shows a thrust bearing designed to carry the load in one direction, along the shaft, and consists of two hardened steel discs provided with grooved ball-races, and a single row of balls held in position between the races by means of a suitable retainer.
Cleaning Bearings.—To clean bearings, use gasoline, kerosene, or a weak solution of baking soda and soft water. Place the cleaning fluid in a shallow receptacle, take a piece of wire and bend a hook on the end, place the hook through the center of the bearing and rinse up and down in the fluid, spinning it with the hand occasionally. If some of the grease has dried or baked on the roll or roller guide or retainer and refuses to be dislodged by this method, lay the bearing flat and scrub with a brush which has been dipped into the cleaning fluid.
CHAPTER XXXVIII
CAR ARRANGEMENT, PARTS, ADJUSTMENT, CARE
[1]. Oil cup on shackle bolt or loop pin. Fill every week with medium cup grease giving one half turn every second day.
[2]. Right front spring. Loosen the small clips [No. 47], clean off all dirt and grease with a brush dipped in kerosene, and jack up the frame, which will open the leaves. Force graphite between the leaves, let the frame down and wipe off all the grease that is forced out, in order to avoid the gathering of dust and grit (see chapter on [Spring Care]).
[3]. Front lamp. Keep brackets and vibration rod well tightened. Wipe lens with a damp cloth (inside and outside), and polish with tissue paper. Adjust or focus both lamps so that the center rays will strike side by side 45 feet ahead of the car. Push the light bulbs well into the sockets, otherwise a dark spot will appear in the center. Test the wire connection plugs occasionally for weak springs or sticking contact pins.
[4]. Radiator (see chapter on [Cooling Systems]).
[5]. Radiator Cap. Grease or oil thread occasionally.
[6]. Radiator connecting hose (see chapter on [Cooling Systems]).
[7]. The fan. It usually operates on a ball and cone bearing, which must be kept well adjusted and greased to prevent a clattering or rumbling noise.
[8]. The fan belt. This should be well tightened to prevent slipping, which will cause over-heating. Apply belt dressing occasionally to prevent dry-rot and cracking.
[9]. Adjust the starter chain from time to time by setting down the idler gear.
[10]. Metal tube for carrying the high tension leads to the spark plugs. Remove the wires from the tube when overhauling and tape worn insulation.
[11]. Spark plugs (see chapter on [Spark Plug Care]).
[12]. The horn. Keep connection tight, clean gum and old grease off the armature and adjust the brushes when it fails to work.
[13]. Priming cups. Cover the threads with graphite or white lead and screw them into the cylinder head tightly to prevent compression leaks.
[14]. Horn bracket. Keep well tightened, to prevent vibration.
[15]. Clutch pedal. It can usually be lengthened or shortened to accommodate leg stretch, oil and grease bearings, and connecting joint each week.
[16]. Primer or choker, which operates the air valve on the carburetor.
[17]. Steering column.
[18]. Steering wheel (see chapter on [Steering Gears]).
[19]. Horn shorting push button.
[20]. Spark control lever.
[21]. Gas throttle control.
[22]. Transmission (see chapter on [Transmission]).
[23]. Brake rods (see chapter on [Brakes]).
[24]. Universal joint (see chapter on [Universal Joints]).
[25]. The frame.
[26]. Emergency brake leverage connection.
[27]. Service brake leverage connection.
[28]. Threaded clevis for lengthening or shortening brake rods.
[29]. Crown fender.
[30]. India rubber bumper.
[31]. Brake band guide.
[32]. Gasoline or fuel tank.
[33]. Filler spout and cap.
[34]. Spring shackle hinge.
[35]. Tire carrier.
[36]. Spare tire and demountable rim.
Fig. 146. Car Arrangement
[37]. Radiator fastening stud.
[38]. Starting crank ratchet.
[39]. Spread rod with left and right threaded clevis at each end.
[40]. The crank case.
[41]. Crank case drainage plug.
[42]. The flywheel and clutch.
[43]. Box for carrying storage battery.
[44]. Transmission drain plug.
[45]. The muffler (see chapter on [Muffler Care]).
[46]. Main drive shaft.
[47]. Spring blade alignment clamp.
[48]. Rear universal joint.
[49]. Service brake lever.
[50]. Demountable rim clamp bolt.
[51]. Differential housing on rear axle.
CHAPTER XXXIX
OVERHAULING THE CAR
Before starting to dismantle the car for overhauling, see that all the necessary tools are at hand and in good condition. Place them out separately on a bench or board near the car. Then secure a number of boxes to hold the parts of each unit in order that they may not become intermixed.
When overhauling is to take place, start at the front of the car and work back. First, disconnect and remove the radiator and inspect the tubes for dents or jams. If any of any consequence are found, pry the fins up and down on the tubes clearing the affected part, which is removed and replaced with a new piece of tubing and soldered in place. Then turn a stream of water into the radiator and let it run for fully an hour, or until it is fully flushed out. Next, inspect the hose connections, as the rubber lining often becomes cracked and breaks away from the fabric which retards the circulation, by filling the passage with hanging shreds of rubber. Then plug up the lower entrance to the water jackets and fill the jackets with a solution of 2 gal. of water to 1⁄2 lb. of washing soda. Let this solution stand in the jackets for one-half hour; then flush out with clean water. The carburetor and manifolds should be removed and cleaned. The float, if cork, should be allowed to dry. It is then given a coat of shellac and allowed to dry before reassembling the carburetor.
The engine should then be turned over slowly to test the compression on each cylinder. If it is found to be strong on each cylinder, the piston rings and cylinder wall may be passed as being in good condition. In case you find one cylinder is not as strong as the others, the trouble may be ascertained by inspection. It may be caused by a scored cylinder wall, worn piston rings, leaky gasket, or pitted valve seats. Next remove the head of the motor and remove the carbon with a scraper and wash with kerosene. If the motor is not of the detachable head type, remove the valve cup and use a round wire brush to loosen the carbon. It is best in this case to burn out the carbon with oxyacetylene flame.
Next remove the valves and test the springs for shrinkage or weakness. If any are found that do not conform in length, replace them with new springs. Grind the valves (see previous Chapter on [Valve Grinding]).
Next examine the water pump and pack the boxing with a wick or hemp cylinder packing.
Cleaning the Lubricating System.—Remove the plug in the bottom of the crank case and drain out the oil. Replace the plug and pour 1 gal. of kerosene into the crank case through the breather pipe and spin the motor. Then remove the drain plug and allow the kerosene to drain out. After it has quit running, turn the motor over a few times and allow it to drain one-half hour. Replace the plug and fill the crank case to the required level with fresh cylinder oil. Next, remove the plate from the timing gear case and inspect the gears for wear and play. If they are packed in grease, remove the old grease and wash out the case with kerosene. If they receive their oil supply from the crank case it will only be necessary to inspect them for wear. Then replace the motor head, timing gear case plate and manifolds, using new gaskets and new lock washers. Next clean the spark plugs and ignition systems (see chapter on [Spark Plugs] and [Ignition System]).
Then we proceed to the different types of clutches. The cone clutch usually does not require cleaning, but in cases where it has been exposed to grease or lubricating oil the leather face may be cleaned with a cloth dampened in kerosene, after which a thin coating of Neat’s foot oil is applied to the leather facing. The cone is then replaced and the springs adjusted until it runs true. This is determined by holding it out and spinning it.
The wet and dry plate clutches are treated in much the same manner. First drain out all the oil or grease and wash out the housing with kerosene. Examine all parts for wear and adjust or replace loose parts. Fill the housing up to the slip shaft with fresh oil or grease, that is, providing it is a wet plate clutch. The dry plate clutch need only be washed with kerosene to remove any grease or dirt that has lodged on the plates.
Cleaning the Transmission.—First drain off the oil and wash the gear with a brush dipped in kerosene. Then inspect the bearings for looseness. If you find one badly worn, replace the bearing at each end of the shaft. Next, examine the gears. If they are blunt, burred or chipped, smooth them off on an emery wheel or with a coarse file. Wash out the case with kerosene and fill with a thick transmission oil or grease until the fartherest up meshing point is covered to the depth of from 1 to 11⁄2 inches. Examine the slots or notches on the horizontal sliding shafts in the cover of the case which holds the gears in or out of mesh. If the slots are badly worn it will be necessary to replace sliding shafts or it may be necessary to replace the springs which hold the ball or pin to the shaft and slots.
The universal joints are cleaned and freed of all grease and dirt. The bushings and trunion head are inspected for looseness. If any exists a new set of bushings will usually remedy the trouble. The housing should then be packed with a medium or fairly heavy cup grease.
Next we come to the differential which is treated in the same manner as the transmission, except that the housing is packed with a much heavier grease, and new felt washers are placed at the outer end of the housing where the axle extends to the wheels.
The rear system is then jacked up until both wheels clear the ground. The brakes are then tested and adjusted (see chapter on [Brakes]), and the rear wheels tested for looseness. If the axle is of the full floating type looseness may be taken up by withdrawing the axle and loosening the lock nut back of the cone and driving the notched cone ring to the right (facing it) until the play is taken up. When looseness is found in the semi-floating or three quarters floating axle it is necessary to replace the outer bearing which is located inside of the outer end of the housing tube.
Next examine the springs (see chapter on [Springs and Spring Tests]).
This brings us to the steering gear, which should be inspected, tightened up, and freed from all play at the various joints and connections, after which it should be well packed with grease.
The front wheels should be jacked up and tested for loose or worn bearings and spindle pins. The bearings can usually be adjusted while the loose spindle pin or bushing should be replaced. After the bearings have been adjusted or replaced, pack the space in the hubs between the bearings with a medium hard oil or cup grease, which will sufficiently lubricate the bearings for 2000 miles of service.
The wheels and axles are then lined up (See chapter on [Alignment]).
Next, take a piece of sharp wire and remove all the dirt, gum, and hard grease from oil holes supplying clevis joints and plain bearings. Take up all play which is liable to produce noise and rattles with new bolts, pins and washers. Clean and fill all grease cups boring out the stem heads with a piece of wire.
(See chapter on [Washing], [Painting], and [Top and Body Care].)
CHAPTER XL
REPAIR EQUIPMENT
The necessary repair equipment should be divided into two sets, one to be carried with the car, which we will call road repair necessities, such as 25 ft. of 5⁄8″ manilla hemp rope, which will probably come in very handy and save the original cost many times in one year. Even with good roads and the general tendency toward improvements, there still remains a great many miles of bad road that becomes very troublesome with their customary chuck holes and slippery brims, which often lead a motorist to bring up in a ditch after a short rain storm. The advantages of this rope are explained in this way; should you slide into the ditch or get into a deep rut, the wheels will usually spin and you are helplessly stuck. A pull from a passing motorist, or farmer, will help you out of your difficulty. Should any part of your car break, or give out, any passing motorist or farmer will give you a tow to the nearest garage and thereby avoid delays.
Therefore, we will head our list of road repairs with: 25 ft. of 5⁄8″ manilla hemp rope, 2 inner tubes, 1 blowout patch, 1 outer shoe, 1 set of chains, 1 jack, 1 pump, 1 tire gauge, 1 tube repair outfit and patches, an extra spark plug, several cores and terminals, a few feet of primary and secondary wire, 1 box of assorted bolts, nuts, washers and cotter pins, 1 qt. can of lubricating oil, 1 complete set of good tools neatly packed in a small box and secured to the floor of the car under the rear seat by fastening both ends of a strap to the floor and placing a buckle in the center which will hold the box securely and avoid all noise.
Garage repair equipment should consist of the following: 1 set of tire jacks, 1 small vulcanizing set and supplies, 1 can of medium cup grease, 1 can or tank of lubricating oil, 1 small vise, 1 box of felt washers, 1 box of assorted cotter pins, 1 box of assorted nuts, 1 box of assorted lock washers, 1 box assorted cap screws and bolts, 1 set of assorted files, 1 hack saw, 1 Stilson wrench, 1 dope gun, 1 air pressure oil can, 1 valve lifter, several valve and assorted springs, 1 box of auto soap, 1 sponge and a good chamois skin.
This outfit should all be purchased at the same time and each supply and tool packed or placed in respective places, so that it will not be necessary to look far and wide when you wish to use some particular tool. With this equipment, and some knowledge and patience, the average man should be able to keep his car in excellent condition by doing his own adjusting and repairing.
CHAPTER XLI
CAR CLEANING, WASHING AND CARE
Body.—The body is the carrying part of the car and usually consists of an oak or ash frame covered with a thin sheet steel. It is bolted to the frame of the car, and aside from washing and cleaning and keeping the bolts tight to prevent squeaks, it requires no further care.
Body Washing.—When about to wash the body, soak the dirt off with a gentle open stream of cold water. That is, remove the nozzle from the hose, and do not rub. Remove mud before it gets dry and hard whenever possible. Grease can be removed with soap suds and a soft sponge. Use a neutral auto soap, and rub as little as possible. Rinse thoroughly with a gentle stream of cold water, and dry and polish with a clean piece of chamois skin. If the body has a dull appearance after washing, due to sun exposure or too frequent washing, apply a good body polish lightly and polish until thoroughly dry with a clean piece of gauze or cheese cloth.
Running Gear Washing.—Scrape the caked grease and dirt off from the brake drums and axles, and scrub lightly with a soft brush dipped in soap suds. Rinse thoroughly with a gentle stream of cold water. Dry with a piece of cloth or a chamois. Old pieces of chamois skin which are too dirty to use on the body can be used to dry the running gear. If the running gear takes on a dirty appearance after becoming dry, go over it with a cloth dampened with body polish. Tighten up all bolts and make all adjustments while the car is clean.
Engine Cleaning.—Clean the engine with a paint brush dipped in kerosene. Then go over it with a cloth dampened with kerosene.
Top Cleaning.—The top should never be folded until it is thoroughly cleaned and dried. Dust on the outside can be removed by washing it with clear cold water and castile soap. Be sure to rinse it thoroughly with clear water. The inside should be dusted out with a whisk broom. Be careful when folding it and see that the cloth is not pinched between the sockets and bows, and always put on the slip cover when it is folded to keep out the dust and dirt.
Curtain Cleaning.—Wash the curtains with castile soap. After they are dry go over them with a cloth dampened in body polish. Always roll the curtains; never fold them.
Cleaning Upholstering.—If the car is upholstered with leather or imitation leather, it should be washed with warm water and castile soap, then wiped off thoroughly with a clean cloth dampened in clear warm water. If the upholstering is with cloth it should be brushed thoroughly with a stiff whisk broom, then gone over lightly with a cloth dampened in water to which a few drops of washing ammonia has been added.
Rug Cleaning.—Clean the rugs with a vacuum cleaner, or stiff whisk broom.
Windshield Cleaning.—Add a few drops of ammonia or kerosene to a pint of warm water; and wash the wind shield with this solution and polish with a soft cloth or tissue paper.
Sedan or Closed Body Cleaning.—Follow directions given for cleaning upholstering and windshields.
Tire Rim Cleaning.—Remove the tires twice each season. Drive the dents out of the rims, rub off all rust with sand paper, and file off all sharp edges and paint the rims with a metal filler. Allow the paint to dry thoroughly before replacing the tire. Rust on the rims causes rapid tire and tube deterioration.
Tire Cleaning.—Rinse the mud and dirt off the tires, and wash them with soap suds and a coarse sponge. Rinse with clear water.
Lens Cleaning.—To clean the light lens follow the instructions given above for cleaning windshields.
Cover the car at night to prevent garage dust from settling into the pores of the paint. This type of dust causes the varnish to check and take on a dull dirty appearance, and is very hard to remove without the use of soap. Use a neutral soap and rinse thoroughly with clear cold water.
A good serviceable throw-cover can be made from any kind of cheap light goods, or by sewing several old sheets together.
Caution.—Do not dust the car immediately after driving it in the sun and never use a feather duster as this only pads the dust into the varnish, and scratches it.
A good dusting cloth is made by dampening a soft cloth with an oil polish. The cloth should be left to dry in the sun for several hours after being dampened with oil.
Rinsing the body off with clear cold water and drying it with a chamois skin is always preferable as it produces a clean appearance and freshens the paint.
CHAPTER XLII
TIRES, BUILD, QUALITY, AND CARE
Building a tire is like building a house or laying a cement sidewalk; the foundation must be right or the job will not stand up.
The foundation of a tire as every motorist knows consists of alternative layers of rubber, fabric, or cord, covered with a tread and breaker strip of rubber. The tread and breaker strip, however, are not worth the space they occupy if they are placed over a poorly constructed foundation of cheaply made fabric. Therefore, great care should be exercised in choosing a tire of standard make which has been tested, inspected, and guaranteed to be in perfect condition, and gives a mileage guarantee.
The cheaper grades of tires may be very deceiving in looks, but the point remains, that beneath the tread and breaker strip there must be something that is cheaper in quality than the material used in building a standard tire or it could not be sold for less, as tire building material sells at a market price obtainable to all; and the standard tire is usually produced in large quantities at a small profit, which may be seen by comparing the production records and the dividends paid on capitalization.
This point alone shows the wise economy in purchasing tires of standard build and avoiding all so-called low priced tires as they usually cost the motorist considerable more before the average mileage of a good tire is obtained.
Tires given close attention will usually give from one to two thousand more miles of service than those that do not receive prompt attention. Therefore, close inspection should be made frequently for cuts, rents, stone bruises, or a break in the tread which exposes the underlying fabric to wear and dampness.
When a break is discovered in either the tread or breaker strip, it should be slightly enlarged and well cleaned. A coat of raw rubber cement is applied and allowed to dry. Another coat of cement is applied, and when this coat is fairly dry, fill the indenture with raw rubber gum and cook for thirty minutes with a small vulcanizer. The cement, rubber, and vulcanizer may be purchased at any accessory store for a couple of dollars.
Tire Care.—Always keep the garage floor clean and free from oil, grease and gasoline, in order that the tires may not come in contact with it or stand in it. All three are deadly enemies to rubber. This is easily accomplished by spreading a thin layer of sawdust or bran on the floor and dampening it. This not only makes floor cleaning easy but also keeps the air moist and causes the dust to settle quickly.
When a tire comes in contact with either grease, oil, or gasoline, it should immediately be washed with warm water and castile soap.
Mud must not be allowed to dry and bake on the tires as it causes the rubber to loose its springy elastic qualities, and dry-rot or rubber scurvy takes place immediately, and the tread begins to crack and crumble.
Tire Chains.—Use tire chains only when they are absolutely necessary to overcome road conditions, as the use of chains under the most ideal conditions results in a certain amount of damage to the tires, and also causes destruction to improved roads. Chains are easily put on by stretching them out at the rear of the car and rolling the car on them. The clamps should be placed forward in order that the contact with the road may serve to keep them closed.
Adjust the chains to the tire loosely in order that the cross chains may work around and distribute the wear evenly.
Cross Chains.—Inspect the cross chains occasionally for wear and sharp edges.
Do not use springs across the front of the wheel to hold the chains, as they prevent the cross chains from working around on the tire and the opposite side chain is often drawn onto the tread, and as these chains are not continuous, the link connections wear and cut the tread exposing the underlying layers of fabric to dampness and wear.
Tube Care.—When an extra tube is carried with the car shake some tire talc or soap stone on it and wrap with tissue paper. It can then be carried in a small box with the tools without being damaged from vibration.
Tube Repairing.—A tube should always be vulcanized to make the repair permanent; but in case you must make a road repair and have not a vulcanizer with you, an emergency repair can be made by sticking on a patch. The surface of the tube and the patch is cleaned and roughened with a fine file or piece of emery paper. A coat of cement is applied next and allowed to dry. Another coat of cement is applied and allowed to dry until it becomes tacky. The patch is then pressed on the tube and held under pressure fifteen or twenty minutes until the cement is dry. This repair will serve for a short time but should be made permanent at the first opportunity.
Tire Storage.—When the car is to be stored for the winter, the tires should be left on the wheels and deflated to thirty pounds pressure (that is, after they have been relieved of the weight of the car), except in cases where the garage is cold and very damp and subjected to weather changes. In this case remove the tires and hang them up in a cool dry place (store room or cellar).
Always remove the old valve cores from the valve stems and replace them with new ones before putting the tires back into service, as the rubber plungers deteriorate very rapidly when inactive. Valve cores can be purchased at any service station in a small tin container for thirty-five to fifty cents per dozen.
CHAPTER XLIII
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
Tuning Hints
The average car owner usually fights shy of the electrical system. This deserves attention when overhauling the car, as well as any other part of the car, and a few simple precautions will go a long way toward eliminating electrical troubles.
The entire electrical system should be gone over. One of the most important things demanding inspection is the wiring. It often happens that the insulation becomes chafed or worn, through contact with other parts of the car. It is, therefore, important to look over the wiring very carefully. Where there is any doubt as to the insulation being insufficient, new wires should be used. This eliminates the possibility of there being an accidental ground, or short circuit, rendering a part or the entire system inoperative.
All terminals should be gone over to determine whether they are clean and tight. This is especially true of the terminals on the storage battery, and at the point where the battery is grounded to the frame of the car if it is a single wire system.
The connections between the storage battery and the starting motor should be clean and free from corrosion. If these connections are not tight and clean, improper performance of the starting motor is the result.
Apply a small amount of vaseline to the battery terminals for protection of the metal from the action of the acid fumes and prevention of corrosion. It is well to have the battery inspected by a battery specialist and any necessary repairs taken care of.
Distributor and relay points should be examined to see if they are pitted or burned. If they are, they should be smoothed down with a fine platinum file and adjusted to the proper gap. It is essential that the contact points meet squarely. If this is not done burning and pitting will result.
The generator and starting motor commutator should be examined for undue wear and high mica. It may be necessary in order to insure good performance that the commutator be turned down in a lathe and the mica undercut.
The brushes should be properly seated by careful sanding. This is especially necessary when the commutator is turned down. It is desirable to have three-quarters of the brush face bearing on the commutator. This can be determined by examination of the glazed area on the brush after running a short time.
Should the starter drive be of the bendix type, the threaded shaft and pinion should be cleaned, and any grease which has hardened should be removed.
Lamps should be examined. Dim and burned out lamps should be replaced.
All connections of the lighting and ignition switch should be inspected. It should be noted whether the terminals are touching, or nearly touching. If any wires are rubbing thus, entailing the possibility of a short circuit or ground, they should be fixed.
Electric cables that rub on sharp edges of the battery box will soon wear through the insulation from vibration of the car and a short circuit will occur that may be hard to find. Such parts of the wire should be well protected with adhesive tape and should be also frequently inspected.
High tension currents are very hard to control, and a short or leakage often occurs where the wire is cramped. The center wire works or wears through the rubber insulation causing the current to jump to the nearest metal part. This kind of trouble is especially hard to locate as the outer surface of the braided insulation does not show the break.
It is a good plan to examine the wiring for short circuits occasionally in this manner. When putting the car in at night, close the garage door and turn out the lights, running the motor at various speeds and gently moving each wire. If there are any short or grounded circuits a brilliant spark will jump at the defective point.
CHAPTER XLIV
AUTOMOBILE PAINTING
Painting a car requires a great amount of patience. But a fairly good job may be done by the average amateur painter, providing the work is done carefully and exactly. However, this work should be undertaken only in a warm, dry room where it is possible to keep an even temperature.
The old paint is first removed with a paint remover, or solution which is applied to the surface and allowed to penetrate into the pores. Another coat is then applied. The surface is then scraped with a putty knife until it is smooth and free from the old paint. In some cases it may be found necessary to use a blow torch to soften the old paint.
After the old paint has been thoroughly removed, the rough spots should be smoothed over with a piece of sand or emery paper, and all counter sunk screw heads, joinings, and scratches filled with putty, to make an even surface. The metal primer is applied and allowed to dry. A second coat consisting of equal parts of white lead, turpentine and boiled oil is next applied and allowed to dry. Three or four coats of color are applied next and allowed to dry. Colors come in a paste form, and may be turned into a paste by adding a little turpentine. Two coats of color and an equal amount of rubbing varnish are next applied in turn and rubbed with powdered pumice stone and water. The car is then stripped and allowed to dry, and the job finished by applying a coat of finishing varnish.
All the foreign matter and grease is removed from the running gear. The rough places are scraped and rubbed with a piece of emery paper. Two coats of metal primer are applied and allowed to dry. A coat of color varnish is applied which completes the job.