A student's history of education

by Frank Pierrepont Graves

PREFACE

There is a growing conviction among those engaged in training teachers that the History of Education must justify itself. It is believed that, if this subject is to contribute to the professional equipment of the teacher, its material must be selected with reference to his specific needs. Antiquarian interests and encyclopædic completeness are alluring and may in their place prove praiseworthy and valuable, but they do not in themselves supply any definite demand in the training of teachers. The greatest services that the History of Education can perform for the teacher are to impel him to analyze his problems more completely and to throw light upon the school practices with which he is himself concerned. By presenting a series of clear-cut views of past conditions, often in marked contrast to his own, it should make him conscious that the present educational situation has to a large degree been traditionally received, and it should at the same time especially help him to understand the origin and significance of current practices.

In this way a study of the History of Education will disrupt the teacher’s complacent acceptance of the present, and will enable him to reconstruct his ideas in the light of the peculiar conditions out of which the education of his times has sprung. Whenever historical records do not assist in such an analysis and synthesis of present day problems, they may be frankly dismissed from discussion. This conception of the subject, I have myself, with much reluctance, come to accept. My own regard for the classics, philosophy, and general history as college disciplines has caused me to view with apprehension any disposition to curtail their scope. It now seems clear, however, that the modern tendency to emphasize the functional aspects of the History of Education is both necessary and wise. The present work, therefore, is not a mere condensation of my History of Education in Three Volumes, but has been very largely re-written from the new angle.

In the first place, I have sought to stress educational institutions and practices, rather than theories that did not find embodiment in the times. This has led to the omission of much that is unessential or more strictly related to philosophy, general history, or literature. For example, even the immortal work of Plato and Aristotle has been epitomized; the entire subject of mysticism and most of scholasticism have been dropped; the masterpieces of such pure theorists as Rabelais, Montaigne, and Mulcaster, are barely mentioned; and the various historical epochs are given only so much detail as may be needed to form a social setting for the educational movements of those periods.

Secondly, it has seemed to me that our present problems in education can best be analyzed through a knowledge of the practices that have developed in modern times. Hence, while this book includes an account of all educational endeavor from the day of primitive man to the present, somewhat more than one-half the material is connected with the last two centuries. Even the attractive period of Hellenic activity and the fascinating stories of monasticism and of chivalry have been reduced to a minimum. But, though most of the changes in the earlier half of the work are in the nature of shortening, or have to do with more immediate connections, some topics, notably the development of commerce and cities (Chapter XI) and the analysis of formal discipline (Chapter XVI), have seemed to be so closely connected with subsequent progress as to deserve more adequate treatment.

Finally, since this book is intended chiefly for teachers in the United States, I have believed it most helpful to give considerable space to the discussion of American education. The account of each educational movement has included at least an attempt to trace its influence upon the content, method, and organization of education in the United States, while three chapters have been devoted exclusively to the rise of educational systems in this country.

My indebtedness for many valuable features in this book is heavy. The idea of an Outline, which appears at the beginning of each chapter, was first suggested to me by the History of Modern Elementary Education of Dean S. C. Parker of the College of Education, University of Chicago, although I have adopted a different explanation of its value. Professor Parker also read through the manuscript and sent me a general estimate of it. Professors J. H. Coursault of the University of Missouri, A. J. Jones of the University of Maine, W. H. Kilpatrick of Columbia University, A. R. Mead of Ohio Wesleyan University, and A. L. Suhrie of the West Chester (Pennsylvania) State Normal School, have all read the manuscript through with exceeding care and furnished me with numerous corrections and criticisms, both particular and general. Professor T. H. Briggs of Columbia University suggested a number of improvements in the chapter upon Present Day Tendencies in Education (XXVII). The chapter upon the Educational Influences of the Reformation (XIII) has been relieved of several inaccuracies, and possibly of some Protestant bias, through the assistance of the Rev. Benedict Guldner, S. J., of St. Joseph’s College, and of Brother Denis Edward, F. S. C., President of La Salle College, Philadelphia. I have also, as usual, been greatly aided by my wife, Helen Wadsworth Graves.

F. P. G.

CONTENTS

PART I
ANCIENT TIMES
[CHAPTER I]
	PAGE
The Earliest Education	3
The Value of the History of Education. Its Treatmentin This Book. Primitive Education. OrientalEducation. India: Its Religion and Castes. The HinduEducation. Effect of the Hindu Education. India asTypical of the Orient. Jewish Education.
[CHAPTER II]
The Education of the Greeks	11
Progressive Nature of Greek Education. SpartanEducation: Its Aim and Early Stages. Training inYouth and Manhood: Results. Old Athenian Education:Its Aim and Early Training. Training for theYouth. Effect of the Old Athenian Education. Causesand Character of the New Athenian Education. TheSophists and Their Training. Their Extreme Individualism.The Reactionaries and the Mediators. TheMethod of Socrates. Plato’s System of Education forthe Three Classes of Society. The Weakness of Plato’sSystem. His Influence upon Educational Theory andPractice. Aristotle’s Ideal State and Education. ThePermanent Value of His Work. The Post-AristotelianSchools of Philosophy. The Schools of Rhetoric. TheHellenic Universities. Extension of Hellenic Culture.
[CHAPTER III]
The Education of the Romans	32
Roman Education Amalgamated with Greek. EarlyEducation in Rome. The Absorption of Greek Culture.The Ludus. Grammar Schools. Rhetorical Schools.Universities. Subsidization of Education. Decay ofEducation. Influence of Roman Education.
[CHAPTER IV]
The Education of the Early Christians	42
The Ideals of Early Christianity. Early ChristianLife as an Education. Catechumenal Schools. Amalgamationof Christianity with Græco-Roman Philosophy.Catechetical and Episcopal or Cathedral Schools.Influence of Græco-Roman Culture upon Christianity.Rise of the Monastic Schools.
PART II
THE MIDDLE AGES
[CHAPTER V]
The Monastic Education	53
The Middle Ages as a Period of Assimilation and Repression.The Evolution and Nature of Monasticism.Benedict’s ‘Rule’ and the Multiplication of Manuscripts.Amalgamation of Roman and Irish Christianity.The Organization of the Monastic Schools. The‘Seven Liberal Arts’ as the Curriculum. The Methodsand Texts. Effect upon Civilization of the MonasticSchools.
[CHAPTER VI]
Charlemagne’s Revival of Education	60
Condition of Education in the Eighth Century.Higher Education at the Palace School. EducationalImprovement in the Monastic, Cathedral, and ParishSchools. Alcuin’s Educational Work at Tours. RabanusMaurus, Erigena, and Others Concerned in theRevival.
[CHAPTER VII]
Moslem Learning and Education	65
The Hellenization of Moslemism. Hellenized Moslemismin Spain. Effect upon Europe of the MoslemEducation.
[CHAPTER VIII]
Educational Tendencies of Scholasticism	69
The Nature of Scholasticism. The History of ScholasticDevelopment. Scholastic Education. Its Value andInfluence.
[CHAPTER IX]
The Mediæval Universities	74
The Rise of Universities. The Foundation of Universitiesat Salerno, Bologna, and Paris. Bologna andParis as the Models for Other Universities. PrivilegesGranted to the Universities. Organization of the Universities.Course in the Four Faculties. The Methodsof Instruction. Examinations and Degrees. The Valueand Influence of the University Training.
[CHAPTER X]
The Education of Chivalry	83
The Development of Feudalism. The Ideals of Chivalry.The Three Preparatory Stages of Education.The Effects of Chivalric Education.
[CHAPTER XI]
The Burgher, Gild, and Chantry Schools	88
The Rise of Commerce and Industry. Developmentof Cities and the Burgher Class. The Gilds and IndustrialEducation. Gild Schools. Burgher Schools. ChantrySchools. Influence of the New Schools.
PART III
THE TRANSITION TO MODERN TIMES
[CHAPTER XII]
The Humanistic Education	99
The Passing of the Middle Ages. The Renaissanceand the Revival of Learning. Causes of the Awakeningin Italy. The Revival of the Latin Classics. The Developmentof Greek Scholarship. The Court Schoolsand Vittorino da Feltre. The Court School at Mantua.The Relation of the Court Schools to the Universities.Decadence of Italian Humanism. The Spread and Characterof Humanism in the Northern Countries. The Developmentof Humanism in France. French HumanisticEducators and Institutions. Humanism in the GermanUniversities. The Hieronymians and Their Schools.Erasmus, Leader in the Humanistic Education of theNorth. The Development of Gymnasiums: Melanchthon’sWork. Sturm at Strassburg. Formalism in theGymnasiums. The Humanistic Movement in England:Greek at Oxford and Cambridge. Humanism at theCourt Colet and His School at St. Paul’s. Humanismin the English Grammar Schools. English Grammar andPublic Schools To-day. The Grammar Schools in theAmerican Colonies. The Aim and Institutions of HumanisticEducation.
[CHAPTER XIII]
Educational Influences of the Reformation	124
The Relation of the Reformation to the Renaissance.The Revolt and Educational Works of Luther. Luther’sIdeas on Education. The Embodiment of Luther’sIdeas in Schools by His Associates. The Revolt andEducational Ideas of Zwingli. Calvin’s Revolt and HisEncouragement of Education. The Colleges of Calvin.Henry VIII’s Revolt and Its Effect upon Education.Foundation of the Society of Jesus. Organization ofthe Jesuits. The Jesuit Colleges. The Jesuit Methodsof Teaching. Value and Influence of the Jesuit Education.The Organization of the Education of the PortRoyalists. The Port Royal Course and Method ofTeaching. La Salle and the Schools of the ChristianBrothers. The Aim, Curriculum, and Method of theChristian Brothers’ Schools. Influence of the Schools ofthe Christian Brothers. Aim and Content of Educationin the Reformation. Effect of the Reformation uponElementary Education. Effect of the Reformation uponthe Secondary Schools. Influence of the Reformationupon the Universities. The Lapse into Formalism.
[CHAPTER XIV]
Early Realism and the Innovators	151
The Rise and Nature of Realism. Humanistic Realism.Social Realism. The Relations of Humanistic toSocial Realism. The Influence of the Innovators uponEducation. The Ritterakademien. The AcademiesIn England. The Academies in America.
[CHAPTER XV]
Sense Realism and the Early Scientific Movement	162
The Development of the Sciences and Realism. Baconand His Inductive Method. Bacon’s EducationalSuggestions and Influence. Ratich’s Methods. Comenius:His Training and Work. His Series of LatinTexts. The Great Didactic. His Encyclopædic Arrangementof Knowledge. The Method of Nature. TheInfluence of Comenius upon Education. RealisticTendencies in Elementary Schools. Secondary Schools.The Universities.
[CHAPTER XVI]
Formal Discipline in Education	179
Locke’s Work and Its Various Classifications. Locke’sDisciplinary Theory in Intellectual Education. DisciplinaryAttitude in Moral and Physical Training.Origin, Significance, and Influence of the Theory ofFormal Discipline. Opposition to the DisciplinaryTheory and More Recent Modification. Locke’s RealPosition on Formal Discipline.
[CHAPTER XVII]
Education in the American Colonies	187
American Education a Development from European.Conditions in Europe from Which American EducationSprang. Colonial School Organization: The AristocraticType in Virginia. The Parochial Schools in New Netherlands.Sectarian Organization of Schools in Pennsylvania.Town Schools in Massachusetts. Educationin the Other Colonies.
PART IV
MODERN TIMES
[CHAPTER XVIII]
Growth of the Democratic Ideal in Education	203
The Revolt from Absolutism. The Two Epochs inthe Eighteenth Century. Voltaire and the Encyclopedists.Rousseau and His Times. Rousseau’sWorks.
[CHAPTER XIX]
Naturalism in Education	210
The Influence of Rousseau’s Naturalism. NaturalisticBasis of the Emile. The Five Books of the Emile.Estimate of the Emile. The Sociological Movements inModern Education. The Scientific Movement in ModernEducation. The Psychological Movements in ModernEducation. The Spread of Rousseau’s Doctrines. Developmentof Basedow’s Educational Reforms. Text-booksand Other Works. Course and Methods of thePhilanthropinum. Influence of the Philanthropinum.
[CHAPTER XX]
Philanthropy in Education	230
Reconstructive Tendencies of the Eighteenth Century.The Rise of Charity Schools in England. TheSchools of the S. P. C. K. Other Charity Schools. TheCharity Schools of the S. P. G. Charity Schools amongthe Pennsylvania Germans. The ‘Sunday School’Movement in Great Britain. The ‘Sunday School’Movement in the United States. Value of the Instructionin ‘Sunday Schools.’ The Schools of the Two MonitorialSocieties. Value of the Monitorial System in England.Results of the Monitorial System in the UnitedStates. The ‘Infant Schools’ in France. The ‘InfantSchools’ in England. ‘Infant Schools’ in the UnitedStates. The Importance of Philanthropic Education.
[CHAPTER XXI]
The Period of Transition in American Education	251
Evolution of Public Education in the United States.Rise of the Common School in Virginia. Similar Developmentsin the Other Southern States. Evolution ofPublic Education in New York. New York City. Developmentof Systems of Education in Pennsylvania andthe Other Middle States. Decline of Education in Massachusetts.Developments in the Other New EnglandStates. The Extension of Educational Organization tothe Northwest. Condition of the Common SchoolsPrior to the Awakening.
[CHAPTER XXII]
Observation and Industrial Training in Education	276
Pestalozzi as the Successor of Rousseau. Pestalozzi’sPhilanthropic and Industrial Ideals. His IndustrialSchool at Neuhof and the Leonard and Gertrude. HisSchool at Stanz and Beginning of His ObservationalMethods. Continuation of His Methods at Burgdorf,and How Gertrude Teaches Her Children. The ‘Institute’at Yverdon and the Culmination of the PestalozzianMethods. Pestalozzi’s Educational Aim and Organization.His General Method. The Permanent Influence ofPestalozzi. The Spread of Pestalozzian Schools andMethods through Europe. Pestalozzianism in theUnited States. Pestalozzi’s Industrial Training Continuedby Fellenberg. The Agricultural School andOther Institutions at Hofwyl. Industrial Training in theSchools of Europe. Industrial Institutions in theUnited States.
[CHAPTER XXIII]
Development of Public Education in the United States	302
The Third Period in American Education. EarlyLeaders in the Common School Revival. Work of JamesG. Carter. Horace Mann as Secretary of the MassachusettsBoard. The Educational Suggestions and Achievementsof Mann. Henry Barnard’s Part in the EducationalAwakening. Barnard as Secretary of the ConnecticutState Board. Commissioner of CommonSchools in Rhode Island. State Superintendent ofSchools in Connecticut. Barnard’s American Journalof Education. First United States Commissioner ofEducation. Value of Barnard’s Educational Collections.Educational Development in New England since theRevival. Influence of the Awakening upon the MiddleStates. Public Education in the West. Organization ofState Systems in the South. Development of the AmericanSystem of Education.
[CHAPTER XXIV]
Development of Educational Practice	333
Froebel and Herbart as Disciples of Pestalozzi. TheEarly Career and Writings of Herbart. Work at Königsberg andGöttingen. Herbart’s Psychology. The Aim,Content, and Method. The Value and Influence ofHerbart’s Principles. The Extension of His Doctrinesin Germany. Herbartianism in the United States.Froebel’s Early Life. His Experiences at Frankfort,Yverdon, and Berlin. The School at Keilhau. Developmentof the Kindergarten. Froebel’s FundamentalConcept of ‘Unity.’ Motor Expression as His Method.The Social Aspect of Education. The Kindergarten.The Value and Influence of Froebel’s Principles. TheSpread of Froebelianism through Europe. The Kindergartenin the United States. The Relative Influence ofPestalozzi, Herbart, and Froebel.
[CHAPTER XXV]
The Development of Modern Systems	370
National Systems of Education in Europe and Canada.The Beginning of State Control in Prussia. EducationalAchievements of Frederick the Great. Educational Influenceof Zedlitz. Foundation of the Ministry of Educationand Further Progress. The Elementary System.The Secondary System. Higher Education. EducationalDevelopment In France. The Primary SchoolSystem. The Secondary System. The Institutions ofHigher Education. Centralized Administration ofthe French Education. Early Development of EnglishEducation. Educational Movements in the NineteenthCentury. Subsequent Educational Movements. Developmentof Education in the Dominion of Canada.The Public School System of Ontario. The System ofEcclesiastical Schools in Quebec.
[CHAPTER XXVI]
The Scientific Movement and the Curriculum	397
The Development of the Natural Sciences in ModernTimes. The Growth of Inventions and Discoveries inthe Nineteenth Century. Herbert Spencer and WhatKnowledge is of Most Worth. Advocacy of the Sciencesby Huxley and Others. The Disciplinary Argument forthe Sciences. Introduction of the Sciences into EducationalInstitutions in Germany, France, England, andthe United States. Interrelation of the Scientific withthe Psychological and Sociological Movements.
[CHAPTER XXVII]
Present Day Tendencies in Education	418
Recent Educational Progress. The Growth of IndustrialTraining. Industrial Schools in Europe. IndustrialTraining in the United States. Commercial Educationin Europe and America. Recent Emphasis upon AgriculturalTraining. Moral Training in the Schools To-day.The Development of Training for Mental Defectives.Education of the Deaf and Blind. RecentDevelopment of Educational Method; Dewey’s ExperimentalSchool. Other Experiments in Method. TheMontessori Method. The Statistical Method andMental Measurements in Education. Education andthe Theory of Evolution. Enlarging Conceptions ofthe Function of Education.
[CHAPTER XXVIII]
Retrospect and Prospect	441
The Development of Individualism. The Harmonizationof the Individual and Society.
[Index]	447

Plate	Fig.	Opposite	Page
1.	[1.]	Elders explaining to young men of an Australian tribe at the ‘initiatory ceremonies’	8
	[2.]	A Hindu school in the open air, with the village schoolmaster teaching boys to write on a strip of palm leaf with an iron stylus	8
2.	[3.]	The palæstra in education at Athens	14
	[4.]	The didascaleum in education at Athens	14
3.	[5.]	Roman school materials	36
	[6.]	Scene at a ludus or Roman elementary school	36
4.	[7.]	A monk in the scriptorium	56
	[8.]	A monastic school	56
5.	[9.]	The temple of wisdom; an allegorical representation of the mediæval course of study	72
6.	[10.]	The lecture in mediæval universities	80
	[11.]	The disputation in mediæval universities	80
7.	[12] and [13.]	Preliminaries and termination of a combat in the education of chivalry	86
	[14.]	Boys playing tournament with a ‘quintain’ or dummy man	86
8.	[15.]	Apprenticeship training in a gild	92
	[16.]	Gild school at Stratford, where Shakespeare learned ‘little Latin and less Greek’	92
9.	[17.]	Great English Public Schools: Winchester and Eton	120
10.	[18.]	Education of the Jesuits: Jesuit College at Regensburg and diagram of a Jesuit schoolroom	136
11.	[19.]	School of the Christian Brothers at Rouen	146
	[20.]	A Protestant school in a German village of the sixteenth century	146
12.	[21.]	A page from the Orbis Pictus of Comenius, illustrating a lesson on a trade	170
13.	[22.]	Town school at Dedham (Massachusetts) with watch-tower, built in 1648	198
	[23.]	Boston Latin School, founded in 1635	198
	[24.]	The buildings of Harvard College, erected in 1675, 1699, and 1720	198
14.	[25.]	The child as a miniature adult	228
	[26.]	A naturalistic school	228
15.	[27.]	A monitorial schoolroom	242
	[28.]	Pupils reciting to monitors	242
	[29.]	Monitor inspecting slates	242
16.	[30.]	A ‘kitchen school’	268
	[31.]	A colonial ‘summer school’	268
	[32.]	The first ‘academy’ founded by Benjamin Franklin at Philadelphia in 1750	268
17.	[33.]	‘Father’ Pestalozzi at Stanz	282
	[34.]	The ‘table of units’ of Pestalozzi	282
18.	[35.]	Court of Fellenberg’s Agricultural Institute	298
	[36.]	General view of Fellenberg’s schools and workshops	298
19.	[37.]	James G. Carter	312
	[38.]	Horace Mann	312
	[39.]	Henry Barnard	312
	[40.]	Francis W. Parker	312
20.	[41.]	The first high school, established at Boston in 1821	332
	[42.]	The University of Michigan in 1855	332
21.	[43.]	‘The Carpenter’ from Froebel’s Mother Play	360
22.	[44.]	Jean Jacques Rousseau	368
	[45.]	Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi	368
	[46.]	Johann Friedrich Herbart	368
	[47.]	Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel	368
In text.	[48.]	Diagram of German education	380
In text.	[49.]	Diagram of French education	392
In text.	[50.]	Diagram of English education	392
23.	[51.]	Charles Darwin	404
	[52.]	Herbert Spence	404
	[53.]	Thomas H. Huxley	404
	[54.]	Charles W. Eliot	404
In text.	[55.]	Diagram of vocational education of boys in Germany	424
24.	[56.]	Indian house constructed in Dewey’s experimental school	436
	[57.]	Part of the Thorndike Writing Scale	436