The Government of England
By A. LAWRENCE LOWELL, President of Harvard University; Formerly Professor of the Science of Government; Author of "Colonial Civil Service," etc.
In two volumes. Bound in the style of Bryce's "American Commonwealth"
New edition, cloth, 8vo, $4.00
The New York Sun calls it:—
"The remarkable work which American readers, including even those who suppose themselves to be pretty well informed, will find indispensable...; it deserves an honored place in every public and private library in the American Republic."—M. W. H.
"Professor Lowell's book will be found by American readers to be the most complete and informing presentation of its subject that has ever fallen in their way.... There is no risk in saying that it is the most important and valuable study in government and politics which has been issued since James Bryce's 'American Commonwealth,' and perhaps also the greatest work of this character produced by an American scholar."—Philadelphia Public Ledger.
"It is the crowning merit of the book that it is, like Mr. Bryce's, emphatically a readable work. It is not impossible that it will come to be recognized as the greatest work in this field that has ever been produced by an American scholar."—Pittsburg Post.
"The comprehensiveness and range of Mr. Lowell's work is one of the reasons for the unique place of his 'Government of England'—for its place is in a class by itself, with no other books either by British or non-British authors to which it can be compared. Another reason is the insight, which characterizes it throughout, into the spirit in which Parliament and the other representative institutions of England are worked, and the accuracy which so generally characterizes definite statements; all contribute to make it of the highest permanent value to students of political science the world over."—Edward Porritt in The Forum.
PUBLISHED BY
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
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Footnote 1: W. R. Anson, The Law and Custom of the Constitution (3d ed., Oxford, 1897), I., 13.[(Back)]
Footnote 2: See G. B. Adams, The Origin of the English Constitution (New Haven, 1912), Chap. 1. That the essentials of the English constitution of modern times, in respect to forms and machinery, are products of the feudalization of England which resulted from the Norman Conquest, and not survivals of Anglo-Saxon governmental arrangements, is the well-sustained thesis of this able study. That many important elements, however, were contributed by Anglo-Saxon statecraft is beyond dispute.[(Back)]
Footnote 3: Thus, in 871, the minor children of Ethelred I. were passed over in favor of Alfred, younger brother of the late king.[(Back)]
Footnote 4: The Anglo-Saxon king was "not the supreme law-giver of Roman ideas, nor the fountain of justice, nor the irresponsible leader, nor the sole and supreme politician, nor the one primary landowner; but the head of the race, the chosen representative of its identity, the successful leader of its enterprises, the guardian of its peace, the president of its assemblies; created by it, and, although empowered with a higher sanction in crowning and anointing, answerable to his people." W. Stubbs, Select Charters Illustrative of English Constitutional History (8th ed., Oxford, 1895), 12.[(Back)]
Footnote 5: Law and Custom of the Constitution, II., Pt. 1., 7. Cf. W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, I., 127.[(Back)]
Footnote 6: The classic description of Anglo-Saxon political institutions is W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England in its Origin and Development, 3 vols. (6th ed., Oxford, 1897), especially I., 74-182; but recent scholarship has supplemented and modified at many points the facts and views therein set forth. A useful account (though likewise subject to correction) is H. Taylor, The Origins and Growth of the English Constitution, 2 vols. (new ed., Boston, 1900), I., Bk. 1., Chaps. 3-5; and a repository of information is J. Ramsay, The Foundations of England, 2 vols. (London, 1898). A valuable sketch is A. B. White, The Making of the English Constitution, 449-1485 (New York, 1908), 16-62. A brilliant book is E. A. Freeman, The Growth of the English Constitution (4th ed., London, 1884); but by reason of Professor Freeman's over-emphasis of the perpetuation of Anglo-Saxon institutions in later times this work is to be used with caution. Political and institutional history is well set forth in T. Hodgkin, History of England to the Norman Conquest (London, 1906), and C. W. C. Oman, England before the Norman Conquest (London, 1910). A useful manual is H. M. Chadwick, Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions (Cambridge, 1905); and an admirable bibliography is C. Gross, The Sources and Literature of English History (London, 1900).[(Back)]
Footnote 7: Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, II., Pt. I., II.[(Back)]
Footnote 8: W. Wilson, The State (rev. ed., Boston, 1903), 369.[(Back)]
Footnote 9: Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, II., Pt. I., 13.[(Back)]
Footnote 10: Stubbs, Select Charters, 21.[(Back)]
Footnote 11: The term "peers," as here employed, means only equals in rank. The clause cited does not imply trial by jury. It comprises a guarantee simply that the barons should not be judged by persons whose feudal rank was inferior to their own. Jury trial was increasingly common in the thirteenth century, but it was not guaranteed in the Great Charter.[(Back)]
Footnote 12: Good accounts of the institutional aspects of the Norman-Angevin period are Stubbs, Constitutional History, I., 315-682, II., 1-164; Taylor, Origin and Growth of the English Constitution, I., Bk. 2, Chaps. 2-3; Adams, The Origin of the English Constitution, Chaps. 1-4; and White, Making of the English Constitution, 73-119. Two excellent little books are Stubbs, Early Plantagenets (London, 1876) and Mrs. J. R. Green, Henry II. (London, 1892). General accounts will be found in T. F. Tout, History of England from the Accession of Henry III. to the Death of Edward III., 1216-1377 (London, 1905), and H. W. C. Davis, England under the Normans and the Angevins (London, 1904). A monumental treatise, though one which requires a considerable amount of correction, is E. A. Freeman, History of the Norman Conquest, 6 vols. (Oxford, 1867-69), and a useful sketch is Freeman, Short History of the Norman Conquest (3d ed., Oxford, 1901). Among extended and more technical works may be mentioned: F. Pollock and F. W. Maitland, History of English Law, 2 vols. (2d ed., Cambridge, 1898), which, as a study of legal history and doctrines, supersedes all earlier works; F. W. Maitland, Domesday Book and Beyond (Cambridge, 1897); J. H. Round, Feudal England (London, 1895); K. Norgate, England under the Angevin Kings, 2 vols. (London, 1887); ibid., John Lackland (London, 1902), and J. H. Ramsay, The Angevin Empire (London, 1903). The text of the Great Charter is printed in Stubbs, Select Charters, 296-306. English versions may be found in G. B. Adams and H. M. Stephens, Select Documents of English Constitutional History (New York, 1906), 42-52; S. Amos, Primer of the English Constitution and Government (London, 1895), 189-201; and University of Pennsylvania Translations and Reprints (translation by E. P. Cheyney), I., No. 6. The principal special work on the subject is W. S. McKechnie, Magna Carta; a Commentary on the Great Charter of King John (Glasgow, 1905). An illuminating commentary is contained in Adams, Origin of the English Constitution, 207-313.[(Back)]
Footnote 13: Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, 97.[(Back)]
Footnote 14: Ibid., 182.[(Back)]
Footnote 15: Strictly, upon the first of these occasions the sovereign, Edward II., was driven by threat of deposition to abdicate.[(Back)]
Footnote 16: On the rise of Parliament see Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, II., Chaps. 15, 17; Taylor, Origins and Growth of the English Constitution, I., 428-616; G. B. Smith, History of the English Parliament, 2 vols. (London, 1892), I., Bks. 2-4; White, Making of the English Constitution, 298-401; D. J. Medley, Students' Manual of English Constitutional History (2d ed., Oxford, 1898), 127-150; Tout, History of England from the Accession of Henry III. to the Death of Edward III., Chaps. 5, 6, 10. Valuable biographical treatises are G. W. Prothero, Life of Simon de Montfort (London, 1877); E. Jenks, Edward Plantagenet [Edward I.] the English Justinian (New York, 1902); and T. F. Tout, Edward the First (London, 1906).[(Back)]
Footnote 17: Stubbs, Constitutional History, II., Chap. 13; White, Making of the English Constitution, 123-251; Adams, Origin of the English Constitution, 136-143; W. S. Holdsworth, History of English Law, 3 vols. (London, 1903-1909), I., 1-169.[(Back)]
Footnote 18: G. W. Prothero, Select Statutes and other Constitutional Documents Illustrative of the Reigns of Elizabeth and James I, (Oxford, 1898), xvii—xviii.[(Back)]
Footnote 19: Prothero, Statutes and Constitutional Documents, cii. See A. V. Dicey, The Privy Council (London, 1887); E. Percy, The Privy Council under the Tudors (Oxford, 1907).[(Back)]
Footnote 20: A. T. Carter, Outlines of English Legal History (London, 1899), Chap. 12; A. Todd, Parliamentary Government in England, ed. by S. Walpole, 2 vols. (London, 1892), I., Chap. 2; Dicey, The Privy Council, 94-115.[(Back)]
Footnote 21: Excellent works of a general nature on the Tudor period are H. A. L. Fisher, History of England from the Accession of Henry VII. to the Death of Henry VIII. (London, 1906); A. F. Pollard, History of England from the Accession of Edward VI. to the Death of Elizabeth (London, 1910); and A. D. Innis, England under the Tudors (London, 1905). For institutional history see Taylor, English Constitution, II., Bk. 4. More specialized treatment will be found in Smith, History of the English Parliament, I., Bk. 5; Dicey, The Privy Council, 76-130; and Taswell-Langmead, English Constitutional History, Chaps. 10, 12. An excellent survey of English public law at the death of Henry VII. is contained in F. W. Maitland, Constitutional History of England (Cambridge, 1911), 165-236. Books of large value on the period include W. Busch, England under the Tudors, trans. by A.M. Todd (London, 1895), the only volume of which published covers the reign of Henry VII.; A. F. Pollard, Henry VIII. (London, 1902 and 1905), and England under the Protector Somerset (London, 1900); and M. Creighton, Queen Elizabeth (new ed., London, 1899).[(Back)]
Footnote 22: C. Ilbert, Parliament, its History, Constitution, and Practice (London and New York, 1911), 28-29.[(Back)]
Footnote 23: Prothero, Statutes and Constitutional Documents, 293-294.[(Back)]
Footnote 24: Petyt, Jus Parliamentarium (London, 1739), 227-243. Portions of this document are printed in Prothero, Statutes and Constitutional Documents, 286-293.[(Back)]
Footnote 25: Commons' Journals, I., 431; Prothero, Statutes, 297.[(Back)]
Footnote 26: The text of the Petition of Right is printed in Stubbs, Select Charters, 515-517; Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, 339-342.[(Back)]
Footnote 27: S. R. Gardiner, Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution (Oxford, 1899), 202-232.[(Back)]
Footnote 28: Gardiner, Documents of the Puritan Revolution, 384-388; Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, 397-400.[(Back)]
Footnote 29: Gardiner, Documents of the Puritan Revolution, 405-417; Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, 407-416.[(Back)]
Footnote 30: On the history of this unicameral parliament see J. A. R. Marriott, Second Chambers, an Inductive Study in Political Science (Oxford, 1910), Chap. 3; A. Esmein, Les constitutions du protectorat de Cromwell, in Revue du Droit Public, Sept.-Oct. and Nov.-Dec., 1899.[(Back)]
Footnote 31: Gardiner, Documents of the Puritan Revolution, 447-459.[(Back)]
Footnote 32: The best of the general treatises covering the period 1603-1660 are F. C. Montague, The History of England from the Accession of James I. to the Restoration (London, 1907), and G. M. Trevelyan, England Under the Stuarts (London, 1904). The monumental works within the field are those of S. R. Gardiner, i.e., History of England, 1603-1642, 10 vols. (new ed., London, 1893-1895); History of the Great Civil War, 4 vols. (London, 1894); and History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate, 4 vols. (London, 1894-1901). Mr. Gardiner's work is being continued by C. H. Firth, who has published The Last Years of the Protectorate, 1656-1658, 2 vols. (London, 1909). The development of institutions is described in Taswell-Langmead, English Constitutional History, Chaps. 13-14; Smith, History of the English Parliament, I., Bks. 6-7; Pike, History of the House of Lords, passim; J. N. Figgis, The Theory of the Divine Right of Kings (Cambridge, 1896); and G. P. Gooch, History of English Democratic Ideas in the Seventeenth Century (Cambridge, 1898). An excellent analysis of the system of government which the Stuarts inherited from the Tudors is contained in the introduction of Prothero, Statutes and Constitutional Documents. Of the numerous biographies of Cromwell the best is C. H. Firth, Oliver Cromwell (New York, 1904). A valuable survey of governmental affairs at the death of James I. is Maitland, Constitutional History Of England, 237-280.[(Back)]
Footnote 33: Gee and Hardy, Documents Illustrative of English Church History, 641-644; Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, 451-454.[(Back)]
Footnote 34: Not properly a parliament, because not summoned by a king.[(Back)]
Footnote 35: In this connection should be recalled the Habeas Corpus Act of May 26, 1679, by whose terms the right of an individual, upon arrest, to have his case investigated without delay was effectually guaranteed. Stubbs, Select Charters, 517-521; Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, 440-448.[(Back)]
Footnote 36: In respect to ecclesiastical affairs the Bill of Rights was supplemented by the Toleration Act of May 24, 1689, in which was provided "some ease to scrupulous consciences in the exercise of religion," i.e., a larger measure of liberty for Protestant non-conformists. The text of the Bill of Rights is in Stubbs, Select Charters, 523-528; Gee and Hardy, Documents Illustrative of English Church History, 645-654; and Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, 462-469; that of the Toleration Act, in Gee and Hardy, 654-664; and, in abridged form, in Adams and Stephens, 459-462. General accounts of the period 1660-1689 are contained in R. Lodge, History of England from the Restoration to the Death of William III. (London, 1910), Chaps. 1-15, and in Trevelyan, England Under the Stuarts, Chaps. 11-13. O. Airy. Charles II., is an excellent book. The development of Parliament in the period is described in Smith, History of the English Parliament, I., Bk. 8, II., Bk. 9.[(Back)]
Footnote 37: On the constitution as it was at the death of William III., see Maitland, Constitutional History of England, 281-329.[(Back)]
Footnote 38: On the monarchical revival under George III., see D. A. Winstanley, Personal and Party Government; a Chapter in the Political History of the Early Years of the Reign of George III., 1760-1766 (Cambridge, 1910). For an excellent appraisal of the status of the crown throughout the period 1760-1860 see T. E. May, The Constitutional History of England since the Accession of George III., edited and continued by F. Holland, 3 vols. (London, 1912), I., Chaps. 1-2.[(Back)]
Footnote 39: See pp. [80-86].[(Back)]
Footnote 40: H. W. V. Temperley, The Inner and Outer Cabinet and the Privy Council, 1679-1683, in English Historical Review, Oct., 1912.[(Back)]
Footnote 41: H. D. Traill, Central Government (London, 1881), 24-25.[(Back)]
Footnote 42: On the rise of the cabinet see, in addition to the general histories, M. T. Blauvelt, The Development of Cabinet Government in England (New York, 1902), Chaps. 1-8; E. Jenks, Parliamentary England; the Evolution of the Cabinet System (New York, 1903); and H. B. Learned, Historical Significance of the Term "Cabinet" in England and the United States, in American Political Science Review, August, 1909.[(Back)]
Footnote 43: For references on the history of English political parties see pp. [144], [160], [166].[(Back)]
Footnote 44: Save that appeals might be carried from the Scottish Court of Session to the House of Lords.[(Back)]
Footnote 45: J. Mackinnon, The Union of England and Scotland (London, 1896). This scholarly volume covers principally the period 1695-1745.[(Back)]
Footnote 46: Styled "the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland."[(Back)]
Footnote 47: An abridgment of the text of the Act of Union with Scotland is printed in Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, 479-483; of that of the Act of Union with Ireland, ibid., 497-506. The full text of the former will be found in Robertson, Select Statutes, Cases, and Documents, 92-105; that of the latter, ibid., 157-164. On Ireland before the Union see May and Holland, Constitutional History of England, II., Chap. 16.[(Back)]
Footnote 48: Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution (7th ed., London, 1908), 22-29.[(Back)]
Footnote 49: Convention occupies a large place in most political systems, even in countries which are governed under elaborate written constitutions. Their importance in the government of the United States is familiar (see Bryce, American Commonwealth, 3d ed., I., Chaps. 34-35). On the influence of conventions in France see H. Chardon, L'Administration de la France; les fonctionnaires (Paris, 1908), 79-105.[(Back)]
Footnote 50: J. Bryce, Flexible and Rigid Constitutions, in Studies in History and Jurisprudence (London and New York, 1901), No. 3.[(Back)]
Footnote 51: E. Boutmy, Studies in Constitutional Law: France—England—United States, trans. by E. M. Dicey (London, 1891), 6.[(Back)]
Footnote 52: Constitutional History of England, I., prefatory note.[(Back)]
Footnote 53: Growth of the English Constitution, 19.[(Back)]
Footnote 54: Law and Custom of the Constitution, 4th ed., I., 358.[(Back)]
Footnote 55: Studies in History and Jurisprudence, I., No. 3.[(Back)]
Footnote 56: "In England the Parliament has an acknowledged right to modify the constitution; as, therefore, the constitution may undergo perpetual changes, it does not in reality exist (elle n'existe point); the Parliament is at once a legislative and a constituent assembly." Œuvres Complètes; I., 166-167.[(Back)]
Footnote 57: Lowell, Government of England, I., 2.[(Back)]
Footnote 58: For brief discussions of the general nature of the English constitution see A. L. Lowell, Government of England, 2 vols. (New York, 1909), I., 1-15; T. F. Moran, Theory and Practice of the English Government (new ed., New York, 1908), Chap. 1; J. A. R. Marriott, English Political Institutions (Oxford, 1910), Chaps. 1, 2; J. Macy, The English Constitution (New York, 1897), Chaps. 1, 9; and S. Low, The Governance of England (London, 1904), Chap. 1. A suggestive characterization is in the Introduction of W. Bagehot, The English Constitution (new ed., Boston, 1873). A more extended and very incisive analysis is Dicey, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution, especially the Introduction and Chaps. 1-3, 13, 14-15.[(Back)]
Footnote 59: From this essential incongruity of theory, form, and fact arises the special difficulty which must attend any attempt to describe with accuracy and completeness the British constitutional system. In the study of every government the divergences of theory and fact must be borne constantly in mind, but nowhere are these divergences so numerous, so far-reaching, or so fundamental as in the government of the United Kingdom.[(Back)]
Footnote 60: The text of the Act of Settlement is printed in Stubbs, Select Charters, 528-531; Adams and Stephens, Select Documents, 475-479; and Gee and Hardy, Documents Illustrative of English Church History, 664-670, As safeguards against dangers which might conceivably arise from the accession of a foreign-born sovereign the Act stipulated (1) that no person who should thereafter come into possession of the crown should go outside the dominions of England, Scotland, or Ireland, without consent of Parliament, and (2) that in the event that the crown should devolve upon any person not a native of England the nation should not be obliged to engage in any war for the defense of any dominions or territories not belonging to the crown of England, without consent of Parliament.[(Back)]
Footnote 61: Lowell, Government of England, I., 17.[(Back)]
Footnote 62: This title was created by Edward I. in 1301. Its possession has never involved the exercise of any measure of political power.[(Back)]
Footnote 63: The words to be employed were prescribed originally in the Act for Establishing the Coronation Oath, passed in the first year of William and Mary. For the text see Robertson, Select Statutes, Cases, and Documents, 65-68. An historical sketch of some value is A. Bailey, The Succession to the English Crown (London, 1879).[(Back)]
Footnote 64: For the text of the Regency Act of 1811, passed by reason of the incapacitation of George III., see Robertson, Statutes, Cases and Documents, 171-182. For an excellent survey of the general subject see May and Holland, Constitutional History of England, I., Chap. 3.[(Back)]
Footnote 65: Under Charles II. Parliament began to appropriate portions of the revenue for specific purposes, and after 1688 this became the general practice. Throughout a century the proceeds of particular taxes were appropriated for particular ends. But in 1787 Pitt simplified the procedure involved by creating a single Consolidated Fund into which all revenues were turned and from which all expenditures were met.[(Back)]
Footnote 66: Accuracy requires mention of the fact that, by exception, the crown still enjoys the revenues of the Duchy of Lancaster and the Duchy of Cornwall, the latter being part of the appanage of the Prince of Wales.[(Back)]
Footnote 67: On the history of the Civil List see May and Holland, Constitutional History of England, I., 152-175.[(Back)]
Footnote 68: Law of the Constitution (7th ed.), 420.[(Back)]
Footnote 69: Law and Custom of the Constitution, II., Pt. I., 3-5.[(Back)]
Footnote 70: Abolished by the Felony Act of 1870.[(Back)]
Footnote 71: This power, in practice, is seldom exercised. The Act of Settlement prescribed that "no pardon shall be pleadable to an impeachment by the Commons in parliament."[(Back)]
Footnote 72: In 1707, when the Queen refused her assent to a bill for settling the militia in Scotland.[(Back)]
Footnote 73: Government of England, I., 23, 26.[(Back)]
Footnote 74: Todd, Parliamentary Government in England, I., 81.[(Back)]
Footnote 75: This sort of situation presented itself several times during the reign of Queen Victoria, but in general it is exceptional.[(Back)]
Footnote 76: The English Constitution (rev. ed.), 143.[(Back)]
Footnote 77: The most satisfactory estimate of the political and governmental activities of Edward VII. is contained in Mr. Sidney Lee's memoir of the king, printed in the Dictionary of National Biography, Second Supplement (London and New York, 1912), I., 546-610.[(Back)]
Footnote 78: Government of England, I., 49.[(Back)]
Footnote 79: The best brief discussions of the position of the crown in the governmental system are Lowell, Government of England, I., Chap, 1; Moran, English Government, Chaps. 2-3; Marriott, English Political Institutions, Chap. 3; Macy, English Constitution, Chap. 5; and Low, Governance of England, Chaps. 14-15. More extended treatment of the subject will be found in Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, II., Pt. 1, Chaps 1 and 4; Todd, Parliamentary Government in England, I, Pt. 2; Bagehot, English Constitution, Chaps. 2-3; H. D. Traill, Central Government, Chap. 1. Mention may be made of N. Caudel, Le souverain anglais, in Annales des Sciences Politiques, July, 1910, and J. Bardoux, Le pouvoir politique de la couronne anglaise, in Revue des Deux Mondes, May 15, 1911.[(Back)]
Footnote 80: On the nature of orders in council see Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, II., Pt. 1, 147-149.[(Back)]
Footnote 81: It is to be observed, however, that despite the transfer of the business devolving formerly upon the Council into the hands of the specially constituted departments of government, the Council does still, through the agency of its committees, perform a modicum of actual service. Of principal importance among the committees is the Judicial Committee, which hears appeals in ecclesiastical cases and renders final verdict in all appeals coming from tribunals outside the United Kingdom. See p. [175].[(Back)]
Footnote 82: Traill, Central Government, Chap. 12.[(Back)]
Footnote 83: On the relations of cabinet and ministry see Lowell, Government of England, I., Chap. 3.[(Back)]
Footnote 84: On the organization and workings of the Treasury see Lowell, Government of England, I, Chap. 5; Dicey, Law of the Constitution, Chap. 10; Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, II., Pt. 1, 173-190; Traill, Central Government, Chap. 3.[(Back)]
Footnote 85: Government of England, I., 131.[(Back)]
Footnote 86: Lowell, Government of England, I., 84.[(Back)]
Footnote 87: On the organization and workings of the executive departments see Lowell, op. cit., I., Chaps. 4-6; Marriott, English Political Institutions, Chap. 5; Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, II., Pt. 1, Chap. 3; Traill, Central Government, Chaps. 3-11.[(Back)]
Footnote 88: The functions of this official are but nominal. In 1870 Sir Charles Dilke moved to abolish the office as useless, but Gladstone urged the desirability of having in the cabinet at least one man who should not be burdened with the management of a department, and the motion was lost. The presidency of the Council is a post likewise of dignity but of meager governmental power or responsibility.[(Back)]
Footnote 89: In theory the powers of the executive are exercised in Ireland by the Lord Lieutenant, but in practice they devolve almost entirely upon the nominally inferior official, the Chief Secretary.[(Back)]
Footnote 90: Lord Salisbury at this point retired from the Foreign Office, which was assigned to Lord Lansdowne, and assumed in conjunction with the premiership the less exacting post of Lord Privy Seal.[(Back)]
Footnote 91: Lowell, Government of England, I., 59; Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, II., Pt. 1, 211.[(Back)]
Footnote 92: The clause of this measure which bore upon the point in hand was repealed, however, before it went into operation.[(Back)]
Footnote 93: The one notable instance in which this rule has been departed from within the past seventy-five years was Gladstone's tenure of the post of Secretary of State for the Colonies during the last six months of the Peel administration in 1846.[(Back)]
Footnote 94: On the reasons for the requirement of re-election and the movement for the abolition of the requirement see Moran, The English Government, 108-109.[(Back)]
Footnote 95: In France and other continental countries in which the parliamentary system obtains an executive department is represented in Parliament by its presiding official only. But this official is privileged, as the English minister is not, to appear and to speak and otherwise participate in proceedings on the floor of either chamber.[(Back)]
Footnote 96: Government of England, I., 57. See MacDonaugh, The Book of Parliament, 148-183.[(Back)]
Footnote 97: The same thing is true of the President's cabinet in the United States. The reasons for the policy are obvious and ample; but the preservation of cabinet records, whether in Great Britain or the United States, would, if such records were to be made accessible, facilitate enormously the task of the historian and of the student of practical government.[(Back)]
Footnote 98: Moran, The English Government, 99.[(Back)]
Footnote 99: In a statute fixing the order of precedence of public dignitaries. The premier's position, however, was defined by a royal warrant of December, 1905.[(Back)]
Footnote 100: The resignation of the premier terminates ipso facto the life of the ministry. An excellent illustration of the accustomed subordination of individual differences of opinion to the interests of cabinet solidarity is afforded by some remarks made by Mr. Asquith, December 4, 1911, to a deputation of the National League for Opposing Woman Suffrage. The deputation had called to protest against the Government's announced purpose to attach a suffrage amendment (if carried in the House of Commons) to a forthcoming measure of franchise reform. The Premier explained that he was, and always had been, of the opinion that "the grant of the parliamentary franchise to women in this country would be a political mistake of a very grievous kind." "So far," he continued, "we are in complete harmony with one another. On the other hand, I am, as you know, for the time being the head of the Government, in which a majority of my colleagues, a considerable majority of my colleagues—I may say that without violating the obligation of cabinet secrecy...—are of a different opinion; and the Government in those circumstances has announced a policy which is the result of their combined deliberations, and by which it is the duty of all their members, and myself not least, to abide loyally. That is the position, so far as I am personally concerned."[(Back)]
Footnote 101: Low, The Governance of England, Chap. 9; M. Sibert, Étude sur le premier ministre en Angleterre depuis ses origines jusqu'à l'époque contemporaine (Paris, 1909).[(Back)]
Footnote 102: The English Constitution (new ed.), 79.[(Back)]
Footnote 103: Government of England, I., 56. The best discussion of the organization, functions, and relationships of the cabinet is contained in Lowell, op. cit., I., Chaps. 2-3, 17-18, 22-23. Other good general accounts are Low, Governance of England, Chaps. 2-4, 8-9; Moran, English Government, Chaps. 4-9; Macy, English Constitution, Chap. 6; Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, II., Pt. 1, Chap. 2; and Maitland, Constitutional History of England, 387-430. A detailed and still valuable survey is in Todd, Parliamentary Government, Parts 3-4. A brilliant study is Bagehot, English Constitution, especially Chaps. 1, 6-9. The growth of the cabinet is well described in Blauvelt, The Development of Cabinet Government in England; and a monograph of value is P. le Vasseur, Le cabinet britannique sous la reine Victoria (Paris, 1902). For an extended bibliography see Select List of Books on the Cabinets of England and America (Washington, 1903), compiled in the Library of Congress under the direction of A. P. C. Griffin.[(Back)]
Footnote 104: In the First Statute of Westminster.[(Back)]
Footnote 105: The American Commonwealth (3d ed.), I., 35-36.[(Back)]
Footnote 106: The Electorate and the Legislature (London, 1892), 48.[(Back)]
Footnote 107: That is to say, the quota of members mentioned was returned by the counties and by the boroughs contained geographically within them.[(Back)]
Footnote 108: See p. [23].[(Back)]
Footnote 109: Equivalent in present values to £30 or £40.[(Back)]
Footnote 110: See p. [23].[(Back)]
Footnote 111: The monumental treatise on the House of Commons prior to 1832 is E. Porritt, The Unreformed House of Commons: Parliamentary Representation before 1832, 2 vols. (2d ed., Cambridge, 1909). On the prevalence of corruption see May and Holland, Constitutional History of England, I., 224-238, 254-262.[(Back)]
Footnote 112: Treatises of Government, II., Chap. 13, § 157.[(Back)]
Footnote 113: It is of interest to observe that every one of the demands enumerated found a place half a century later among the "six points" of the Chartists. See pp. [82-83]. A bill embodying the proposed reforms was introduced by the Duke of Richmond in 1780, but met with small favor. A second society—The Friends of the People—was formed in 1792 to promote the cause.[(Back)]
Footnote 114: The reform movement prior to 1832 is admirably sketched in May and Holland, Constitutional History of England, I., 264-280. See also G. L. Dickinson, The Development of Parliament during the Nineteenth Century (London, 1895), Chap. 1; J. H. Rose, The Rise and Growth of Democracy in Great Britain (London, 1897), Chap. 1; C. B. R. Kent, The English Radicals (London, 1899), Chaps. 1-2; and W. P. Hall, British Radicalism, 1791-1797 (New York, 1912).[(Back)]
Footnote 115: Of the fifty-six all save one had returned two members.[(Back)]
Footnote 116: The more important parts of the text of the Reform Bill of 1832 are printed in Robertson, Statutes, Cases and Documents, 197-212.[(Back)]
Footnote 117: Rose, Rise and Growth of Democracy, Chaps. 6-8; Kent, The English Radicals, Chap. 3; and R. G. Gammage, History of the Chartist Movement, 1837-1854 (Newcastle-on-Tyne, 1894).[(Back)]
Footnote 118: By law of 1710 it had been required that county members should possess landed property worth £600, and borough members worth £300, a year. These qualifications were very commonly evaded, but they were not abolished until 1858.[(Back)]
Footnote 119: It may be regarded, however, as taking the place of the £50 rental franchise.[(Back)]
Footnote 120: It is to be observed that these figures are for the United Kingdom as a whole, embracing the results not merely of the act of 1867 applying to England and Wales but of the two acts of 1868 introducing similar, though not identical, changes in Scotland and Ireland.[(Back)]
Footnote 121: Strictly 652, since after 1867 four boroughs, returning six members, were disfranchised.[(Back)]
Footnote 122: On the reforms of the period 1832-1885 see Cambridge Modern History, X., Chap. 18, and XI., Chap. 12; Dickinson, Development of Parliament, Chap. 2; Rose, Rise and Growth of Democracy, Chaps. 2, 10-13; Marriott, English Political Institutions, Chap. 10. An excellent survey is May and Holland, Constitutional History of England, I., Chap. 6, and III., Chap. 1. Mention may be made of H. Cox, A History of the Reform Bills of 1866 and 1867 (London, 1868); J. S. Mill, Considerations on Representative Government (London, 1861); and T. Hare, The Election of Representatives, Parliamentary and Municipal (3d ed., London, 1865). An excellent survey by a Swiss scholar is contained in C. Borgeaud, The Rise of Modern Democracy in Old and New England, trans. by B. Hill (London, 1894), and a useful volume is J. Murdock, A History of Constitutional Reform in Great Britain and Ireland (Glasgow, 1885). The various phases of the subject are covered, of course, in the general histories of the period, notably S. Walpole, History of England from the Conclusion of the Great War in 1815, 6 vols. (new ed., London, 1902); W. N. Molesworth, History of England from the year 1830-1874, 3 vols. (London, 1874); J. F. Bright, History of England, 5 vols. (London, 1875-1894); H. Paul, History of Modern England, 5 vols. (London, 1904-1906); and S. Low and L. C. Sanders, History of England during the Reign of Victoria (London, 1907). Three biographical works are of special service: S. Walpole, Life of Lord John Russell, 2 vols. (London, 1889); J. Morley, Life of William E. Gladstone, 3 vols. (London, 1903); and W. F. Monypenny, Life of Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of Beaconsfield, vols. 1-2 (London and New York, 1910-1912).[(Back)]
Footnote 123: On the process of registration see Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, I., 134-137, and M. Caudel, L'enregistrement des électeurs en Angleterre, in Annales des Sciences Politiques, Sept., 1906.[(Back)]
Footnote 124: Government of England, I., 213. On the franchise system see Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, I., Chap. 4 and Lowell, op. cit., I., Chap. 9.[(Back)]
Footnote 125: Annual Register (1905), 193.[(Back)]
Footnote 126: May and Holland, Constitutional History of England, III., 48-49. It may be noted that an able royal commission, appointed in December, 1908, to study foreign electoral systems and to recommend modifications of the English system, reported in 1910 adversely to the early adoption of any form of proportional representation.[(Back)]
Footnote 127: See pp. [110-113].[(Back)]
Footnote 128: October, 1912.[(Back)]
Footnote 129: The number of plural voters is placed at 525,000; that of graduates who elect the university representatives, at 49,614.[(Back)]
Footnote 130: A timely volume is J. King and F. W. Raffety, Our Electoral System; the Demand for Reform (London, 1912).[(Back)]
Footnote 131: May and Holland, Constitutional History of England, III., 61.[(Back)]
Footnote 132: K. Schirmacher, The Modern Woman's Rights Movement, trans. by C. C. Eckhardt (New York, 1912), 58-96; B. Mason, The Story of the Woman's Suffrage Movement (London, 1911); E. S. Pankhurst, The Suffragette; the History of the Woman's Militant Suffrage Movement, 1905-1910 (London, 1911). The subject is surveyed briefly in May and Holland, Constitutional History, III., 59-66.[(Back)]
Footnote 133: For the form of the writ see Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, I., 57.[(Back)]
Footnote 134: On electoral procedure see Lowell, Government of England, I., Chap. 10; M. MacDonaugh, The Book of Parliament (London, 1897), 24-50; H. J. Bushby, Manual of the Practice of Elections for the United Kingdom (4th ed., London, 1874); W. Woodings, The Conduct and Management of Parliamentary Elections (4th ed., London, 1900); E. T. Powell, The Essentials of Self-Government, England and Wales (London, 1909); P. J. Blair, A Handbook of Parliamentary Elections (Edinburgh, 1909); and H. Fraser, The Law of Parliamentary Elections and Election Petitions (2d ed., London, 1910). A volume filled with interesting information is J. Grego, History of Parliamentary Elections and Electioneering from the Stuarts to Queen Victoria (new ed., London, 1892). The monumental work upon the entire subject is M. Powell (ed.), Rogers on Elections, 3 vols. (16th ed., London, 1897).[(Back)]
Footnote 135: The Representation of the People Act of 1867 made the duration of a parliament independent of a demise of the crown. The text of the Septennial Act and that of the Lords' Protest against the measure are printed in Robertson, Statutes, Cases, and Documents, 117-119.[(Back)]
Footnote 136: M. Ostrogorski, Democracy and the Organization of Political Parties, trans. by F. Clarke, 2 vols. (London, 1902), I., 442-501; MacDonaugh, The Book of Parliament, 1-23. Among numerous articles descriptive of English parliamentary elections mention may be made of H. W. Lucy, The Methods of a British General Election, in Forum, Oct., 1900; S. Brooks, English and American Elections, in Fortnightly Review, Feb., 1910; W. T. Stead, The General Election in Great Britain, in American Review of Reviews, Feb., 1910; and d'Haussonville, Dix jours en Angleterre pendant les élections, in Revue des Deux Mondes, Feb. 1, 1910.[(Back)]
Footnote 137: On the adoption of the Corrupt and Illegal Practices Act of 1883 see May and Holland, Constitutional History of England, III., 31-33. The actual operation of the system established may be illustrated by citing a specific case. At the election of 1906 the maximum expenditure legally possible for Mr. Lloyd-George in his sparsely populated Carnarvon constituency was £470. His authorized agent, after the election, reported an outlay of £50 on agents, £27 on clerks and messengers, £189 on printing, postage, etc., £30 on public meetings, £25 on committee rooms, and £40 on miscellaneous matters—a total of £361. The candidate's personal expenditure amounted to £92, so that the total outlay of £462 fell short by a scant £8 of the sum that might legally have been laid out. Divided among the 3,221 votes that Mr. Lloyd-George received, his outlay per vote was 2s., 10d. At the same election Mr. Asquith's expenditure was £727; Mr. Winston Churchill's, £844; Mr. John Morley's, £479; Mr. Keir Hardie's, £623; Mr. James Bryce's, £480. In non-contested constituencies expenditures are small. In 1906 Mr. Redmond's was reported to be £25 and Mr. William O'Brien's, £20. In 1900 a total of 1,103 candidates for 670 seats expended £777,429 in getting 3,579,345 votes; in 1906, 1,273 candidates for the same 670 seats expended £1,166,858 in getting 5,645,104 votes; in January, 1910, 1,311 candidates laid out £1,296,382 in getting 6,667,394 votes. A well-informed article is E. Porritt, Political Corruption in England, in North American Review, Nov. 16, 1906.[(Back)]
Footnote 138: "The House of Lords not only springs out of, it actually is, the ancient Witenagemot. I can see no break between the two." Freeman, Growth of the English Constitution, 62. Professor Freeman, it must be remembered, was prone to glorify Anglo-Saxon institutions and to under-estimate the changes that were introduced in England through the agency of the Norman Conquest. For the most recent statement of the opposing view see Adams, Origin of the English Constitution, Chaps. 1-4.[(Back)]
Footnote 139: The first peerage bestowed purely in recognition of literary distinction was that of Lord Tennyson in 1884, the peerages bestowed upon Macaulay and Bulwer Lytton having been determined upon in part under the influence of political considerations. The first professional artist to be honored with a peerage was Lord Leighton, in 1896. Lord Kelvin and Lord Lister are among well-known men of science who have been so honored. Lord Goschen's viscountcy was conferred, with universal approval, as the fitting reward of a great business career. The earldom of General Roberts and the viscountcies of Generals Wolseley and Kitchener were bestowed in recognition of military distinction. With some aptness the House of Lords has been denominated "the Westminster Abbey of living celebrities."[(Back)]
Footnote 140: Except that, under existing law, the crown cannot (1) create a peer of Scotland, (2) create a peer of Ireland otherwise than as allowed by the Act of Union with Ireland, and (3) direct the devolution of a dignity otherwise than in accordance with limitations applying in the case of grants of real estate.[(Back)]
Footnote 141: For a statement of the process of election see Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution (4th ed.), I., 219-229.[(Back)]
Footnote 142: In 1909. Lowell, Government of England, I., 395.[(Back)]
Footnote 143: The crown was authorized to create one Irish peerage only for every three such peerages that should become extinct. During the thirty years preceding the conferring of an Irish peerage upon Mr. Curzon, in 1898, the creation of Irish peerages was entirely suspended.[(Back)]
Footnote 144: Lord Palmerston, for example, was an Irish peer, but sat in the House of Commons.[(Back)]
Footnote 145: The recognized advisability of strengthening the judicial element in the Lords precipitated at one time a serious issue respecting the power of the crown to create life peerages. In 1856, upon the advice of her ministers, Queen Victoria conferred upon a distinguished judge, Sir James Parke, a patent as Baron Wensleydale for life. The purpose was to introduce into the chamber desirable legal talent without further augmenting the peerage. For the creation of life peerages there was some precedent, but none later than the reign of Henry VI., and the House of Lords, maintaining that the right had lapsed and that the peerage had become entirely hereditary, refused to admit Baron Wensleydale until his patent was so modified that his peerage was made hereditary.[(Back)]
Footnote 146: The Bishop of Sodor and Man is entitled to a seat, but not to take part in the chamber's proceedings. His status has been compared to that of a territorial delegate in the United States. Moran, The English Government, 170.[(Back)]
Footnote 147: On the composition of the House of Lords see Lowell, Government of England, I., Chap. 21; Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, I., Chap. 5; May and Holland, Constitutional History of England, I., Chap. 5; Moran, English Government, Chap. 10; Low, Governance of England, Chap. 12; Courtney, Working Constitution of the United Kingdom, Chap. 11; Macy, English Constitution, Chap. 4; Marriott, English Political Institutions, Chaps. 6-7; and Walpole, The Electorate and the Legislature, Chap. 2. The subject is treated in greater detail in Pike, Constitutional History of the House of Lords, especially Chap. 15.[(Back)]
Footnote 148: There are, of course, Englishmen who concur in the dictum of Sieyès that "if a second chamber dissents from the first, it is mischievous; if it agrees, it is superfluous." An able exponent of this doctrine, within recent years, is Sir Charles Dilke.[(Back)]
Footnote 149: Dickinson, Development of Parliament during the Nineteenth Century, Chap. 3.[(Back)]
Footnote 150: Notably in respect to legislation abolishing the plural vote and regulating the liquor traffic. The Lords rejected a Plural Voting Bill and an Aliens Bill in 1906, a Land Values Bill in 1907, and a Licensing Bill in 1908. In the interest of accuracy it should be observed that during the first session of 1906 a total of 121 bills became law, that only four (including the Education Bill) passed by the Commons were rejected by the Lords, and that fifteen passed by the Lords were rejected in the Commons. The proportions at most sessions during the period under review were substantially similar. But, of course, measures rejected by the Lords were likely to be those in which the interest of the Liberal government was chiefly [(Back)]
centered.]
Footnote 151: May and Holland, Constitutional History of England, III., 343-349. For references on the general subject of the reform of the Lords see pp. [115-116].[(Back)]
Footnote 152: Ilbert, Parliament, 205.[(Back)]
Footnote 153: It was in pursuance of this policy that Sir William Vernon-Harcourt incorporated in the Finance Bill of 1894, extensive changes in the death duties and Sir Michael Hicks-Beach, in 1899, included proposals for altering the permanent provisions made for the reduction of the national debt.[(Back)]
Footnote 154: Strictly, the Lords declined to assent to the Budget until it should have been submitted to the judgment of the people. On the nature of the Government's finance proposals see May and Holland, Constitutional History of England, III., 350-355; G. L. Fox, The British Budget of 1909, in Yale Review, Feb., 1910; and D. Lloyd-George, The People's Budget (London, 1909), containing extracts from the Chancellor's speeches on the subject.[(Back)]
Footnote 155: The Finance Bill passed its third reading in the House of Commons April 27, was passed in the Lords April 28, without division, and received the royal assent April 29.[(Back)]
Footnote 156: The votes on the three resolutions were, respectively, 339 to 237, 351 to 246, and 334 to 236.[(Back)]
Footnote 157: For the growth of the idea of the referendum see H. W. Horwill, The Referendum in Great Britain, in Political Science Quarterly, Sept., 1911.[(Back)]
Footnote 158: When, July 24, Premier Asquith rose in the Commons to reply to the Lords' amendments there resulted such confusion that for the first time in generations, save upon one occasion in 1905, the Speaker was obliged to adjourn a sitting on account of the disorderly conduct of members.[(Back)]
Footnote 159: Had the Unionists maintained to the end their attitude of opposition the number of peers which would have had to be created to ensure the enactment of the bill would have been some 400.[(Back)]
Footnote 160: The final vote in the Lords was 131 to 114. The Unionist peers who voted with the Government numbered 37.[(Back)]
Footnote 161: An incidental effect of the act is to exalt the power and importance of the Speaker, although it should be observed that the Speaker has long been accustomed to state at the introduction of a public bill whether in his judgment the rights or privileges claimed by the House of Commons in respect to finance had been infringed. If he were of the opinion that there had been infringement, it remained for the House to determine whether it would insist upon or waive its privilege Ilbert, Parliament, 207.[(Back)]
Footnote 162: The Parliament Act is the handiwork, of course, of the Liberal party, and only that party is likely to acknowledge the obligation to follow up the reform of the Lords which the measure imposes. But the Unionists may be regarded as committed by Lord Lansdowne's bill to some measure of popularization of the chamber.[(Back)]
Footnote 163: During the discussions of 1910 an interesting suggestion was offered (April 25) by Lord Wemyss to the effect that the representative character of the chamber should be given emphasis by the admission of three members designated by each of some twenty-one commercial, professional, and educational societies of the kingdom, such as the Royal Academy of Arts, the Society of Engineers, the Shipping Federation, and the Royal Institute of British Architects.[(Back)]
Footnote 164: The literature of the question of second chamber reform in England is voluminous and but a few of the more important titles can be mentioned here. The subject is discussed briefly in Lowell, Government of England, I., Chap. 22; Moran, English Government, Chap. 11; Low, Governance of England, Chap. 13; and H. W. V. Temperley, Senates and Upper Chambers (London, 1910), Chap. 5. Important books include W. C. Macpherson, The Baronage and the Senate; or the House of Lords in the Past, the Present, and the Future (London, 1893); T. A. Spalding, The House of Lords: a Retrospect and a Forecast (London, 1894); J. W. Wylie, The House of Lords (London, 1908); W. S. McKechnie, The Reform of the House of Lords (Glasgow, 1909); W. L. Wilson, The Case for the House of Lords (London, 1910); and J. H. Morgan, The House of Lords and the Constitution (London, 1910). Of these, the first constitutes one of the most forceful defenses and the second one of the most incisive criticisms of the upper chamber that have been written. A brief review by an able French writer is A. Esmein, La Chambre des Lords et la démocratie (Paris, 1910). Among articles in periodicals may be mentioned H. W. Horwill, The Problem of The House of Lords, in Political Science Quarterly, March, 1908; E. Porritt, The Collapse of the Movement against the Lords, in North American Review, June, 1908; ibid., Recent and Pending Constitutional Changes in England, in American Political Science Review, May, 1910; J. L. Garvin, The British Elections and their Meaning, in Fortnightly Review, Feb., 1910; J. A. R. Marriott, The Constitutional Crisis, in Nineteenth Century, Jan., 1910. A readable sketch is A. L. P. Dennis, Impressions of British Party Politics, 1909-1911, in American Political Science Review, Nov., 1911; and the best accounts of the Parliament Act and of its history are: Dennis, The Parliament Act of 1911, ibid., May and Aug., 1912; May and Holland, Constitutional History of England, III., 343-384; Lowell, Government of England (rev. ed., New York, 1912), Chap. 23a; Annual Register for the years 1910 and 1911; M. Sibert, Le vote du Parliament Act, in Revue du Droit Public, Jan.-March, 1912; and La réforme de la Chambre des Lords, ibid., July-Sept., 1912. A book of some value is C. T. King, The Asquith Parliament, 1906-1909; a Popular Sketch of its Men and its Measures (London, 1910).[(Back)]
Footnote 165: Government of England, I., 418-419.[(Back)]
Footnote 166: Triennial Act of December 22, 1694.[(Back)]
Footnote 167: On the ceremonies involved in the opening, adjournment, prorogation, and dissolution of a parliament see Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, I., 61-77; J. Redlich, The Procedure of the House of Commons; a Study of its History and Present Form, trans. by A. E. Steinthal, 3 vols. (London, 1908), II., 51-67; T. E. May, Treatise on the Law, Privileges, Proceedings, and Usage of Parliament (11th ed., London, 1906), Chap. 7; A. Wright and P. Smith, Parliament, Past and Present, 2 vols. (London, 1902), II., Chap. 25; MacDonaugh, The Book of Parliament, 96-114, 132-147, 184-203; and H. Graham, The Mother of Parliaments (Boston, 1911), 135-157.[(Back)]
Footnote 168: MacDonaugh, The Book of Parliament, 79-95; Graham, The Mother of Parliaments, 60-80; Wright and Smith, Parliament, Past and Present, I., Chaps. 11-13. The classic history of the old Palace of Westminster is E. W. Brayley and J. Britton, History of the Ancient Palace and Late Houses of Parliament at Westminster (London, 1836).[(Back)]
Footnote 169: Lowell, Government of England, I., 249. Visitors, technically "strangers," are present only on sufferance and may be excluded at any time; but the ladies' gallery is not supposed to be within the chamber, so that an order of exclusion does not reach the occupants of it. In the autumn of 1908, however, the disorderly conduct of persons in the ladies' and strangers' galleries caused the Speaker to close these galleries during the remainder of the session. In 1738 the House declared the publication of its proceedings "a high indignity and a notorious breach of privilege," and, technically, such publication is still illegal. In 1771, however, the reporters' gallery was fitted up, and through a century and a quarter the proceedings have been reported and printed as a matter of course. On the status of the public and the press in the chamber see Ilbert, Parliament, Chap. 8; Redlich, Procedure of the House of Commons; II., 28-38; MacDonaugh, The Book of Parliament, 310-329, 350-365; and H. Graham, The Mother of Parliaments, 259-287.[(Back)]
Footnote 170: Ilbert, Parliament, 124. The chamber is described fully in Wright and Smith, Parliament, Past and Present, Chap. 19.[(Back)]
Footnote 171: This order runs: Prince of Wales, other princes of the royal blood, Archbishop of Canterbury, Lord Chancellor, Archbishop of York, Lord President of the Council, Lord Privy Seal, the dukes, the marquises, the earls, the viscounts, the bishops, and the barons.[(Back)]
Footnote 172: For full description, with illustrations, see Wright and Smith, Parliament, Past and Present, Chap. 18.[(Back)]
Footnote 173: Redlich, Procedure of the House of Commons, II., 68-77.[(Back)]
Footnote 174: In point of fact, the Chairman and Deputy Chairman retire when the ministry by which they have been nominated goes out of office.[(Back)]
Footnote 175: On this account he is referred to ordinarily as the Chairman of Committees.[(Back)]
Footnote 176: American Commonwealth, I., 135.[(Back)]
Footnote 177: Parliament, 140-141.[(Back)]
Footnote 178: See p. [112].[(Back)]
Footnote 179: On the officers of the House of Commons see Lowell, Government of England, I., Chap. 12; on the speakership, Redlich, Procedure of the House of Commons, II., 131-171; Graham, The Mother of Parliaments, 119-134; MacDonaugh, The Book of Parliament, 115-132; Porritt, Unreformed House of Commons, I., Chaps. 21-22; A. I. Dasent, The Speakers of the House of Commons from the Earliest Times to the Present Day (New York, 1911); and G. Mer, Les speakers: étude de la fonction présidentielle en Angleterre et aux États-Unis (Paris, 1910).[(Back)]
Footnote 180: On committees on private bills see p. [137]. The committees of the House of Commons are described in Lowell, Government of England, I., Chap. 13; Marriott, English Political Institutions, Chap. 11; Ilbert, Parliament, Chap. 6; Redlich, Procedure of the House of Commons, II., 180-214; and May, Treatise on the Law, Privileges, Proceedings, and Usage of Parliament, Chaps. 13-14.[(Back)]
Footnote 181: See p. [127].[(Back)]
Footnote 182: See p. [63].[(Back)]
Footnote 183: In the days of Elizabeth the presiding official sat upon a sack actually filled with wool. He sits now, as a matter of fact, upon an ottoman, upholstered in red. But the ancient designation of the seat survives.[(Back)]
Footnote 184: The sum provided from the party funds was ordinarily £200 a year.[(Back)]
Footnote 185: On the privileges of the Commons see Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, I., 153-189; Lowell, Government of England, I., Chap. 11; Walpole, Electorate and Legislature, Chap. 5; Redlich, Procedure of the House of Commons, III., 42-50. A standard work in which the subject is dealt with at length is May, Treatise on the Law, Privileges, Proceedings, and Usage of Parliament, Chaps. 3-6.[(Back)]
Footnote 186: See p. [314].[(Back)]
Footnote 187: Parliament, [113-114].[(Back)]
Footnote 188: Ilbert, Parliament, 119. On the Commons' control of the Government see Lowell, Government of England, I., Chap. 17; Moran, English Government, Chap. 8; Low, The Governance of England, Chap. 5; Todd, Parliamentary Government, II., 164-185.[(Back)]
Footnote 189: Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, I., 362-366; Moran, English Government, 327-332.[(Back)]
Footnote 190: Lowell, Government of England, II., 465.[(Back)]
Footnote 191: When Parliament is in session the sittings of the law lords are held, as a rule, prior to the beginning of the regular sitting at 4.30 P.M.[(Back)]
Footnote 192: The judicial functions of Parliament are described at some length in Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, I., Chap. 9. The principal work on the subject is C. H. McIlwain, The High Court of Parliament and its Supremacy (New Haven, 1910). On the House of Lords as a court see MacDonaugh, The Book of Parliament, 300-309; A. T. Carter, History of English Legal Institutions (London, 1902), 96-109; and W. S. Holdsworth, History of English Law, I., 170-193.[(Back)]
Footnote 193: Law and Custom of the Constitution, I., 52.[(Back)]
Footnote 194: See p. [45].[(Back)]
Footnote 195: Except that money bills remain in the custody of the Commons.[(Back)]
Footnote 196: See p. [138].[(Back)]
Footnote 197: The legislative process is summed up aptly by Lowell as follows: "Leaving out of account the first reading, which rarely involves a real debate, the ordinary course of a public bill through the House of Commons gives, therefore, an opportunity for two debates upon its general merits, and between them two discussions of its details, or one debate upon the details if that one results in no changes, or if the bill has been referred to a standing committee. When the House desires to collect evidence it does so after approving of the general principle, and before taking up the details. Stated in this way the whole matter is plain and rational enough. It is, in fact, one of the many striking examples of adaptation in the English political system. A collection of rules that appear cumbrous and antiquated, and that even now are well-nigh incomprehensible when described in all their involved technicality, have been pruned away until they furnish a procedure almost as simple, direct, and appropriate as any one could devise." Government of England, I., 277-278. The procedure of the House of Commons on public bills is described in Lowell, Government of England, I., Chaps. 13, 17, 19; Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, I., 240-267; Low, Governance of England, Chap. 4; Moran, English Government, Chap. 14; Marriott, English Political Institutions, Chap. 113; Todd, Parliamentary Government, II., 138-163; Ilbert, Parliament, Chap. 3; Redlich, Procedure of the House of Commons, III., 85-112; and May, Treatise on the Law, Privileges, Proceedings, and Usage of Parliament, Chap. 18. See also G. Walpole, House of Commons Procedure, with Notes on American Practice (London, 1902), and C. P. Ilbert, Legislative Methods and Forms (Oxford, 1901), 77-121.[(Back)]
Footnote 198: Before the lapse of a twelvemonth unforeseen contingencies require invariably the voting of "supplementary grants."[(Back)]
Footnote 199: Government of England, I., 288.[(Back)]
Footnote 200: Since the enactment of the Parliament Bill of 1911, as has been observed, the assent of the Lords is not necessary. See p. [112].[(Back)]
Footnote 201: The procedure involved in the handling of money bills is described in Lowell, Government of England, I., Chap. 14; Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, I., 268-281; Walpole, Electorate and Legislature, Chap. 7; Todd, Parliamentary Government, II., 186-271; Ilbert, Parliament, Chap. 4; Redlich, Procedure of the House of Commons, III., 113-174; May, Treatise on the Law, Privileges, Proceedings, and Usage of Parliament, Chap. 21. See also E. Porritt, Amendments in the House of Commons Procedure since 1881, in American Political Science Review, Nov., 1908. Among numerous works on taxation in England the standard authority is S. Dowell, History of Taxation and Taxes in England from the Earliest Times to the Year 1885, 4 vols. (2d ed., London, 1888).[(Back)]
Footnote 202: To facilitate their consideration, such measures are distributed approximately equally between the two houses. This is done through conference of the Chairmen of Committees of the two houses, or their counsel, prior to the assembling of Parliament.[(Back)]
Footnote 203: Government of England, I., 385. On private bill legislation see Lowell, I., Chap. 20; Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, I, 291-300; May, Treatise on the Law, Privileges, Proceedings, and Usage of Parliament, Chaps. 24-29; Courtney, Working Constitution of the United Kingdom, Chap. 18; MacDonaugh, The Book of Parliament, 398-420. The standard treatise upon the subject is F. Clifford, History of Private Bill Legislation, 2 vols. (London, 1885-1887). A recent book of value is F. H. Spencer, Municipal Origins; an Account of English Private Bill Legislation relating to Local Government, 1740-1835, with a Chapter on Private Bill Procedure (London, 1911).[(Back)]
Footnote 204: Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, I., 253.[(Back)]
Footnote 205: On parliamentary oratory see Graham, The Mother of Parliaments, 203-224.[(Back)]
Footnote 206: The name was first employed in 1887.[(Back)]
Footnote 207: Redlich, Procedure of the House of Commons, I., 133-212; Graham, The Mother of Parliaments, 158-172. An excellent illustration of the use of the guillotine is afforded by the history of the passage of the National Insurance Bill of 1911. See Annual Register (1911), 232-236.[(Back)]
Footnote 208: On the conduct of business in the Commons see Lowell, Government of England, I, Chaps. 15-16; Moran, English Government, Chap. 15; Walpole, Electorate and Legislature, Chap. 8; Ilbert, Parliament, Chap. 5; Redlich, Procedure of the House of Commons, II., 215-264, III., 1-41; May, Treatise on the Law, Privileges, Proceedings, and Usage of Parliament, Chaps, 8-12; Medley, Manual of English Constitutional History, 231-284; Graham, The Mother of Parliaments, 225-258; and MacDonaugh, The Book of Parliament, 217-247.[(Back)]
Footnote 209: On the conduct of business in the Lords see Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, I., 281-291.[(Back)]
Footnote 210: For a fuller exposition of the relations of party and the parliamentary system see Lowell, Government of England, I., Chap. 24. The best description of English parties and party machinery is that contained in Chaps. 24-37 of President Lowell's volumes. The growth of parties and of party organization is discussed with fullness and with admirable temper in M. Ostrogorski, Democracy and the Organization of Political Parties, trans. by F. Clarke, 2 vols. (London, 1902). A valuable monograph is A. L. Lowell, The Influence of Party upon Legislation in England and America, in Annual Report of American Historical Association for 1901 (Washington, 1902), I., 319-542. An informing study is E. Porritt, The Break-up of the English Party System, in Annals of American Academy of Political and Social Science, V., No. 4 (Jan., 1895), and an incisive criticism is H. Belloc and H. Chesterton, The Party System (London, 1911). There is no adequate history of English political parties from their origins to the present day. G. W. Cooke, The History of Party from the Rise of the Whig and Tory factions in the Reign of Charles II. to the Passing of the Reform Bill, 3 vols. (London, 1836-1837) covers the subject satisfactorily to the end of the last unreformed parliament. Other party histories—as T. E. Kebbel, History of Toryism (London, 1886); C. B. R. Kent, The English Radicals (London, 1899); W. Harris, History of the Radical Party in Parliament (London, 1885); and J. B. Daly, The Dawn of Radicalism (London, 1892)—cover important but restricted fields. An admirable work which deals with party organization as well as with party principles is R. S. Watson, The National Liberal Federation from its Commencement to the General Election of 1906 (London, 1907). For further party histories see p. [160], [166].[(Back)]
Footnote 211: See p. [39].[(Back)]
Footnote 212: The party history of the period 1700-1792 is related admirably and in much detail in W. E. H. Lecky, History of England in the Eighteenth Century, 7 vols. (new ed., New York, 1903). Beginning with 1815, the best work on English political history in the earlier nineteenth century is S. Walpole, History of England from the Conclusion of the Great War in 1815, 6 vols. (new ed., London, 1902). A good general account is contained in I. S. Leadam, The History of England from the Accession of Anne to the Death of George II. (London, 1909), and W. Hunt, The History of England from the Accession of George III. to the Close of Pitt's First Administration (London, 1905). Briefer accounts of the period 1783-1830 will be found in May and Holland, Constitutional History of England, I., 409-440, and in Cambridge Modern History, IX., Chap. 22 and X., Chaps. 18-20 (see bibliography, pp. 856-870). Important biographies of political leaders include A. von Ruville, William Pitt, Graf von Chatham, 3 vols. (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1905); W. D. Green, William Pitt, Earl of Chatham (London, 1901); E. Fitzmaurice, Life of William, Earl of Shelburne, 3 vols. (London, 1875-1876); Lord P. H. Stanhope, Life of Pitt, 4 vols. (London, 1861-1862); Lord Rosebery, Pitt (London, 1891); and Lord J. Russell, Life of Charles James Fox, 3 vols. (1859-1867).[(Back)]
Footnote 213: The name Conservative was employed by Canning as early as 1824. Its use was already becoming common when, in January, 1835, Peel, in his manifesto to the electors of Tamworth, undertook an exposition of the principles of what he declared should be known henceforth as the Conservative—not the Tory—party.[(Back)]
Footnote 214: S. Leathes, in Cambridge Modern History, XII., 30-31.[(Back)]
Footnote 215: The political history of the period 1830-1874 is covered very satisfactorily in W. N, Molesworth, History of England from the Year 1830-1874, 3 vols. (London, 1874). Other general works include: Walpole, History of England, vols. 3-6, extending to 1856; H. Paul, History of Modern England, 5 vols. (London, 1904-1906), vols. 1-3, beginning with 1845; J. McCarthy, History of Our Own Times from the Accession of Queen Victoria, 7 vols. (1877-1905), vols. 1-3, beginning with the events of 1837; J. F. Bright, History of England, 5 vols. (London, 1875-1894), vol. 4; and S. Low and L. C. Sanders, History of England during the Reign of Victoria (London, 1907). Briefer treatment will be found in May and Holland, Constitutional History of England, I., 440-468, III., 67-88, and in Cambridge Modern History, XI., chaps. 1, 11, 12 (see bibliography, pp. 867-873). Biographies of importance include S. Walpole, Life of Lord John Russell, 2 vols. (London, 1889); H. Maxwell, Life of the Duke of Wellington, 2 vols. (London, 1899); J. Morley, Life of William E. Gladstone, 3 vols. (London, 1903); J. R. Thursfield, Peel (London, 1907); W. F. Monypenny, Life of Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of Beaconsfield (London, 1910-1912), vols. 1-2, covering the years 1804-1846; and S. Lee, Queen Victoria, a Biography (rev. ed., London, 1904).[(Back)]
Footnote 216: This was the "Newcastle Programme," drawn up at a convention of the National Liberal Federation at Newcastle in October, 1891. Items in the programme, in addition to Home Rule, included the disestablishment of the Church in Wales and Scotland, a local veto on the sale of intoxicating liquors, the abolition of the plural franchise, and articles defining employers' liability and limiting the hours of labor.[(Back)]
Footnote 217: C. A. Whitmore, Six Years of Unionist Government, 1886-1892 (London, 1892).[(Back)]
Footnote 218: The most useful works on the party history of the period 1874-1895 are Paul, History of Modern England, vols. 4-5, and Morley, Life of W. E. Gladstone, vol. 3. J. McCarthy's History of Our Own Times, vols. 4-6, covers the ground in a popular way. Useful brief accounts are May and Holland, Constitutional History of England, III., 88-127, and Cambridge Modern History, XII., Chap. 3 (bibliography, pp. 853-855). An excellent book is H. Whates, The Third Salisbury Administration, 1895-1900 (London, 1901).[(Back)]
Footnote 219: The two principal aspirants to the Gladstonian succession were Lord Rosebery and Sir William Vernon-Harcourt. Rosebery represented the imperialistic element of Liberalism and advocated a return of the party to the general position which it had occupied prior to the split on Home Rule. Harcourt and the majority of the party opposed imperialism and insisted upon attention rather to a programme of social reform. From Gladstone's retirement, in 1894, to 1896 leadership devolved upon Rosebery, but from 1896 to the beginning of 1899 Harcourt was the nominal leader, although Rosebery, as a private member, continued hardly less influential than before.[(Back)]
Footnote 220: W. Clarke, The Decline in English Liberalism, in Political Science Quarterly, Sept., 1901; P. Hamelle, Les élections anglaises, in Annales des Sciences Politiques, Nov., 1900.[(Back)]
Footnote 221: In this speech, delivered at a great Liberal meeting, there was outlined a programme upon which Rosebery virtually offered to resume the leadership of his party. The question of Boer independence was recognized as settled, but leniency toward the defeated people was advocated. It was maintained that at the close of the war there should be another general election. And the overhauling of the army, of the navy, of the educational system, and of the public finances, was marked out as an issue upon which the Liberals must take an unequivocal stand, as also temperance reform and legislation upon the housing of the poor.[(Back)]
Footnote 222: The literature of the Tariff Reform movement in Great Britain is voluminous. The nature of the protectionist proposals may be studied at first hand in J. Chamberlain, Imperial Union and Tariff Reform; speeches delivered from May 15 to November 4, 1903 (London, 1903). Worthy of mention are T. W. Mitchell, The Development of Mr. Chamberlain's Fiscal Policy, in Annals of American Academy of Political and Social Science, XXIII., No. 1 (Jan., 1904); R. Lethbridge, The Evolution of Tariff Reform in the Tory Party, in Nineteenth Century, June, 1908; and L. L. Price, An Economic View of Mr. Chamberlain's Proposals, in Economic Review, April, 1904. A useful work is S. H. Jeyes, Life of Joseph Chamberlain, 2 vols. (London, 1903).[(Back)]
Footnote 223: The number of electors in the United Kingdom in 1906 was 7,266,708.[(Back)]
Footnote 224: Of the Opposition 102 were Tariff Reformers of the Chamberlain school, while but 16 were thoroughgoing "Free Fooders."[(Back)]
Footnote 225: M. Caudel, Les élections générales anglaises (janvier 1906), in Annales des Sciences Politiques, March, 1906; E. de Noirmont, Les élections anglaises de janvier 1906; les résultats généraux in Questions Diplomatiques et Coloniales, March 1, 1906; E. Porritt, Party Conditions in England, in Political Science Quarterly, June, 1906.[(Back)]
Footnote 226: Mr. Campbell-Bannerman resigned April 5, 1908. His successor was Mr. Asquith, late Chancellor of the Exchequer. Most of the ministers were continued in their respective offices, but Mr. Lloyd-George became Chancellor of the Exchequer, Mr. Winston Churchill President of the Board of Trade, Lord Tweedmouth President of the Council, and the Earl of Crewe Secretary of State for the Colonies.[(Back)]
Footnote 227: R. G. Lévy, Le budget radical anglais, in Revue Politique et Parlementaire, Oct. 10, 1909; G. L. Fox, The Lloyd-George Budget, in Yale Review (Feb., 1910); E. Porritt, The Struggle over the Lloyd-George Budget, in Quarterly Journal of Economics, Feb., 1910; P. Hamelle, Les élections anglaises, in Annales des Sciences Politiques, May 15, 1910; S. Brooks, The British Elections, in North American Review, March, 1910; W. T. Stead, The General Elections in Great Britain, in Review of Reviews, Feb., 1910. A useful survey is Britannicus, Four Years of British Liberalism, in North American Review, Feb., 1910, and a more detailed one is C. T. King, The Asquith Parliament, 1906-1909; a Popular History of its Men and Measures (London, 1910). A valuable article is E. Porritt, British Legislation in 1906, in Yale Review, Feb., 1907. A French work of some value is P. Millet, La crise anglaise (Paris, 1910). A useful collection of speeches on the public issues of the period 1906-1909 is W. S. Churchill, Liberalism and the Social Problem (London, 1909).[(Back)]
Footnote 228: See pp. [108-111].[(Back)]
Footnote 229: On the elections of December, 1910, see P. Hamelle, La crise anglaise: les élections de décembre 1910, in Revue des Sciences Politiques, July-Aug., 1911; E. T. Cook, The Election—Before and After, in Contemporary Review, Jan., 1911; Britannicus, The British Elections, in North American Review, Jan., 1911; and A. Kann, Les élections anglaises, in Questions Diplomatiques et Coloniales, Jan. 16, 1911. The best account of the adoption of the Parliament Bill is A. L. P. Dennis, The Parliament Act of 1911, in American Political Science Review, May and Aug., 1912. For other references see p. [115]. On the National Insurance Act see E. Porritt The British National Insurance Act, in Political Science Quarterly, June, 1912; A. Gigot, La nouvelle loi anglaise sur l'assurance nationale, in Le Correspondant, May 10, 1912; O. Clark, The National Insurance Act of 1911 (London, 1912); and A. S. C. Carr, W. H. Stuart, and J. H. Taylor, National Insurance (London, 1912). The text of the Insurance Act is printed in Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor, No. 102 (Washington, 1912).[(Back)]
Footnote 230: A recent and important work on party history is F. H. O'Donnell, A History of the Irish Parliamentary Party, 2 vols. (London, 1910). See Earl of Crewe, Ireland and the Liberal Party, in New Liberal Review, June, 1901; E. Porritt, Ireland's Representation in Parliament, in North American Review, Aug., 1905; J. E. Barker, The Parliamentary Position of the Irish Party, in Nineteenth Century, Feb., 1910; and P. Sheehan, William O'Brien and the Irish Centre Party, in Fortnightly Review, Dec, 1910.[(Back)]
Footnote 231: W. J. Laprade, The Present Status of the Home Rule Question, in American Political Science Review, Nov., 1912.[(Back)]
Footnote 232: See p. [90].[(Back)]
Footnote 233: See p. [127].[(Back)]
Footnote 234: H. Seton-Karr, The Radical Party and Social Reform, in Nineteenth Century, Dec, 1910.[(Back)]
Footnote 235: Mr. Law was chosen Opposition leader in the Commons November 13, 1911, upon the unexpected retirement of Mr. Balfour from that position.[(Back)]
Footnote 236: At the election of 1906, 21,505 of the 25,771 votes recorded in the university constituencies were cast for Unionist candidates. Since 1885 not a Liberal member has been returned from any one of the universities.[(Back)]
Footnote 237: The defection was largest at the time of the Liberal Unionist secession in 1886.[(Back)]
Footnote 238: Two satisfactory volumes on the political activities of labor in the United Kingdom are C. Noel, The Labour Party, What it is, and What it wants (London, 1906) and A. W. Humphrey, A History of Labor Representation (London, 1912). See E. Porritt, The British Socialist Labor Party, in Political Science Quarterly, Sept., 1908, and The British Labor Party in 1910, ibid., June, 1910; M. Alfassa, Le parti ouvrier au parlement anglais, in Annales des Sciences Politiques, Jan. 15, 1908; H. W. Horwill, The Payment of Labor Representatives in Parliament, in Political Science Quarterly, June, 1910; J. K. Hardie, The Labor Movement, in Nineteenth Century, Dec, 1906; and M. Hewlett, The Labor Party of the Future, in Fortnightly Review, Feb., 1910. Two books of value on English socialism are J. E. Barker, British Socialism; an Examination of its Doctrines, Policy, Aims, and Practical Proposals (London, 1908) and H. O. Arnold-Foster, English Socialism of To-day (London, 1908).[(Back)]
Footnote 239: The only exception to this general proposition is afforded by the fact that the sovereign may not be sued or prosecuted in the ordinary courts; but this immunity, as matters now stand, is of no practical consequence.[(Back)]
Footnote 240: W. M. Geldart, Elements of English Law (London and New York, 1912), 9. As this author further remarks, "if all the statutes of the realm were repealed, we should have a system of law, though, it may be, an unworkable one; if we could imagine the Common Law swept away and the Statute Law preserved, we should have only disjointed rules torn from their context, and no provision at all for many of the most important relations of life."[(Back)]
Footnote 241: Two monumental works dealing with the earlier portions of English legal development are F. Pollock and F. W. Maitland, History of English Law to the Time of Edward I., 2 vols. (Cambridge, 1898) and W. S. Holdsworth, History of English Law, 3 vols. (London, 1903-1909). The first volume of Holdsworth contains a history of English courts from the Norman Conquest to the present day; the other volumes deal exhaustively with the growth of the law itself. Books of value include H. Brunner, The Sources of the Law of England, trans. by W. Hastie (Edinburgh, 1888); R. K. Wilson, History of Modern English Law (London, 1875). J. F. Stephen, History of the Criminal Law of England, 3 vols. (London, 1883); Ibid., Commentaries on the Laws of England, 4 vols. (London, 1908); O. W. Holmes, The Common Law (Boston, 1881); and H. Broom and E. A. Hadley, Commentaries on the Laws of England, 4 vols. (London, 1869). A recent treatise by a German authority is J. Hatschek, Englisches Staatsrecht mit Berücksichtigung der für Schottland und Irland geltenden Sonderheiten (Tübingen, 1905). An incisive work is A. V. Dicey, Law and Public Opinion in England in the Nineteenth Century (London, 1905). A good single volume history of the law is E. Jenks, Short History of the English Law (Boston, 1912). A satisfactory introduction to both the history and the character of the law is W. M. Geldart, Elements of English Law (London and New York, 1912). Another is F. W. Maitland, Outlines of English Legal History, in Collected Papers (Cambridge, 1911), II., 417-496. Other excellent introductory treatises are Maitland, Lectures on Equity (Cambridge, 1909), and C. S. Kenny, Outlines of Criminal Law (New York, 1907). Maitland's article on English Law in the Encyclopædia Britannica, IX., 600-607, is valuable for its brevity and its clearness. On the English conception of law and the effects thereof see Lowell, Government of England, II., Chaps. 61-62. The character and forms of the statute law are sketched to advantage in C. P. Ilbert, Legislative Methods and Forms (Oxford, 1901), 1-76.[(Back)]
Footnote 242: It should be noted that the judicial system herein to be described is that of England alone. The systems existing in Scotland and Ireland are at many points unlike it. In Scotland the distinction between law and equity is virtually unknown and the Common Law of England does not prevail. In Ireland, on the other hand, the Common Law is operative and judicial organization and procedure are roughly similar to the English.[(Back)]
Footnote 243: Prior to 1846 justice in civil cases could be obtained only at Westminster, or, in any event, by means of an action instituted at Westminster and tried on circuit.[(Back)]
Footnote 244: A few inferior civil courts of special character have survived from earlier days, but they are anomalous and do not call for comment. It may be added that the judges of the county courts receive a salary of £1,500.[(Back)]
Footnote 245: The three ridings of Yorkshire and the three divisions of Lincolnshire have separate commissions, and there are a few "liberties" or excepted jurisdictions.[(Back)]
Footnote 246: A royal commission created to consider the mode of appointment reported in 1910; but no important modification of the existing practice was suggested.[(Back)]
Footnote 247: Ownership of land, or occupation of a house, worth £100 a year.[(Back)]
Footnote 248: See p. [183].[(Back)]
Footnote 249: Chiefly by the Summary Jurisdiction Act of 1879.[(Back)]
Footnote 250: Medley, Manual of English Constitutional History, 392-400. An excellent monograph is C. A. Beard, The Office of Justice of the Peace in England, in Columbia University Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law, XX., No. 1. (New York, 1904).[(Back)]
Footnote 251: See p. [130].[(Back)]
Footnote 252: See p. [130].[(Back)]
Footnote 253: For brief descriptions of the English judicial system see Lowell, Government of England, II., Chaps. 59-60; Anson, Law and Custom of the Constitution, II., Pt. 1., Chap. 10; Marriott, English Political Institutions, Chap. 14; and Macy, The English Constitution, Chap. 7. As is stated elsewhere (p. 169), the first volume of Holdsworth's History of English Law contains an excellent history of the English courts. A useful handbook, though much in need of revision, is F. W. Maitland, Justice and Police (London, 1885). Perhaps the best brief account of the development of the English judicial system is A. T. Carter, History of English Legal Institutions (4th ed., London, 1910). Mention may be made of Maitland, Constitutional History of England, 462-484, and Medley, Manual of English Constitutional History, 318-383. Two valuable works by foreign writers are C. de Franqueville, Le système judiciaire de la Grande-Bretagne (Paris, 1898), and H. B. Gerland, Die englische Gerichtsverfassung; eine systematische Darstellung, 2 vols. (Leipzig, 1910). On the Judicature Acts of 1873-1876 see Holdsworth, I., 402-417.[(Back)]
Footnote 254: Lowell, Government of England, II., 144.[(Back)]
Footnote 255: The history of the local institutions of England prior to 1835 is related in detail in two comprehensive works: H. A. Merewether and A. J. Stephens, History of the Boroughs and Municipal Corporations of the United Kingdom, 3 vols. (London, 1835) and S. and B. Webb, English Local Government from the Revolution to the Municipal Corporations Act, 3 vols. (London and New York, 1904-1908). The first of these was written to promote the cause of municipal reform, but is temperate and reliable. The second is especially exhaustive, volume 3 containing probably the best existing treatment of the history of borough government. For a brief sketch see May and Holland, Constitutional History of England, II., Chap. 15.[(Back)]
Footnote 256: Government of England, II., 135.[(Back)]
Footnote 257: These included the 52 counties, the 239 municipal boroughs, the 70 improvement act districts, the 1,006 urban sanitary districts, the 577 rural sanitary districts, the 2,051 school board districts, the 424 highway districts, the 853 burial board districts, the 649 poor-law unions, the 14,946 poor-law parishes, the 5,064 highway parishes not included in urban or highway districts, and the 1,300 ecclesiastical parishes. For the situation in 1888 see G. L. Gomme, Lectures on the Principles of Local Government (London, 1897), 12-13.[(Back)]
Footnote 258: The arrangements effected at this time were perpetuated in the great Public Health Act of 1875. Lowell, Government of England II., 137.[(Back)]
Footnote 259: The number of county boroughs had been increased by 1910 to seventy-four. See p. [188].[(Back)]
Footnote 260: It should be observed that the original intent in 1888 was to deal with district as well as county organization. In its final form the bill carried in that year had to do only, however, with the counties.[(Back)]
Footnote 261: The history of local government changes since 1870 is well sketched in May and Holland, Constitutional History of England, III., Chap. 5.[(Back)]
Footnote 262: On the relations between the central and local agencies of government see Lowell, Government of England, II., Chap. 46; J. Redlich and F. W. Hirst, Local Government in England, 2 vols. (London, 1903), II., Pt. 6; Traill, Central Government, Chap. 11; and M. R. Maltbie, English Local Government of To-day; a Study of the Relations of Central and Local Government (New York, 1897).[(Back)]
Footnote 263: Including the county of London. See p. [190].[(Back)]
Footnote 264: At the elections of 1901 there were contests in but 433 of 3,349 divisions. P. Ashley, Local and Central Government; a Comparative Study of England, France, Prussia, and the United States (London, 1906), 25, note.[(Back)]
Footnote 265: Liquor licenses are granted by the justices of the peace.[(Back)]
Footnote 266: Lowell, Government of England, II., 274-275.[(Back)]
Footnote 267: Lowell, Government of England, II., 281.[(Back)]
Footnote 268: Ashley, Local and Central Government, 52-60.[(Back)]
Footnote 269: Speaking strictly, a borough is an urban district, and something more.[(Back)]
Footnote 270: Ashley, Local and Central Government, 45.[(Back)]
Footnote 271: See p. [190].[(Back)]
Footnote 272: Ashley, Local and Central Government, 42.[(Back)]
Footnote 273: The best of existing works upon the general subject of English local government is J. Redlich, and F. W. Hirst, Local Government in England, 2 vols. (London, 1903). There are several convenient manuals, of which the most useful are P. Ashley, English Local Government (London, 1905); W. B. Odgers, Local Government (London, 1899), based on the older work of M. D. Chalmers; E. Jenks, An Outline of English Local Government (2d ed., London, 1907); R, S. Wright and H. Hobhouse, An Outline of Local Government and Local Taxation in England and Wales (3d ed., London, 1906); and R. C. Maxwell, English Local Government (London, 1900), in Temple Primer Series. The subject is treated admirably in Lowell, Government of England, II., Chaps. 38-46, and a portion of it in W. B. Munro, The Government of European Cities (New York, 1909), Chap. 3 (full bibliography, pp. 395-402). There are good sketches in Ashley, Local and Central Government, Chaps. 1 and 5, and Marriott, English Political Institutions, Chap. 13. A valuable group of papers read at the First International Congress of the Administrative Sciences, held at Brussels in July, 1910, is printed in G. M. Harris, Problems of Local Government (London, 1911). A useful compendium of laws relating to city government is C. Rawlinson, Municipal Corporation Acts, and Other Enactments (9th ed., London, 1903). Two appreciative surveys by American writers are A. Shaw, Municipal Government in Great Britain (New York, 1898) and F. Howe, The British City (New York, 1907). On the subject of municipal trading the reader may be referred to Lowell, Government of England, II., Chap. 44; Lord Avebury, Municipal and National Trading (London, 1907); L. Darwin, Municipal Ownership in Great Britain (New York, 1906); G. B. Shaw, The Common Sense of Municipal Trading (London, 1904); and C. Hugo, Städteverwaltung und Municipal-Socialismus in England (Stuttgart, 1897). Among works on poor-law administration may be mentioned T. A. Mackay, History of the English Poor Law from 1834 to the Present Time (New York, 1900); P. T. Aschrott and H. P. Thomas, The English Poor Law System, Past and Present (2d ed., London, 1902); and S. and B. Webb, English Poor Law Policy (London, 1910). The best treatise on educational administration is G. Balfour, The Educational Systems of Great Britain and Ireland (2d ed., London, 1904). Finally must be mentioned C. Gross, Bibliography of British Municipal History (New York, 1897), an invaluable guide to the voluminous literature of an intricate subject.[(Back)]
Footnote 274: For excellent descriptions of the government of London see Munro, Government of European Cities, 339-379 (bibliography, 395-402), and Lowell, Government of England, II., 202-232. Valuable works are G. L. Gomme, Governance of London: Studies on the Place occupied by London in English Institutions (London, 1907); ibid., The London County Council: its Duties and Powers according to the Local Government Act of 1888 (London, 1888); A. MacMorran, The London Government Act (London, 1899); A. B. Hopkins, Boroughs of the Metropolis (London, 1900); and J. R. Seager, Government of London under the London Government Act (London, 1904). A suggestive article is G. L. Fox, The London County Council, in Yale Review, May, 1895.[(Back)]
Footnote 275: In anticipation of the prospective abolition of the dignity of Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, the Emperor Francis II., in 1804, assumed the title of Emperor of Austria, under the name Francis I.[(Back)]
Footnote 276: On Germany during the Napoleonic period see Cambridge Modern History, IX., Chap. 11; J. H. Rose, Life of Napoleon I., 2 vols. (new ed., New York, 1910), II., Chaps. 24-25; A. Fournier, Napoleon I., a Biography, trans, by A. E. Adams, 2 vols, (New York, 1911), I., Chaps. 11-12; J. R. Seeley, Life and Times of Stein; or Germany and Prussia in the Napoleonic Age, 3 vols. (Cambridge, 1878); H. A. L. Fisher, Studies in Napoleonic Statesmanship, Germany (Oxford, 1903).[(Back)]
Footnote 277: In 1817 the number was brought up to 39 by the adding of Hesse-Homburg, unintentionally omitted when the original list was made up. By successive changes the number was reduced to 33 before the dissolution of the Confederation in 1866.[(Back)]
Footnote 278: See pp. [454-456].[(Back)]
Footnote 279: On the revolution of 1848 in Germany see Cambridge Modern History, XI., Chaps. 3, 6, 7; H. von Sybel, The Founding of the German Empire trans. by M. L. Perrin, 7 vols. (New York, 1890-1898), I., 145-243; H. Blum, Die deutsche Revolution, 1848-1849 (Florence and Leipzig, 1897); P. Matter, La Prusse et la révolution de 1848 (Paris, 1903).[(Back)]
Footnote 280: The disputed districts of Schleswig-Holstein were annexed at the same time.[(Back)]
Footnote 281: For brief accounts of the founding of the Empire see B. E. Howard, The German Empire (New York, 1906), Chap. 1; E. Henderson, Short History of Germany (New York, 1906). Chaps. 8-10; Cambridge Modern History, XI., Chaps. 15-17, XII., Chap. 6; and Lavisse et Rambaud, Histoire Générale, XI., Chap. 8. A very good book is G. B. Malleson, The Refounding of the German Empire, 1848-1871 (2d ed., London, 1904). More extended presentation of German history in the period 1815-1871 will be found in A. Stern, Geschichte Europas seit den Verträgen von 1815 bis zum Frankfurter Frieden von 1871, 6 vols. (Berlin, 1894-1911), extending at present to 1848; C. F. H. Bulle, Geschichte der neuesten Zeit, 4 vols. (Leipzig, 1886-1887), covering the years 1815-1885; H. G. Treitschke, Deutsche Geschichte im Neunzehnten Jahrhundert, 5 vols. (Leipzig, 1879-1894), covering the period to 1848; H. von Sybel, Die Begründung des deutschen Reiches durch Wilhelm I. (Munich and Leipzig, 1890), and in English translation under title of The Founding of the German Empire (New York, 1890); H. von Zwiedeneck-Sudenhorst, Deutsche Geschichte von der Auflösung d. alten bis zur Errichtung d. neuen Kaiserreichs (Stuttgart, 1903-1905); and M. L. Van Deventer, Cinquante années de l'histoire fédérale de l'Allemagne (Brussels, 1870). A book of some value is A. Malet, The Overthrow of the Germanic Confederation by Prussia in 1866 (London, 1870). P. Bigelow, History of the German Struggle for Liberty (New York, 1905) is readable, but not wholly reliable. An excellent biography of Bismarck is that by Headlam (New York, 1899). For full bibliography see Cambridge Modern History, X., 826-832; XI., 879-886, 893-898; XII., 869-875.[(Back)]
Footnote 282: The first three of these treaties were concluded at Versailles; the fourth was signed at Berlin.[(Back)]
Footnote 283: The text of the constitution, in German, is printed in A. L. Lowell, Governments and Parties in Continental Europe, 2 vols. (Boston, 1896), II., 355-377, and in Laband, Deutsches Reichsstaatsrecht, 411-428; in English, in W. F. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, 2 vols. (Chicago, 1909), I., 325-351, and in Howard, The German Empire, 403-435. Carefully edited German texts are: L. von Rönne, Verfassung des deutschen Reiches (8th ed., Berlin, 1899); A. Arndt, Verfassung des deutschen Reiches (Berlin, 1902). On the formation of the Imperial constitution see A. Lebon, Les origines de la constitution allemande, in Annales de l'École Libre des Sciences Politiques, July, 1888; ibid., Études sur l'Allemagne politique (Paris, 1890).[(Back)]
Footnote 284: See p. [285].[(Back)]
Footnote 285: P. Laband, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches, I., 91.[(Back)]
Footnote 286: On the more purely juristic aspects of the Empire the best work in English is Howard, The German Empire (Chap. 2, on "The Empire and the Individual States"). A very useful volume covering the governments of Empire and states is Combes de Lestrade, Les monarchies de l'Empire allemand (Paris, 1904). The monumental German treatise is P. Laband, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches (4th ed., Tübingen, 1901), in four volumes. There is a six-volume French translation of this work, Le droit public de L'Empire allemand (Paris, 1900-1904). Other German works of value are: O. Mayer, Deutsches Verwaltungsrecht (Leipzig, 1895-1896); P. Zorn, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches (2d ed., Berlin, 1895-1897); and A. Arndt, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches (Berlin, 1901). There is a four-volume French translation of Mayer's important work, under the title Le droit administratif allemand (Paris, 1903-1906). Two excellent brief German treatises are: P. Laband, Deutsches Reichsstaatsrecht (3d ed., Tübingen, 1907), and Hue de Grais, Handbuch der Verfassung und Verwaltung in Preussen und dem deutschen Reiche (18th ed., Berlin, 1907). The most recent work upon the subject is F. Fleiner, Institutionen des deutschen Verwaltungsrechts (Tübingen, 1911). A suggestive monograph is J. du Buy, Two Aspects of the German Constitution (New Haven, 1894).[(Back)]
Footnote 287: Howard, German Empire, 21.[(Back)]
Footnote 288: Matters placed under the supervision of the Empire and made subject to Imperial legislation are enumerated in the sixteen sections of Article 4 of the constitution. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 327-328.[(Back)]
Footnote 289: Laband, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches (2d ed.), I., 102-103.[(Back)]
Footnote 290: Laband, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches, § 7-10; Lebon, Études sur l'Allemagne politique, 93-104.[(Back)]
Footnote 291: Art. 19. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 332.[(Back)]
Footnote 292: A. Lebon, La constitution allemande et l'hégémonie prussienne, in Annales de l'École Libre des Sciences Politiques, Jan., 1887.[(Back)]
Footnote 293: Arts. 61, 63, 64. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 345-347.[(Back)]
Footnote 294: The first of the Prussian military treaties, that concluded with Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, dates from 1861; the last, that with Brunswick, from 1885.[(Back)]
Footnote 295: Howard, The German Empire, Chap. 12; Laband, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches, §§ 95-113; C. Morhain, De l'empire allemand (Paris, 1886), Chap. 15.[(Back)]
Footnote 296: Laband, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches, §§ 11-13.[(Back)]
Footnote 297: Art. 78. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 351.[(Back)]
Footnote 298: Art. ii. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 330. It will be observed that the title is not "Emperor of Germany." The phrase selected was intended to denote that the Emperor is only primus inter pares in a confederation of territorial sovereigns (Landesherren.) He is a territorial sovereign only in Prussia.[(Back)]
Footnote 299: Arts. 53-58 of the Prussian Constitution. See p. [253].[(Back)]
Footnote 300: R. C. Brooks, Lèse Majesté, in The Bookman, June, 1904.[(Back)]
Footnote 301: Howard, The German Empire, Chap. 12; Laband, Deutsches Reichsstaatsrecht, 345-359.[(Back)]
Footnote 302: Art. II. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 330.[(Back)]
Footnote 303: Art. II, clause 3. Dodd, I., 331.[(Back)]
Footnote 304: Art. 12. Ibid.[(Back)]
Footnote 305: "The laws of the Empire shall receive their binding force by Imperial promulgation, through the medium of an Imperial Gazette. If no other time is designated for the published law to take effect it shall become effective on the fourteenth day after its publication in the Imperial Gazette at Berlin." Art. 2. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 326.[(Back)]
Footnote 306: Art. 19. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 332.[(Back)]
Footnote 307: Art. 18. Ibid.[(Back)]
Footnote 308: Art. 19. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 332. On the status and functions of the German Emperor see Howard, The German Empire, Chap. 3; J. W. Burgess, The German Emperor, in Political Science Quarterly, June, 1888; Laband, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches, §§ 24-26; ibid., Das deutsche Kaiserthum (Strassburg, 1896); R. Fischer, Das Recht des deutschen Kaisers (Berlin, 1895); K. Binding, Die rechtliche Stellung des Kaisers (Dresden, 1898); R. Steinbach, Die rechtliche Stellung des deutschen Kaisers verglichen mit des Präsidenten der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika (Leipzig, 1903).[(Back)]
Footnote 309: Arts. 15 and 17. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 331.[(Back)]
Footnote 310: For an excellent discussion of this general subject see W. J. Shepard, Tendencies toward Ministerial Responsibility in Germany, in American Political Science Review, Feb., 1911. In the course of an impassioned speech in the Reichstag in 1912, occasioned by a storm of protest against the Emperor's alleged threat to withdraw the newly granted constitution of Alsace-Lorraine, Chancellor von Bethmann-Hollweg stated the theory and fact of the office which he holds in these sentences: "No situation has been created for which I cannot take the responsibility. As long as I stand in this place I shield the Emperor (trete ich vor den Kaiser). This not for courtiers' considerations, of which I know nothing, but as in duty bound. When I cannot satisfy this my duty you will see me no more in this place."[(Back)]
Footnote 311: Art. 15, cl. 2. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 331.[(Back)]
Footnote 312: At the same time it is to be observed that, in practice, the more important state secretaries are apt to sustain a relation with the other organs of government which is somewhat closer than might be inferred from what has been said. Not infrequently they sit in the Bundesrath, and are by reason of that fact privileged to defend their measures in person on the floor of the Reichstag. Not infrequently, too, they are members of the Prussian ministry.[(Back)]
Footnote 313: Laband, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches, §§ 41, 64-66.[(Back)]
Footnote 314: The law of 1878 was enacted on the occasion of Bismarck's prolonged absence from Berlin, during his retirement at Varzin. A Generalstellvertreter takes the title of Reichsvicekanzler, or Imperial Vice-Chancellor.[(Back)]
Footnote 315: On the status and functions of the Chancellor see Howard, The German Empire, Chap. 7; Laband, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches, § 40; L. Dupriez, Les ministres dans les principaux pays d'Europe et d'Amérique, 2 vols. (Paris, 1892), I., 483-548; Hensel, Die stellung des Reichskanzlers nach dem Staatsrechte des deutschen Reiches, in Hirth, Annalen des deutschen Reiches, 1882; M. I. Tambaro, La transformation des pouvoirs en Allemagne, in Revue du Droit Public, July-Sept., 1910.[(Back)]
Footnote 316: Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., 259.[(Back)]
Footnote 317: Under the Alsace-Lorraine Constitution Act of 1911 (see p. [285]), comprising for all practical purposes an amendment of the Imperial constitution, the territory of Alsace-Lorraine has become nominally a state of the Empire, being accorded three votes in the Bundesrath. The whole number of votes was thus raised to sixty-one. The Alsatian delegates are appointed by the Statthalter, who is the immediate and responsible agent of the Emperor. Their votes are cast, however, under regulations which are inconsistent with full-fledged statehood.[(Back)]
Footnote 318: Art. 10. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 330.[(Back)]
Footnote 319: Arts. 13 and 14. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 331.[(Back)]
Footnote 320: Art. 5. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 328.[(Back)]
Footnote 321: Art. 8. Ibid., I., 330. Strictly, the Bundesrath but indicates by ballot the states which shall be represented on each committee, leaving to the states themselves the right to name their representatives.[(Back)]
Footnote 322: Art. 5. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 328.[(Back)]
Footnote 323: Art. 7. Dodd, I., 329.[(Back)]
Footnote 324: Arts. 9 and 24. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 330-333. It should be observed, however, that the members of the Bundesrath are authorized to appear in the Reichstag, not for the purpose of advocating a measure which the Bundesrath has enacted, or would be willing to enact, but simply to voice the interests or demands of their own states.[(Back)]
Footnote 325: Art. 77. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 350.[(Back)]
Footnote 326: Art. 76. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 350. On the Bundesrath see Howard, The German Empire, Chap. 4; J. H. Robinson, The German Bundesrath, in Publications of University of Pennsylvania, III. (Philadelphia, 1891); P. Laband, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches, §§ 27-31; A. Lebon, Études sur l'Allemagne politique, 137-151; Dupriez, Les Ministres, I., 505-523; Zorn, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches, I., 136-160; E. Kliemke, Die Staatsrechtliche Natur und Stellung des Bundesrathes (Berlin, 1894); A. Herwegen, Reichsverfassung und Bundesrat (Cologne, 1902).[(Back)]
Footnote 327: The term, originally three years, was made five by a law of 1888. The modification went into effect with the Reichstag elected in February, 1890.[(Back)]
Footnote 328: In Conservative East Prussia the average number of voters in a district is 121,000; in Socialist Berlin it is 345,000. Twelve of the most populous districts represented in the Reichstag contain 1,950,000 voters; twelve of the least populous, 170,000. The district of Schaumburg-Lippe has but 9,891.[(Back)]
Footnote 329: Art. 25. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 333.[(Back)]
Footnote 330: By reason of the multiplicity of parties the number of second ballotings required is invariably large. In 1890 it was 138; in 1893, 181; in 1898, 185; in 1903, 180; in 1907, 158; and in 1912, 191. It is calculated that the effect of forty per cent of the second ballotings is to prevent the election of the candidate obtaining originally the largest number of votes. The arrangement operates to the advantage principally of the National Liberals, the Radicals, and other essentially moderate parties, and to the disadvantage especially of the Social Democrats. On this subject see A. N. Holcombe, Direct Primaries and the Second Ballot, in American Political Science Review, Nov., 1911.[(Back)]
Footnote 331: Art. 29. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 333.[(Back)]
Footnote 332: On the German Imperial electoral system see Howard, The German Empire, Chap. 5; Lebon, Études sur l'Allemagne politique, 70-83; ibid., Étude sur la législation électorale de l'empire d'Allemagne, in Bulletin de Législation Comparée, 1879; G. Below, Das parlamentarische Wahlrecht in Deutschland (Berlin, 1909); and M. H. Nézard, L'Évolution du suffrage universel en Prusse et dans l'Empire allemand, in Revue du Droit Public, Oct.-Dec., 1904.[(Back)]
Footnote 333: "The members of the Reichstag, as such, shall draw no salary or compensation." Art. 32. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 334.[(Back)]
Footnote 334: Cf. the Osborne Judgment of 1909 in England (see p. [127]).[(Back)]
Footnote 335: Arts. 30 and 31. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 334.[(Back)]
Footnote 336: Mention has been made of the regulation that, following a dissolution prior to the end of the five-year term, the chamber shall be convoked within ninety days. It will be recalled, also, that the Bundesrath may be convoked without the Reichstag.[(Back)]
Footnote 337: Nominally by a resolution of the Bundesrath, with the consent of the Emperor. Art. 24. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 333.[(Back)]
Footnote 338: Art. 27. Ibid.[(Back)]
Footnote 339: Art. 22. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 333.[(Back)]
Footnote 340: Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., 257.[(Back)]
Footnote 341: On the Reichstag see Howard, The German Empire, Chap. 5; A. Lebon, Le Reichstag allemand, in Annales de l'École Libre des Sciences Politiques, April, 1889; ibid., Études sur l'Allemagne politique, Chap. 2; Laband, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches, §§ 32-38; H. Robalsky, Der deutsche Reichstag (Berlin, 1897); G. Leser, Untersuchungen über das Wahlprüfungsrecht des deutschen Reichstags (Leipzig, 1908). There is a full discussion of German methods of legislation in Laband, op. cit., §§ 54-59.[(Back)]
Footnote 342: To so great an extent is this true that, having described in this place the parties of the Empire, it will not be necessary subsequently to allude at length to those of Prussia.[(Back)]
Footnote 343: This measure provided that each year all proceeds from the Imperial customs and tobacco tax in excess of 130,000,000 marks should be distributed among the several states in proportion to their population. Its author was Frankenstein, a leader of the Centre.[(Back)]
Footnote 344: Conservatives 65, Free Conservatives 24, National Liberals 41.[(Back)]
Footnote 345: The total number of popular votes cast in the election was 10,857,000, of which number government candidates received 4,962,000, and opposition candidates 5,895,000. The numerical strength of the various elements composing the Reichstag consequent upon the elections of 1903 and 1907 was as follows:
| 1903 | 1907 | Seats gained | Seats lost | |||||
| Centre | 102 | 104 | 2 | 0 | ||||
| Conservatives | 53 | 58 | 5 | 0 | ||||
| Free Conservatives | 22 | 22 | 0 | 0 | ||||
| National Liberals | 51 | 56 | 5 | 0 | ||||
| Social Democrats | 79 | 43 | 0 | 36 | ||||
| Radicals | 42 | 50 | 8 | 0 | ||||
| Antisemites and Economic Union | 22 | 30 | 8 | 0 | ||||
| Poles | 16 | 20 | 4 | 0 | ||||
| Liberal Union | 10 | 13 | 3 | 0 | ||||
| Volkspartei (Democrats of South) | 6 | 7 | 1 | 0 | ||||
| Alsatians | 10 | 7 | 0 | 3 | ||||
| Guelfs or Hanoverians | 5 | 1 | 0 | 4 | ||||
| Danes | 1 | 1 | 6 | 0 | ||||
| Independents | 0 | 7 | 7 | 0 | ||||
| —— | —— | —— | —— | |||||
| Total | 397 | 397 | 43 | 43 | ||||
Footnote 346: The gravest abuse in connection with the conduct of campaigns and elections in Germany is the pressure which the Government brings to bear systematically upon the enormous official population and upon railway employees (alone numbering 600,000) to vote Conservative, or, in districts where there is no Conservative candidate, Centrist. This pressure is applied through the local bureaucratic organs, principally the Landrath of the Kreis, who not uncommonly is a youthful official of noble origin, related to some important landed family, and a rigid Conservative. It has been estimated that official influence controls a million votes at every national election.[(Back)]
Footnote 347: Many of the socialist victories were, of course, at the expense of the National Liberals and Radicals.[(Back)]
Footnote 348: The number of electors inscribed on the lists was 14,236,722. The number who actually voted was 12,188,337. The exact vote of the Social Democrats was 4,238,919; of the National Liberals, 1,671,297; of the Radicals, 1,556,549; of the Centre, 2,012,990; and of the Conservatives, 1,149,916.[(Back)]
Footnote 349: Herr Bebel died August 13, 1913.[(Back)]
Footnote 350: Two important works of recent date dealing with the history and character of political parties in Germany are C. Grotewald, Die Parteien des deutschen Reichstags. Band I. Der Politik des deutschen Reiches in Einzeldarstellungen (Leipzig, 1908); and O. Stillich, Die politischen Parteien in Deutschland. Band I. Die Konservativen (Leipzig, 1908), Band II. Der Liberalismus (Leipzig, 1911). The second is a portion of a scholarly work planned to be in five volumes. A brief treatise is F. Wegener, Die deutschkonservative Partei und ihre Aufgaben für die Gegenwart (Berlin, 1908). An admirable study of the Centre is L. Goetze, Das Zentrum, eine Konfessionelle Partie; Beiträge zur seiner Geschichte (Bonn, 1906). The rise of the Centre is well described in L. Hahn, Geschichte des Kulturkampfes (Berlin, 1881). On the rise and progress of the Social Democracy see E. Milhaud, La démocratie socialiste allemande (Paris, 1903); C. Andler, Origines du socialisme d'état en Allemagne (Paris, 1906); E. Kirkup, History of Socialism (London, 1906); W. Sombart, Socialism (New York, 1898); W. Dawson, Bismarck and State Socialism (London, 1891); J. Perrin, The German Social Democracy, in North American Review, Oct., 1910. Under the title "Chroniques politiques" there is printed in the Annales (since 1911 the Revue) des Sciences Politiques every year an excellent review of the current politics of Germany, as of other European nations. Other articles of value are: M. Caudel, Les élections allemandes du 16 juin, 1898, et le nouveau Reichstag, in Annales de l'École Libre des Sciences Politiques, Nov., 1898; J. Hahn, Une élection au Reichstag allemand, in Annales des Sciences Politiques, Nov., 1903; G. Isambert, Le parti du centre en Allemagne et les élections de janvier-février 1907, ibid., March, 1907; P. Matter, La crise du chancelier en Allemagne, ibid., Sept., 1909; A. Marvaud, La presse politique allemande, in Questions Diplomatiques et Coloniales, March 16 and April 1, 1910. There are valuable chapters on German politics in W. Dawson, The Evolution of Modern Germany (London, 1908) and O. Eltzbacher (or J. Ellis Barker), Modern Germany, her Political and Economic Problems (new ed., London, 1912). For a sketch of party history during the period 1871-1894 see Lowell, Governments and Parties, II., Chap. 7. An excellent survey of the period 1906-1911 is contained in P. Matter, D'un Reichstag à l'autre, in Revue des Sciences Politiques, July-Aug., 1911. On the elections of 1912 see G. Blondel, Les élections au Reichstag et la situation nouvelle des partis, in Le Correspondant, Jan. 25, 1912; J. W. Jenks, The German Elections, in Review of Reviews, Jan., 1912; A. Quist, Les élections du Reichstag allemand, in Revue Socialiste, Feb. 15, 1912; and W. Martin, La crise constitutionelle et politique en Allemagne, in Revue Politique et Parlementaire, Aug. 10, 1912.[(Back)]
Footnote 351: Art. 4. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 328.[(Back)]
Footnote 352: It was replaced by a new code May 10, 1897.[(Back)]
Footnote 353: A convenient manual for English readers is E. M. Borchard, Guide to the Law and Legal Literature of Germany (Washington, 1912), the first of a series of guides to European law in preparation in the Library of Congress.[(Back)]
Footnote 354: In Bavaria alone there is an Oberste Landesgericht, with twenty-one judges. Its relation to the Bavarian Oberlandesgerichte is that of an appellate tribunal.[(Back)]
Footnote 355: The highest administrative court is the Oberverwaltungsgericht, whose members are appointed for life. Under specified conditions, the "committees" of circles, cities, and districts exercise inferior administrative jurisdiction. For the adjustment of disputed or doubtful jurisdictions there stands between the ordinary and the administrative tribunals a Gerichtshof für Kompetenz-konflikte, or Court of Conflicts, consisting of eleven judges appointed for life.[(Back)]
Footnote 356: On the German judiciary see Howard, The German Empire, Chap. 9; Laband, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches, §§ 83-94; C. Morhain, De l'empire allemand (Paris, 1886), Chap. 9.[(Back)]
Footnote 357: The best survey in English of the governments of the German states is that in Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., Chap. 6. Fuller and more recent is G. Combes de Lestrade, Les monarchies de l'empire allemand (Paris, 1904). The most elaborate treatment of the subject is to be found in an excellent series of studies edited by H. von Marquardsen and M. von Seydel under the title Handbuch des Oeffentlichen Rechts der Gegenwart in Monographien (Freiburg and Tübingen, 1883-1909). A new series of monographs, comprising substantially a revision of this collection, is at present in course of publication by J. C. B. Mohr at Tübingen. The texts of the various constitutions are printed in F. Stoerk, Handbuch der deutschen Verfassungen (Leipzig, 1884).[(Back)]
Footnote 358: See pp. [200-201], 207.[(Back)]
Footnote 359: L. A. Himly, Histoire de la formation territoriale des états de l'Europe centrale, 2 vols. (Paris, 1876), I., 93-110.[(Back)]
Footnote 360: It is to be observed that while Stein was officially the author of this reform, the substance of the changes introduced had been agreed upon by the king and his advisers before Stein's accession to office (October 4, 1807). The Edict of Emancipation was promulgated October 9, 1807. It made the abolition of serfdom final and absolute on and after October 8, 1810.[(Back)]
Footnote 361: E. Meier, Reform der Verwaltungsorganisation unter Stein und Hardenberg (Leipzig, 1881); J. R. Seeley, Life and Times of Stein, 3 vols. (Boston, 1879), Pt. III., Chaps. 3-4, Pt. V., Chaps. 1-3.[(Back)]
Footnote 362: The system was created by royal patent June 5, 1823.[(Back)]
Footnote 363: See p. [198].[(Back)]
Footnote 364: Known technically as Versammlung zur Vereinbarung der preussischen Verfassung.[(Back)]
Footnote 365: The confusion of constitutional and ordinary statutory law inherent in this arrangement has influenced profoundly the thought of German jurists.[(Back)]
Footnote 366: On the establishment of constitutionalism in Prussia see (in addition to works mentioned on p. [201]) P. Matter, La Prusse et la révolution de 1848, in Revue Historique, Sept.-Oct., 1902; P. Devinat, Le mouvement constitutionnel en Prusse de 1840 à 1847, ibid., Sept.-Oct. and Nov.-Dec., 1911; Klaczko, L'agitation allemande et la Prusse, in Revue des Deux Mondes, Dec., 1862, and Jan., 1863; C. Bornhak, Preussische Staats-und Rechtsgeschichte (Berlin, 1903); H. von Petersdorff, König Friedrich Wilhelm IV. (Stuttgart, 1900); and H. G. Prutz, Preussische Geschichte, 4 vols. to 1888 (Stuttgart, 1900-1902). For full bibliography see Cambridge Modern History, XI., 893-898.[(Back)]
Footnote 367: As is true in governmental systems generally, by no means all of the essential features of the working constitution are to be found in the formal documents, much less in the written constitution alone. In Prussia ordinances, legislative acts, and administrative procedure, dating from both before and after 1850, have to be taken into account continually if one would understand the constitutional order in its entirety.[(Back)]
Footnote 368: Dupriez, Les Ministres, I., 350.[(Back)]
Footnote 369: Arts. 3-42. Robinson, Constitution of the Kingdom of Prussia, 27-34.[(Back)]
Footnote 370: Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., 286.[(Back)]
Footnote 371: There is an annotated English version of the Prussian constitution, edited by J. H. Robinson, in the Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Supplement, Sept., 1894. The original text will be found in F. Stoerk, Handbuch der deutschen Verfassungen (Leipzig, 1884), 44-63; also, with elaborate notes, in A. Arndt, Die Verfassungs-Urkunde für den preussischen Staat nebst Erganzungs-und Ausführungs-Gesetzen, mit Einleitung, Kommentar und Sachregister (Berlin, 1889). The principal treatises on the Prussian constitutional system are H. Schulze, Das preussisches Staatsrecht, auf Grundlage des deutschen Staatsrechtes (Leipzig, 1872-1874); ibid., Das Staatsrecht des Königreichs Preussen, in Marquardsen's Handbuch (Freiburg, 1884); L. von Rönne, Das Staatsrecht der preussischen Monarchie (Leipzig, 1881-1884); and H. de Grais, Handbuch der Verfassung und Verwaltung in Preussen und dem deutschen Reiche (11th ed., Berlin, 1896). A good brief account is that in A. Lebon, Études sur l'Allemagne politique, Chap. 4.[(Back)]
Footnote 372: They are enumerated in articles 45-52 of the constitution. Robinson, Constitution of the Kingdom of Prussia, 36-37.[(Back)]
Footnote 373: Schulze, Preussisches Staatsrecht, I., 158.[(Back)]
Footnote 374: The Minister of Foreign Affairs is at the same time the Minister-President of Prussia and the Chancellor of the Empire. On the functions of the various ministries see Dupriez, Les Ministres, I., 448-462.[(Back)]
Footnote 375: Art. 44.[(Back)]
Footnote 376: Art. 61. Robinson, Constitution of the Kingdom of Prussia, 40. In the words of a German jurist, "the anomaly continues to exist in Prussia of ministerial responsibility solemnly enunciated in the constitution, the character of the responsibility, the accuser and the court specified, and at the same time a complete lack of any legal means by which the representatives of the people can protect even the constitution itself against the most flagrant violations and the most dangerous attacks." Schulze, Preussisches Staatsrecht, II., 694.[(Back)]
Footnote 377: The office of Chancellor was discontinued with the death of Hardenberg and that of Minister-President substituted. The Chancellor possessed substantial authority over his colleagues. Since 1871, the Minister-President has been a Chancellor, but of the Empire, not of Prussia.[(Back)]
Footnote 378: The Staats-Ministerium was called into being, to replace the old Council of State, by an ordinance of October 27, 1810. Its functions were further elaborated in cabinet orders of June 3, 1814, and November 3, 1817. The constitution of 1850 preserved it and assigned it some new duties.[(Back)]
Footnote 379: On the organization and functions of the Prussian ministry see Dupriez, Les Ministres, I., 345-462; von Seydel, Preussisches Staatsrecht, 91-104; von Rönne, Das Staatsrecht der preussischen Monarchie, 4th ed., III.; Schulze, Das preussische Staatsrecht, II.[(Back)]
Footnote 380: Lebon, Études sur l'Allemagne politique, 187-197.[(Back)]
Footnote 381: Prior to 1906 the Berlin representatives were chosen in four electoral districts, but in the year mentioned the city was divided into twelve single-member constituencies.[(Back)]
Footnote 382: As stipulated in articles 69-75 of the constitution. Robinson, The Constitution of the Kingdom of Prussia, 42-44.[(Back)]
Footnote 383: In the event that, between elections, a seat falls vacant, a new member is chosen forthwith by this same body of Wahlmänner without a fresh appeal to the original electorate of the district.[(Back)]
Footnote 384: For a brief exposition of the practical effects of the system, especially on political parties, see Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., 305-308. The system as it operates in the cities is described in Munro, The Government of European Cities, 128-135, and in R. C. Brooks, The Three-Class System in Prussian Cities, in Municipal Affairs, II., 396ff. Among special treatises may be mentioned H. Nézard, L'Évolution du suffrage universel en Prusse et dans l'Empire allemand (Paris, 1905); I. Jastrow, Das Dreiklassensystem (Berlin, 1894); R. von Gneist, Die nationale Rechtsidee von den Ständen und das preussische Dreiklassensystem (Berlin, 1904); and G. Evert, Die Dreiklassenwahl in den preussischen Stadt-und Landgemeinden (Berlin, 1901).[(Back)]
Footnote 385: P. Matter, La réforme électorale en Prusse, in Annales des Sciences Politiques, Sept., 1910; C. Brocard, La réforme électorale en Prusse et les partis, in Revue Politique et Parlementaire, Feb., 1912.[(Back)]
Footnote 386: Art. 76.[(Back)]
Footnote 387: Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., 298.[(Back)]
Footnote 388: The judicial system of Prussia, regulated in common with that of the other states by Imperial law, is described in Chapter 11, pp. 241-244. Articles 86-97 of the Prussian constitution deal with the subject of the judiciary, but many of their provisions have been rendered obsolete by Imperial statutes.[(Back)]
Footnote 389: The text of the law of 1853 is printed in the appendix of A. W. Jebens, Die Städtverordneten (Berlin, 1905).[(Back)]
Footnote 390: E. Meier, Die Reform der Verwaltungsorganisation unter Stein und Hardenberg (Leipzig, 1881).[(Back)]
Footnote 391: The most important of Gneist's works in this connection are: Geschichte des self-government in England (1863); Verwaltung, Justiz, Rechtsweg (1867); Die preussische Kreis-Ordnung (1871); and Der Rechtsstaat (1872).[(Back)]
Footnote 392: Ashley, Local and Central Government, 130-132.[(Back)]
Footnote 393: For all practical purposes the city of Berlin and the district of Hohenzollern form each a province. If they be counted, the total is fourteen.[(Back)]
Footnote 394: Schulze, Das Staatsrecht des Königreichs Preussen, 63.[(Back)]
Footnote 395: Towns of twenty-five thousand inhabitants or more may, by ministerial decree, be set off as separate circles. In such circles Landtag members are chosen by the municipal officials.[(Back)]
Footnote 396: The province of Schleswig-Holstein, however, contains but a single district. The largest number of districts in a province is six, in Hanover.[(Back)]
Footnote 397: The immediate legal basis of the organization of the district is the Landesverwaltungsgesetz of 1883.[(Back)]
Footnote 398: Approximately one hundred towns have been so constituted.[(Back)]
Footnote 399: For a fuller statement of the electoral system see Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., 325.[(Back)]
Footnote 400: The Amtsbezirk is essentially a judicial district. See p. [243]. In the eastern provinces it is utilized also for purposes of police administration.[(Back)]
Footnote 401: For an annotated edition of this important instrument see F. Keil, Die Landgemeinde-ordnung (Leipzig, 1890).[(Back)]
Footnote 402: On Prussian local government see Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., 308-333; F. J. Goodnow, Comparative Administrative Law (2d ed., New York, 1903), I., 295-338; and Ashley, Local and Central Government (London, 1906), 125-186, 263-287. Fuller accounts are contained in Schulze, Das preussische Staatsrecht, I., 436-538; K. Stengel, Organisation der preussischen Verwaltung, 2 vols. (Berlin, 1884); C. Bornhak, Preussisches Staatsrecht, 3 vols. (Freiburg, 1888-1890), and Hue de Grais, Handbuch der Verfassung und Verwaltung in Preussen, etc. (17th ed., Berlin, 1906). Texts of local government acts are printed in G. Anschutz, Organisations-gesetze der innern Verwaltung in Preussen (Berlin, 1897). The best description in English of Prussian municipal government is that in Munro, The Government of European Cities, 109-208. A good brief sketch is Ashley, Local and Central Government, 153-164. The best account of some length in German is H. Kappleman, Die Verfassung und Verwaltungsorganisation der preussischen Städte, in Schriften des Vereins für Sozialpolitik (Leipzig, 1905-1908), vols. 117-119. Mention may be made of A. Shaw, Municipal Government in Continental Europe (New York, 1895), Chaps. 5-6; E. J. James, Municipal Administration in Germany (Chicago, 1901); and Leclerc, La Vie municipale en Prusse, in Annales de l'École Libre des Sciences Politiques, Oct., 1888. For ample bibliography see Munro, op. cit., 389-395.[(Back)]
Footnote 403: The texts of these constitutions, in the form in which they existed in 1884, are printed in Stoerk, Handbuch der deutschen Verfassungen. Even in the Mecklenburgs there are certain written instruments by which the curiously mediæval system of government there prevailing is in a measure regulated.[(Back)]
Footnote 404: Among amendments the most notable have been that of March 9, 1828, relating to the composition of the upper legislative chamber; those of June 4, 1848, and March 21, 1881, by which was modified the composition of the lower house; and that of April 8, 1906, whereby direct elections were substituted for indirect.[(Back)]
Footnote 405: The crown is hereditary in the house of Wittelbach, by which it was acquired as early as 1180. From 1886, the king, Otto I., being insane, the powers of the sovereign were exercised by the prince regent Luitpold, until his death December 12, 1912.[(Back)]
Footnote 406: Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., 338.[(Back)]
Footnote 407: Grassman, Die bayerische Landtagswahlgesetz vom 8 April, 1906, in Jahrbuch des Oeffentlichen Rechts der Gegenwart, I., 242. A law of April 15, 1908, introduced the principle of proportional representation in Bavarian municipal elections.[(Back)]
Footnote 408: M. von Seydel, Das Staatsrecht des Königreichs Bayern, (Freiburg, 1888), in Marquardsen's Handbuch; E. Junod, La Bavière et l'Empire allemande, in Annales de l'École Libre des Sciences Politiques, Apr. 15, 1892.[(Back)]
Footnote 409: The crown is hereditary in the Albertine line of the house of Wettin, with reversion to the Ernestine line, of which the duke of Saxe-Weimar is now the head. The present sovereign is Frederick August III.[(Back)]
Footnote 410: O. Mayer, Das Staatsrecht des Königreichs Sachsen (Tübingen, 1909).[(Back)]
Footnote 411: The reigning sovereign is William II.[(Back)]
Footnote 412: J. Fontaine, La représentation proportionnelle en Württemberg, in Revue Politique et Parlementaire, Jan., 1911; ibid., La représentation proportionnelle en Württemberg (Paris, 1909).[(Back)]
Footnote 413: G. Combes de Lestrade, Monarchies de l'Empire allemand, 181; L. Gaupp, Das Staatsrecht des Königreichs Württemberg (Freiburg and Tübingen, 1884), in Marquardsen's Handbuch; W. Bazille, Das Staats-und Verwaltungsrecht des Königreichs Württemberg (Hanover, 1908), in Bibliothek des Oeffentlichen Rechts der Gegenwart. The monograph of Gaupp, revised by him in 1895 and by K. Göz in 1904, has been re-issued as essentially a new volume by Göz (Tübingen, 1908).[(Back)]
Footnote 414: Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., 345; K. Schenkel, Das Staatsrecht des Grossherzogthums Baden (Freiburg and Tübingen, 1884), in Marquardsen's Handbuch.[(Back)]
Footnote 415: The dates of the original promulgation of constitutions at present in operation are: Saxe-Weimar, 1816; Hesse, 1820; Saxe-Meiningen, 1829; Saxe-Altenburg, 1832; Brunswick, 1832; Lippe, 1836; Oldenburg, 1852; Waldeck, 1852; Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 1852; Reuss Jüngerer Linie, 1852 and 1856; Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt, 1854; Schwartzburg-Sonderhausen, 1857; Anhalt, 1859; Reuss Älterer Linie, 1867; and Schaumburg-Lippe, 1868.[(Back)]
Footnote 416: Repeated attempts to bring about a modernization of the Mecklenburg constitutional system have failed. Several times the liberal elements in the Reichstag have carried a proposal that to the Imperial constitution there should be added a clause requiring that in every state of the Empire there shall be an assembly representative of the whole people. On the ground that such an amendment would comprise an admission that the constitutions of the states are subject to revision at the hand of the Empire, the Bundesrath has invariably rejected the proposal. In 1907 the grand-duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin inaugurated a movement for political reform, and in 1908 there was drafted a constitution providing for the establishment of a Landtag whose members should be chosen in part by the landed, industrial, professional, and official classes and in part by manhood suffrage. Late in 1909 the Ritterschaft (i.e., the estate comprising owners of knights' fees) rejected the proposal, as, indeed, it had rejected similar ones on earlier occasions.[(Back)]
Footnote 417: The presiding officer of the Senate is a burgomaster, chosen for one year by the senators from their own number. The burgomaster as such, however, possesses no administrative power.[(Back)]
Footnote 418: The party which had contended most vigorously for Alsatian autonomy.[(Back)]
Footnote 419: On the organization of Alsace-Lorraine prior to 1911 see Howard, The German Empire, Chap. 10; Laband, Das Staatsrecht des deutschen Reiches, §§ 67-69; P. Gerber, La condition de l'Alsace-Lorraine dans l'Empire allemand (Lille, 1906), and L'Administration en Alsace-Lorraine, in Revue du Droit Public, Oct.-Dec, 1909. On the problem of reform and the legislation of 1911 see R. Henry, La question d'Alsace-Lorraine, in Questions Diplomatiques et Coloniales, Feb. 1 and March 16, 1904; P. Braun, Alsace-Lorraine—La réforme de la constitution, ibid., Nov. 16, 1905, and Jan. 1, 1906; Alsace-Lorraine en 1908, ibid., March 1, 1909; Alsace-Lorraine—les préludes d'une lutte nationale, ibid., April 16, 1910; La constitution d'Alsace-Lorraine, ibid., March 16, 1911; A. Wetterlé, L'Autonomie de Alsace-Lorraine, in Le Correspondant, Aug. 25, 1910, La nouvelle loi constitutionnelle de l'Alsace-Lorraine, ibid., June 10, 1911, and Les élections en Alsace-Lorraine, ibid., Nov. 25, 1911; Eccard, L'Autonomie de l'Alsace-Lorraine, in Revue Politique et Parlementaire, Nov. 10, 1910: G. Bruck, Die Reform der Verfassung von Elsass Lothringen, in Annalen des deutschen Reichs, 1911, I; and P. Heitz, La loi constitutionnelle de l'Alsace-Lorraine du 31 mai, 1911, in Revue du Droit Public, July-Sept., 1911, containing French translations of the documents. See also Annual Register for 1911, 328-332.[(Back)]
Footnote 420: A constitutional committee of five had been appointed the previous July 14; but, its recommendation proving unacceptable to the Assembly, it had resigned, September 11.[(Back)]
Footnote 421: Of the whole number of deputies, 247 were apportioned according to departmental areas and 249 according each to population and tax quotas.[(Back)]
Footnote 422: The texts of all French constitutions and fundamental laws since 1789 are printed in several collections, of which the best is L. Duguit et H. Monnier, Les constitutions et les principales lois politiques de la France depuis 1789 (Paris, 1898). Other serviceable collections are F. Hélie, Les constitutions de la France (Paris, 1880) and E. Pierre, Organisation des pouvoirs publics; recueil des lois constitutionnelles et organiques (Paris, 1902). For English versions see F. M. Anderson, The Constitutions and other Select Documents illustrative of the History of France, 1789-1907 (2d ed., Minneapolis, 1908). The various constitutions are excellently summarized in M. Block, Dictionnaire général de la politique, 2 vols. (Paris, 1884), I., 494-518. For the text of the constitution of 1791 see Duguit et Monnier, 1-35; Hélie, 268-294; Anderson, 58-95. For summary, Block, I., 494-497. Dupriez, Les Ministres, II., 253-269; Cambridge Modern History, VIII., Chap. 7.[(Back)]
Footnote 423: The members of the Convention were elected by manhood suffrage, one of the last acts of the Legislative Body having been the repeal of the tax qualification required by the constitution of 1791.[(Back)]
Footnote 424: September 22 was reckoned the first day of the Year I. of French liberty, and the fundamental law of June 24, 1793, was known as the constitution of the Year I. For an illuminating sketch of the rise of the republic see H. A. L. Fisher, The Republican Tradition in Europe (New York, 1911), Chap. 4.[(Back)]
Footnote 425: Text in Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 66-78; Hélie, Les Constitutions, 376-384; Anderson, Constitutions, 171-184. Summary in Block, Dictionnaire Général, 497-498.[(Back)]
Footnote 426: For the text of the constitution of 1795 see Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 78-118; Hélie, Les Constitutions, 436-466; Anderson, Constitutions, 212-254. Summary in Block, Dictionnaire Général, 498-500. Cambridge Modern History, VIII., Chap. 13; G. Dodu, Le parlementarisme et les parlementaires sous la Révolution, 1789-1799; origines du régime représentatif en France (Paris, 1911); Fisher, Republican Tradition in Europe, Chap. 5.[(Back)]
Footnote 427: In favor of the new constitution there were cast 3,011,007 votes; against it, 1,562.[(Back)]
Footnote 428: The constitution of the Year III., containing 377 articles, is one of the lengthiest documents of the sort on record.[(Back)]
Footnote 429: Under this system the primary electors numbered about 5,000,000; the district notables, 500,000; the departmental notables, 50,000; and the national list, 5,000.[(Back)]
Footnote 430: The text of the constitution of the Year VIII. is in Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 118-129; Hélie, Les Constitutions, 577-585; and Anderson, Constitutions, 270-281. Summary in Block, Dictionnaire Général, I., 500-505. Cambridge Modern History, IX., Chap. 1.[(Back)]
Footnote 431: Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 179-182; Anderson, Constitutions, 446-450; Block, Dictionnaire Général, I., 505-506.[(Back)]
Footnote 432: By law of December 29, 1831, it was stipulated that only life peers might thereafter be appointed, and the king was required to take all appointees from a prescribed list of dignitaries. Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 231-232.[(Back)]
Footnote 433: A law of June 9, 1824, stipulated that thereafter the Chamber of Deputies should be elected integrally for a period of seven years. Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 211.[(Back)]
Footnote 434: The text of the Charter of 1814 may be found in Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, I., 183-190; Hélie, Les Constitutions, 884-890; and, in English translation, in Anderson, Constitutions, 457-465, and University of Pennsylvania Translations and Reprints, I., No. 3. Summary in Block, Dictionnaire Général, I., 506-508. Cambridge Modern History, IX., Chap. 18.[(Back)]
Footnote 435: Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 206-209; Hélie, Les Constitutions, 934-936.[(Back)]
Footnote 436: For the act of the Chambers relative to the modification of the Constitutional Charter and to the accession of Louis Philippe, see Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 213-218; Hélie, Les Constitutions, 987-992; and Anderson, Constitutions, 507-513. The electoral law of 1831 is in Duguit et Monnier, 219-230. Cambridge Modern History, X., Chap. 15; G. Weill, La France sous la monarchic constitutionnelle, 1814-1848 (new ed., Paris, 1912).[(Back)]
Footnote 437: Including representatives of Algeria and the colonies.[(Back)]
Footnote 438: Electoral law of March 15, 1849. Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 247-265.[(Back)]
Footnote 439: Dupriez, Les Ministres, II., 308-312. The text of the Constitution of 1848 is in Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 232-246; Hélie, Les Constitutions, 1102-1113; and Anderson, Constitutions, 522-537. Summary in Block, Dictionnaire Général, I., 510-513. Cambridge Modern History, XI., Chap. 5; V. Pierre, Histoire de la république de 1848, 2 vols. (Paris, 1873-1878); P. de la Gorce, Histoire de la deuxième république française, 2 vols. (Paris, 1887); E. Spuller, Histoire parlementaire de la deuxième république (Paris, 1893); Fisher, Republican Tradition in Europe, Chap. 8.[(Back)]
Footnote 440: Hazen, Europe since 1815, 201.[(Back)]
Footnote 441: The text of this measure is in Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 265-268, and Hélie, Les Constitutions, 1149-1150. H. Laferrière, La loi électorale du 31 mai 1850 (Paris, 1910).[(Back)]
Footnote 442: Anderson, Constitutions, 538-543.[(Back)]
Footnote 443: Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 290-292; Anderson, Constitutions, 560-561.[(Back)]
Footnote 444: Drawn up by a commission of five, under date of January 14, 1852.[(Back)]
Footnote 445: The text of the constitution of 1852 is in Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 274-280; Hélie, Les Constitutions, 1167-1171; Anderson, Constitutions, 543-549. Summary in Block, Dictionnaire Général, I., 513-515. Cambridge Modern History, XI., Chaps. 5, 10.[(Back)]
Footnote 446: Text in Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 307-308; Hélie, Les Constitutions, 1314-1315; and Anderson, Constitutions, 579-580.[(Back)]
Footnote 447: The text of the measure of April 20, 1870, is in Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 308-314; Hélie, Les Constitutions, 1315-1327; and Anderson, Constitutions, 581-586. Cambridge Modern History, XI., Chap. 17; H. Berton, L'évolution constitutionnelle du second empire (Paris, 1900). An important larger work is P. de la Gorce, Histoire du second empire, 7 vols. (Paris, 1894-1905).[(Back)]
Footnote 448: The best account of the beginnings of the Third Republic is that in G. Hanotaux, Histoire de la France contemporaine, 4 vols. (Paris, 1903-1909), I. There is an English translation of this important work by J. C. Tarver. A recent book of value is A. Bertrand, Les origines de la troisième république, 1871-1876 (Paris, 1911). Mention may be made also of E. Zevort, Histoire de la troisième république, 4 vols. (Paris, 1896-1901), I.; C. Duret, Histoire de France de 1870 à 1873 (Paris, 1901); A. Callet, Les origines de la troisième république (Paris, 1889); F. Littré, L'établissement de la troisième république (Paris, 1880); L. E. Benoit, Histoire de quinze ans, 1870-1885 (Paris, 1886); F. T. Marzials, Léon Gambetta (London, 1890); and P. B. Ghensi, Gambetta: Life and Letters (New York, 1910). There is an interesting interpretation in Fisher, Republican Tradition in Europe, Chap. 11.[(Back)]
Footnote 449: Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, cxvi.[(Back)]
Footnote 450: Most of the disqualifications for voting which were enumerated in the law of 1849 were declared inapplicable in the present election.[(Back)]
Footnote 451: G. Weill, Histoire du parti républicain en France de 1814 à 1870 (Paris, 1900).[(Back)]
Footnote 452: Of pure Legitimists there were in the Assembly about 150; of Bonapartists, not over 30; of Republicans, about 250. The remaining members were Orleanists or men of indecisive inclination. At no time was the full membership of the Assembly in attendance.[(Back)]
Footnote 453: In March the Assembly had transferred its sittings from Bordeaux to Versailles.[(Back)]
Footnote 454: Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 315-316; Anderson, Constitutions, 604-606.[(Back)]
Footnote 455: Anderson, Constitutions, 622-627; A. Lefèvre Pontalis, L'Assemblée nationale et M. Thiers, in Le Correspondant, Feb. 10, 1879; A. Thiers, Notes et Souvenirs de 1870 à 1873 (Paris, 1903); J. Simon, Le gouvernement de M. Thiers (Paris, 1878); E. de Marcère, L'Assemblée nationale de 1871 (Paris, 1904).[(Back)]
Footnote 456: Marquis de Castallane, Le dernier essai de restauration monarchique de 1873, in Nouvelle Revue, Nov. 1, 1895.[(Back)]
Footnote 457: Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 319; Anderson, Constitutions, 630.[(Back)]
Footnote 458: Anderson, Constitutions, 633.[(Back)]
Footnote 459: The original texts of these documents are printed in Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, 319-350, and Hélie, Les Constitutions, 1348-1456. For English versions see Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 286-319; C. F. A. Currier, Constitutional and Organic Laws of France, in Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, March, 1893, supplement; and Anderson, Constitutions, 633-640. Albert Duc de Broglie, Histoire et Politique: Étude sur la constitution de 1875 (Paris, 1897); R. Saleilles, The Development of the Present Constitution of France, in Annals of Amer. Academy, July, 1895.[(Back)]
Footnote 460: Among French writers upon constitutional law there has been no small amount of difference of opinion as to whether the National Assembly is to be regarded as having been entitled to the exercise of constituent powers. For a brief affirmative argument see Duguit et Monnier, Les Constitutions, cxvii. Cf. Dicey, Law of the Constitution, 121, note.[(Back)]
Footnote 461: It is to be observed, however, that many authorities agree with Professor Duguit in his contention that although the individual rights enumerated in the Declaration of Rights of 1789 are passed without mention in the constitutional laws of 1875, they are to be considered as lying at the basis of the French governmental system to-day. Any measure enacted by the national parliament in contravention of them, says Professor Duguit, would be unconstitutional. They are not mere dogmas or theories, but rather positive laws, binding upon not only the legislative chambers but upon the constituent National Assembly. Traité de droit constitutionnel (Paris, 1911), II., 13.[(Back)]
Footnote 462: Art. 8. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 288.[(Back)]
Footnote 463: Art. 3. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 291.[(Back)]
Footnote 464: A. Tridon, France's Way of Choosing a President, in Review of Reviews, Dec., 1912.[(Back)]
Footnote 465: Art. 3. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 286.[(Back)]
Footnote 466: Dupriez, Les Ministres, II., 358-372; J. Nadal, Attributions du président de la république en France et aux États-Unis (Toulouse, 1909). For a brief American discussion of the same subject see M. Smith, The French Presidency and the American, in Review of Reviews, Feb., 1906. Cf. A. Cohn, Why M. Fallières is an Ideal French President, ibid., July, 1908.[(Back)]
Footnote 467: Henry Maine, Popular Government (London, 1885), 250.[(Back)]
Footnote 468: Arts. 3 and 6. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 287.[(Back)]
Footnote 469: In earlier days the ministers of war and of the marine were selected not infrequently from outside Parliament, but this practice has been discontinued.[(Back)]
Footnote 470: Dupriez, Les ministres, II., 332-357. A recent treatise of value is H. Noell, L'Administration centrale; les ministères, leur organisation, leur rôle (Paris, 1911). Mention may be made of L. Rolland, Le Conseil d'État et les réglements d'administration publique, in Revue du Droit Public, April-June, 1911; J. Barthélemy, Les sous-secrétaires d'état, ibid.; P. Ma, L'organisation du Ministère des Colonies, in Questions Diplomatiques et Coloniales, Sept. 1, 1910.[(Back)]
Footnote 471: A French scholar writes: "Power cannot pass alternately, as in England and the United States, from the party on one side over to the party in opposition. This alternation, this game of see-saw between two opposing parties, which certain theorists have declared to be the indispensable condition of every parliamentary régime, does not exist, and has never existed, in France. The reason why is simple. If the party of the Right, hostile to the Republic, should come into power, the temptation would be too strong for them to maintain themselves there by establishing an autocratic government, which would put an end to the parliamentary régime, as in 1851. The electors are conscious of this tendency of the Conservatives, and will not run the risk of entrusting the Republic to them. When they are discontented with the Republicans in power, they vote for other Republicans. Thus, new Republican groups are being ceaselessly formed, while the old ones fall to pieces." C. Seignobos, The Political Parties of France, in International Monthly, Aug., 1901, 155. On the French parliamentary system see Dupriez, Les Ministres, II., 345-357, 373-461; E. Pierre, Principes du droit politique électoral et parlementaire en France (Paris, 1893).[(Back)]
Footnote 472: Dupriez, Les Ministres, II., 432-461. L. Gozzi, L'Interpellation à l'assemblée rationale (Marseilles, 1909); J. Poudra and E. Pierre, Traité pratique de droit parlementaire, 8 vols. (Versailles, 1878-1880), VII., Chap. 4.[(Back)]
Footnote 473: Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 288.[(Back)]
Footnote 474: Ibid., I., 310.[(Back)]
Footnote 475: J. C. Bracq, France under the Republic (New York, 1910), 8.[(Back)]
Footnote 476: Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., 22. But compare the view set forth in J. S. C. Bodley, France, 2 vols. (London, 1898), I., 46-60.[(Back)]
Footnote 477: O. Pyfferoen, Du sénat en France et dans les Pays-Bas (Brussels, 1892).[(Back)]
Footnote 478: Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 302-308.[(Back)]
Footnote 479: Laws of June 16, 1885, and February 13, 1889; Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 316-318.[(Back)]
Footnote 480: "During the electoral period, circulars and platforms signed by the candidates, electoral placards and manifestoes signed by one or more voters, may, after being deposited with the public prosecutor, be posted and distributed without previous authorization." Organic Law of November 30, 1875, Art. 3.[(Back)]
Footnote 481: L. Duguit, Traité de droit constitutionnel, I., 375-376.[(Back)]
Footnote 482: The first English-speaking state to adopt the system was Tasmania, where, after being in partial operation in 1896-1901, it was brought fully into effect in 1907. By an electoral law of 1900 Japan adopted it for the election of the members of her House of Commons. The plan was put in operation in Cuba April 1, 1908, and was adopted in Oregon by a referendum of June 1, 1908.[(Back)]
Footnote 483: It is the assertion of M. Benoist that this situation has existed unbrokenly since 1881. An interesting fact cited is that the notable Separation Law of 1905 was adopted in the Chamber by the votes of 341 deputies who represented in the aggregate but 2,647,315 electors in a national total of 10,967,000.[(Back)]
Footnote 484: Duguit, op. cit., argues forcefully in behalf of the proposed change. For adverse views, cogently stated by an equally eminent French authority, see A. Esmein, Droit Constitutionnel (5th ed., Paris, 1911), 253.[(Back)]
Footnote 485: The text of the proposed measure, in English translation, will be found in J. H. Humphreys, Proportional Representation (London, 1911), 382-385.[(Back)]
Footnote 486: The most systematic account of the electoral franchise in France since 1789 is A. Tecklenburg, Die Entwickelung des Wahlrechts in Frankreich seit 1789 (Tübingen, 1911). The French electoral system is described at length in E. Pierre, Code des élections politiques (Paris, 1893); Chaute-Grellet, Traité des élections, 2 vols. (Paris, 1897); M. Block, Dictionnaire de l'administration française (5th ed., Paris, 1905), I., 1208-1244. The literature of the subject of electoral reform is very extensive. Mention may be made of C. Benoist, Pour la réforme électorale (Paris, 1908); J. L. Chardon, La réforme électorale en France (Paris, 1910); J. L. Breton, La réforme électorale (Paris, 1910); C. Francois, La représentation des intérêts dans les corps élus (Paris, 1900); F. Faure, La législature qui finit et la réforme électorale, in Revue Politique et Parlementaire, Dec. 10, 1909; Marion, Comment faire la réforme électorale; ibid., Feb. 10 and March 10, 1910; M. Deslanders, La réforme électorale, ibid., July 10, 1910; A. Varenne, La réforme électorale d'abord, ibid., Nov. 10, 1910; G. Lachapelle, La discussion du projet de réforme électorale, ibid., May 10, 1912; F. Faure, Le vote de la réforme électorale, ibid., Aug. 10, 1912 (contains the text of the Electoral Law); L. Milhac, Les partis politiques français dans leur programme et devant le suffrage, in Annales des Sciences Politiques, July 15, 1910; G. Scelle, La représentation politique, in Revue du Droit Public, July-Sept., 1911; L. Marin, Le vote personnel, in La Grande Revue, March 25, 1911; and G. Trouillot, La réforme électorale au Sénat, ibid., Sept. 25, 1912. The text of the bill of 1912 is to be found also in Revue du Droit Public, July-Sept., 1912. On the question of proportional representation see G. Tronqual, La représentation proportionnelle devant le parlement français (Poitiers, 1910); F. Lépine, La représentation proportionnelle et sa solution (Paris, 1911); N. Saripolos, La démocratie et l'élection proportionnelle (Paris, 1900); G. Lachapelle, La représentation proportionnelle (Paris, 1910); ibid., Représentation proportionnelle, in Revue de Paris, Nov. 15, 1910; ibid., L'Application de la représentation proportionnelle, in Revue Politique et Parlementaire, Dec. 10, 1910. See also Anon., La sophistication du suffrage universel, in Annales des Sciences Politiques, July, 1909, and May, 1910; E. Zevort, La France sous le régime du suffrage universel (Paris, 1894). The subject of proportional representation in France is fully discussed in a Report of the British Royal Commission on Electoral Systems (1910). Report, Cd. 5,163; Evidence, Cd. 5,352.[(Back)]
Footnote 487: A. de la Berge, Les grands comités parlementaires, in Revue des Deux Mondes, Dec. 1, 1889.[(Back)]
Footnote 488: A. P. Usher, Procedure in the French Chamber of Deputies, in Political Science Quarterly, Sept., 1906; J. S. Crawford, A Day in the Chamber of Deputies, in Gunton's Magazine, Oct., 1901; M. R. Bonnard, Les modifications du réglement de la Chambre des Députés, in Revue du Droit Public, Oct.-Dec., 1911. The standard treatise on French parliamentary procedure is J. Poudra et E. Pierre, Traité pratique de droit parlementaire, 8 vols. (Versailles, 1878-1880.)[(Back)]
Footnote 489: Art. 8. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 288.[(Back)]
Footnote 490: Art. 8. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 294.[(Back)]
Footnote 491: Law of July 16, 1875, art. 3. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 291.[(Back)]
Footnote 492: Y. Guyot, Relations between the French Senate and Chamber of Deputies, in Contemporary Review, Feb., 1910.[(Back)]
Footnote 493: Absolutely so, save for the scrutin de liste election of 1885.[(Back)]
Footnote 494: The political history of the period since the elections of 1910 has been remarkable by reason chiefly of the absorption of public attention by the issues of electoral reform and labor legislation. Embarrassed by interpellations with reference to its ecclesiastical policy, the Briand ministry (reconstituted in November, 1910) retired in February, 1911. The Monis government which succeeded lacked coherence, as also did the ministry of Caillaux (June, 1911 to January, 1912). The cardinal achievement of the Poincaré ministry has been the carrying of the Electoral Reform Bill of 1912 in the lower chamber. See p. [323].[(Back)]
Footnote 495: C. Seignobos, The Political Parties of France, in International Monthly, Aug., 1901, 155.[(Back)]
Footnote 496: The best accounts in English of the French parties and party system are Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., Chap. 2; Bodley, France, Book IV., Chaps. 1-8; and C. Seignobos, The Political Parties of France, in International Monthly, Aug., 1901. The last-mentioned is brief, but excellent. A valuable work is P. Laffitte, Le suffrage universel et la régime parlementaire (2d ed., Paris, 1889). Among useful articles may be mentioned: J. Méline, Les partis dans la république, in Revue Politique et Parlementaire, Jan., 1900; M. H. Doniol, Les idées politiques et les partis en France durant le XIXe siècle, in Revue du Droit Public, May-June, 1902; and A. Charpentier, Radicaux et socialistes de 1902 à 1912, in La Nouvelle Revue, May 1, 1912. On socialism in France see J. Peixotto, The French Revolution and Modern French Socialism (New York, 1901); R. T. Ely, French and German Socialism in Modern Times (New York, 1883); P. Louis, Histoire du socialisme français (Paris, 1901); E. Villey, Les périls de la démocratie française (Paris, 1910); and A. Fouillee, La démocratie politique et sociale en France (Paris, 1910).[(Back)]
Footnote 497: H. Cauvière, L'idée de codification en France avant la rédaction du Code Civil (Paris, 1911).[(Back)]
Footnote 498: The task of revision has not yet been accomplished. See La Code Civil, livre du centenaire (Paris, 1904)—a volume of valuable essays by French and foreign lawyers.[(Back)]
Footnote 499: M. Leroy, Le centenaire du code pénal, in Revue de Paris, Feb. 1, 1911.[(Back)]
Footnote 500: J. Brissaud, History of French Private Law, trans. by R. Howell (Boston, 1912).[(Back)]
Footnote 501: The best treatise upon the French judicial system and upon proposed reforms of it is J. Coumoul, Traité du pouvoir judiciaire; de son rôle constitutionnel et de sa réforme organique (2d ed., Paris, 1911). See Vicomte d'Avenel, La réforme administrative—la justice, in Revue des Deux Mondes, June 1, 1889; L. Irwell, The Judicial System of France, Green Bag, Nov., 1902.[(Back)]
Footnote 502: Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., 58.[(Back)]
Footnote 503: It need hardly be explained that the First Consul's intention was that the ordinary judges should not be allowed to obstruct by their decisions the policies of the government.[(Back)]
Footnote 504: For an account of the administrative law of France see A. V. Dicey, The Law of the Constitution (7th ed., London, 1908), Chap. 12. Important French works on the subject include H. Barthélemy, Traité élémentaire de droit administratif (5th ed., Paris, 1908); H. Chardon, L'administration de la France, les fonctionnaires (Paris, 1908); G. Jèze, Les principes généraux du droit administratif (Paris, 1904); and J. L. Aucoc, Conférences sur l'administration et le droit administratif (3d ed., Paris, 1885). Mention may be made also of E. J. Laferrière, Traité de la jurisdiction administrative et des recours contentieux (Paris, 1887-1888), and Varagnac, Le Conseil d'État et les projets de réforme, in Revue des Deux Mondes, Aug. 15, and Sept. 15, 1892.[(Back)]
Footnote 505: A. Babeau, La ville sous l'ancien régime (Paris, 1880); A. Luchaire, Les communes françaises (Paris, 1890); H. Barthélemy, Traité de droit administratif (5th ed., Paris, 1908); A. Esmein, Histoire du droit français (8th ed., Paris, 1908).[(Back)]
Footnote 506: For the text of the Décret sur les Municipalités of December 14, 1789, see Hélie; Constitutions, 59-72. An English version is in Anderson, Constitutions, 24-33.[(Back)]
Footnote 507: Anderson, Constitutions, 233-236. The canton, suppressed by law of June 26, 1793, was now revived.[(Back)]
Footnote 508: The number of communes was reduced at this time from 44,000 to 36,000.[(Back)]
Footnote 509: Anderson, Constitutions, 283-288. G. Alix, Les origines du système administratif français, in Annales des Sciences Politiques, July-Nov., 1899.[(Back)]
Footnote 510: Its influence upon the administrative systems of other countries—Belgium, Italy, Spain, and even Greece, Japan, and various Latin American states—has been profound. "Judged by its qualities of permanence and by its influence abroad, the law of 1800 is one of the best examples of Bonaparte's creative statesmanship, taking rank with the Code and with the Concordat among his enduring non-military achievements. If, in the nineteenth century, England has been the mother of parliaments and has exercised a dominant influence upon the evolution of national governments, France has had an equally important rôle in moulding systems of local administration among the nations." Munro, Government of European Cities, 7.[(Back)]
Footnote 511: The texts of these acts are in Hélie, Constitutions, 1019-1050.[(Back)]
Footnote 512: Text in J. Duvergier, Collection complète des lois, décrets, ordonnances, réglements, avis du conseil d'état (Paris, 1834-1907), LXXXIV., 99-148.[(Back)]
Footnote 513: On the French administrative system two admirable general works are H. Barthélemy, Traité de droit administratif (5th ed., Paris, 1908), and A. Esmein, Histoire du droit français (8th ed., Paris, 1908). An older treatise of value is E. Monnet, Histoire de l'administration provinciale, départementale et communale en France (Paris, 1885). Three works in which the subject is dealt with in a comparative fashion are P. P. Leroy-Beaulieu, Administration locale en France et en Angleterre (Paris, 1872); P. W. L. Ashley, Local and Central Government (London, 1906); and F. J. Goodnow, Comparative Administrative Law (2d ed., New York, 1903). A study of some value is J. T. Young, Administrative Centralization and Decentralization in France, in Annals of Amer. Acad. of Political and Social Science, Jan., 1898.[(Back)]
Footnote 514: An administrative reform which appears not infrequently in current political discussion in France is the grouping of the departments into "regions" possessing a certain community of character and interest. Each of a score or more of regions might conceivably be made to have an assembly of its own, and within each of them one of the departmental prefects might be given a certain superiority over his colleagues. The principal purpose would be to offset somewhat the nation's present excess of administrative centralization. On this proposal see C. Beauquier, Un projet de réforme administrative; l'organisation régionale en France, in Revue Politique et Parlementaire, Nov. 10, 1909. Cf. A. Brette, La réforme des départements à propos d'une proposition de loi, ibid. On the department as at present constituted the monumental treatise is G. Bouffet et L. Périer, Traité du départements 2 vols. (Paris, 1894-1895). In M. Laferrière, Loi organique départementale du 10 Août 1871 (Paris, 1871) is an annotated copy of the organic statute of 1871. See also G. Dethan, De l'organisation des conseils généraux (Paris, 1889); A. Nectoux, Des attributions des conseillers généraux (Paris, 1895); and P. Chardenet, Les élections départementales (Paris, 1895). An excellent brief statement will be found in M. Block, Dictionnaire de l'administration française (5th ed., Paris and Nancy, 1905), I., 933-948, 1101-1116.[(Back)]
Footnote 515: Block, Dictionnaire de l'administration française, I., 256-260.[(Back)]
Footnote 516: Munro, Government of European Cities, 15.[(Back)]
Footnote 517: A. Porche, La question des grandes et des petits communes (Paris, 1900).[(Back)]
Footnote 518: Among general treatises on the French commune may be mentioned M. Block, Entretiens sur l'administration; la commune (Paris, 1884); L. Bequet, Traité de la commune (Paris, 1888); P. Andre and F. Marin, La loi sur l'organisation municipale du 5 avril 1884 (Paris, 1884); and F. Grelot, Loi du 5 avril 1884 (Paris, 1889). The best and most recent extensive work is L. Morgand, La loi municipale, 2 vols. (7th ed., Paris, 1907). The most convenient brief discussion in French is in Block, Dictionnaire de l'administration française, I., 738-852. In English a good description is in A. Shaw, Municipal Government in Continental Europe (New York, 1897), and a fuller and more recent one in W. B. Munro, The Government of European Cities, 1-108. On municipal elections the best work is M. J. Saint-Lager, Élections municipales (6th ed., Paris, 1904). Worthy of mention are Chardenet, Panhard, and Gérard, Les élections municipales (Paris, 1896), and J. Dorlhac, De l'électorat politique: étude sur la capacité électorale et les conditions d'exercise du droit de vote (Paris, 1890). An excellent study is P. Lavergne, Du pouvoir central et des conseils municipaux, in Revue Générale d'Administration, 1900. See also A. G. Desbats, Le budget municipal (Paris, 1895); M. Peletant, De l'organisation de la police (Dijon, 1899); and R. Griffin, Les biens communaux en France (Paris, 1899). On the government of Paris the reader may be referred to G. Artigues, Le régime municipal de la ville de Paris (Paris, 1898), and M. Block, L'Administration de la ville de Paris et du département de la Seine (Paris, 1898). Excellent bibliographies are printed in Munro, op. cit., 380-389, and in Block, Dictionnaire, I., 850-852.[(Back)]
Footnote 519: The Cisalpine constitution was amended September 1, 1798, when there was introduced in the republic the French system of administrative divisions.[(Back)]
Footnote 520: E. Bonnal de Ganges, La chute d'une république (Paris, 1885).[(Back)]
Footnote 521: For an interesting portrayal of the workings of republican idealism in the Neapolitan republic see Fisher, Republican Tradition in Europe, 150-157.[(Back)]
Footnote 522: An advisory council of state, consisting of eight members.[(Back)]
Footnote 523: The incorporation of Dalmatia with the kingdom of Italy was but temporary.[(Back)]
Footnote 524: For brief accounts of the Napoleonic régime in Italy see Cambridge Modern History, IX., Chap. 14; B. King, A History of Italian Unity (London, 1899), I., Chap. 1. Works of value dealing with the subject include P. Gaffarel, Bonaparte et les républiques italiennes, 1796-1799 (Paris, 1895); A. Dufourcq, Le régime jacobin en Italie, 1796-1799 (Paris, 1900); F. Lemmi, Le origini del risorgimento italiano (Milan, 1906); G. Sabini, I primi esperimenti costituzionali in Italia, 1797-1815 (Turin, 1911); and R. M. Johnston, The Napoleonic Empire in Southern Italy, 2 vols. (London, 1904). An older work is E. Ramondini, L'Italia durante la dominazione francese (Naples, 1882).[(Back)]
Footnote 525: By decree of April 24, 1815, these territories were erected into a kingdom under Austrian control, though possessing a separate administration.[(Back)]
Footnote 526: W. R. Thayer, The Dawn of Italian Independence, 2 vols. (Boston, 1893), I., 116-178.[(Back)]
Footnote 527: M. Cesaresco, The Liberation of Italy (London, 1895), 3.[(Back)]
Footnote 528: J. Holland Rose, in Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed., XV., 48. See also Fisher, The Republican Tradition in Europe, 158-159.[(Back)]
Footnote 529: Cambridge Modern History, X., Chap. 4; Johnston, Napoleonic Empire in Southern Italy, II., Chap. 4; Thayer, Dawn of Italian Independence, I., 215-278.[(Back)]
Footnote 530: The nature of the governmental system provided in this instrument will be explained at length in the succeeding chapter.[(Back)]
Footnote 531: G. Garavani, La costituzione della repubblica romana nel 1798 e nel 1849 (Fermo, 1910).[(Back)]
Footnote 532: Elaborate accounts of the revolution of 1848 in Italy are contained in King, History of Italian Unity, I., Chaps. 9-19, and Thayer, Dawn of Italian Independence, II., Bks. 4-5. A good brief account is Cambridge Modern History, XI., Chap. 4 (bibliography, pp. 908-913). A suggestive sketch is Fisher, Republican Tradition in Europe, Chap. 9.[(Back)]
Footnote 533: King, History of Italian Unity, II., Chap. 27.[(Back)]
Footnote 534: King, History of Italian Unity, II., Chaps. 29-32.[(Back)]
Footnote 535: The resulting measure, the Law of Papal Guarantees, was enacted May 13, 1871. See p. [388].[(Back)]
Footnote 536: For a brief account of the final stages in the unification of Italy see Cambridge Modern History, XI., Chaps. 14, 19. The best presentation of the entire subject is that in the two volumes of King, History of Italian Unity, 1814-1871. Other works of value are W. J. Stillman, The Union of Italy, 1815-1895 (Cambridge, 1898); J. Probyn, Italy, 1815-1890 (London, 1884); M. Cesaresco, The Liberation of Italy (New York, 1894); P. Orsi, L'Italia moderna (Milan, 1901); F. Bertolini, Storia d'Italia dal 1814 al 1878 (Milan, 1880-1881); and E. Sorin, Histoire de l'Italie depuis 1815 jusqu'à la mort de V. Emm. (Paris, 1910). Among biographies mention may be made of G. Godkin, Life of Victor Emmanuel II. (2d ed., London, 1880); M. Cesaresco, Cavour (London, 1898); D. Zanichelli, Cavour (Florence, 1905); B. King, Mazzini (London, 1902). A very valuable biography, which indeed comprises virtually a history of the period 1848-1861, is W. R. Thayer, Count Cavour, 2 vols. (Boston, 1911). The monumental Italian work in the field is C. Tivaroni, Storia critica del risorgimento italiano, 9 vols. (Turin, 1888-1897). The principal documentary collection is N. Bianchi, Storia documentata della diplomazia Europea in Italia dall' anno 1814 all' anno 1861, 8 vols. (Turin, 1865-1872). Invaluable are L. Chiala, Lettere del Conte di Cavour, 7 vols. (Turin, 1883-1887), and D. Zanichelli, Scritti del Conte di Cavour (Bologna, 1892). For full bibliography see Cambridge Modern History, XI., 908-913.[(Back)]
Footnote 537: Quoted by G. A. Ruiz, The Amendments to the Italian Constitution, in Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Sept., 1895, 38.[(Back)]
Footnote 538: Ruiz, Amendments to the Italian Constitution, loc. cit., 57. The text of the Statuto appears in P. Coglio e Malchiodi, Codice Politico Amministrativo. Raccolta completa di tutte le leggi e regolamenti concernenti la pubblica amministrazione nei suoi rapporti politici e amministrativi (6th ed., Florence, 1907), and in V. Gioia, Le leggi di unificazione amministrativa precedute dalla legge fondamentale del regno, 2 vols. (Palermo, 1879). It is printed also in Lowell, Governments and Parties, II., 346-354. There is a French version in F. R. Dareste, Les constitutions modernes, 2 vols. (Paris, 1883) I., 550-560. There is an English translation in Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 5-16, and another, by S. M. Lindsay and L. S. Rowe, in Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Nov., 1894. The Codice Politico Amministrativo contains a good collection of statutes, ordinances, and administrative regulations. The most comprehensive work on Italian constitutional law which has been written is F. Racioppi and I. Brunelli, Commento allo statuto del regno, 3 vols. (Turin, 1909). Among other treatises the following are of principal value: G. Arangio Ruiz, Storia costituzionale del regno di Italia, 1848-1898 (Florence, 1898); E. Brusa, Das Staatsrecht des Königreichs Italien (Leipzig, 1892), in Marquardsen's Handbuch; E. del Guerra, L'Amministrazione pubblica in Italia (Florence, 1893); and, for briefer treatment, G. Mosca, Appunti di diritto costituzionale (Milan, 1908) and I. Tambaro, II diritto costituzionale italiano (Milan, 1909).[(Back)]
Footnote 539: Arts. 11-17. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 6.[(Back)]
Footnote 540: Arts. 5-8. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 5. Dupriez, Les Ministres, I., 292-297.[(Back)]
Footnote 541: Separated from Finance in 1889.[(Back)]
Footnote 542: Art. 66. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 13.[(Back)]
Footnote 543: Dupriez, Les Ministres, I., 291.[(Back)]
Footnote 544: Art. 6. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 5.[(Back)]
Footnote 545: Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., 166. On the Italian executive see Dupriez, Les Ministres, I., 281-329. An essay of value is M. Caudel, Parlementarisme italien, in Annales des Sciences Politiques, Sept., 1900.[(Back)]
Footnote 546: Of 1,528 appointments made between 1848 and 1910 but 63 were refused confirmation by the Senate.[(Back)]
Footnote 547: It is interesting to observe that, in the interest of governmental stability and permanence, Cavour favored the adoption of the elective principle in Italy. For illustrations of the weakness of the Italian Senate see C. Morizot-Thibault, Des droits des chambres hautes ou sénats en matière des lois de finance (Paris, 1891), 156-175.[(Back)]
Footnote 548: E. Pagliano, Il Senato e la nomina dei senatori (Rome, 1906); L. A. Magro, L' aristocrazia e il Senato (Catania, 1909); I. Tambaro, La réforme du Sénat italien, in Revue du Droit Public, July-Sept., 1910, and Les débats sur la réforme du Sénat italien, ibid., July-Sept., 1911; M. Scelle, Réforme du Sénat italien, ibid., Oct.-Dec, 1911; Nazzareno, La riforma del Senato, in Rivista di Diritto Pubblica, III., 171. The report of the commission of 1910 is contained in Per la riforma del Senato; relazione della commissione (Rome, 1911).[(Back)]
Footnote 549: Art. 36. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 10.[(Back)]
Footnote 550: Lowell, Governments and Parties, I., 157.[(Back)]
Footnote 551: King and Okey, Italy To-day, Chap. 12.[(Back)]
Footnote 552: See p. [400].[(Back)]
Footnote 553: For the text of the Giolitti proposals see Il Seculo, June 11, 1911. On Italian electoral reform see A. Piebantoni, La riforma della legge elettorale (Naples, 1909); G. Bandini, La riforma elettorale con la rappresentanza proporzionale nelle elezioni politiche (Rome, 1910); G. Sabini, La riforma del sistema elettorale in Italia (Turin, 1910); Siotto-Pintor, Estensione del suffragio e distribuzione della rappresentanza, in Rivista di Diritto Pubblico, Dec., 1911, and Le riforma del régime elettorale e le dottrine della rappresentanza politica e dell' elettorato nel secolo XX. (Rome, 1912).[(Back)]
Footnote 554: At the elections of March, 1909, in 75 of the 508 districts no candidate received an adequate majority. In 57 of these districts the candidate who, at the first ballot, had received the largest number of votes was elected at the second ballot. The political effect of the second ballot is slight. At the election of 1900 there were 77 second ballotings; at that of 1904, 39. A. N. Holcombe, Direct Primaries and the Second Ballot, in Amer. Political Science Review, Nov., 1911; A. F. Locatelli, Considerazioni intorno all' opportunità di abolire il ballottaggio, in La Riforma Sociale, July-Aug., 1910.[(Back)]
Footnote 555: King and Okey, Italy To-day, 14.[(Back)]
Footnote 556: Art. 48. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 12.[(Back)]
Footnote 557: Arts. 52-54, 59, 62. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 12-13. In practice the requirement of the presence of an absolute majority of members is sometimes disregarded.[(Back)]
Footnote 558: Art. 41. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 11.[(Back)]
Footnote 559: Arts. 68-73. Ibid., II., 14-15.[(Back)]
Footnote 560: Prior to 1901 the administrative and electoral mandamenti and the mandamenti giudiziarii were identical geographically, and there were 1,805 of them in the kingdom. By a law of the year mentioned the judicial mandamenti were reduced in number to 1,535.[(Back)]
Footnote 561: There is a brief description of the Italian judicial system in Lowell, Governments and Parties, II., 170-178.[(Back)]
Footnote 562: For an arraignment of the extravagance of the local governing authorities see King and Okey, Italy To-day, 267.[(Back)]
Footnote 563: For a brief account of local government in Italy see King and Okey, Italy To-day, Chap. 14. More extended treatment will be found in E. del Guerra, L'Amministrazione pubblica in Italia (Florence, 1893) and G. Greco, Il nuova diritto amministrativo Italiano (Naples, 1896).[(Back)]
Footnote 564: Text in Coglio e Malchiodi, Codice Politico Amministrativo. An English version is printed in Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 16-21.[(Back)]
Footnote 565: Art. 3. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 16.[(Back)]
Footnote 566: Art. 4. Ibid., 17.[(Back)]
Footnote 567: Art. 12. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 19.[(Back)]
Footnote 568: On the Government's use of the exequatur since 1871 see King and Okey, Italy To-day, 253.[(Back)]
Footnote 569: By act of July 12, 1871, articles 268-270 of the Italian penal code were so modified as to render ecclesiastics liable to imprisonment of from six months to five years, and to fines of from one thousand to three thousand lire, for spoken or written attacks upon the state, or for the incitement of disorder.[(Back)]
Footnote 570: King and Okey, Italy To-day, 255.[(Back)]
Footnote 571: For a brief discussion of the subject of church and state in Italy see King and Okey, Italy To-day, Chaps. 2 and 13. A useful book is R. de Cesare, Roma e lo stato del papa dal ritorno di Pio IX., 2 vols. (Rome, 1907), of which there is an abridged translation by H. Zimmern, The Last Days of Papal Rome, 1850-1870 (Boston, 1909). Mention may be made of M. Pernot, La politique de Pie X. (Paris, 1910); A. Brunialto, Lo stato e la chiesa in Italia (Turin, 1892); G. Barzellotti, L'Italia e il papato, in Nuova Antologia, March 1, 1904; and F. Nielsen, The History of the Papacy in the Nineteenth Century (London, 1906).[(Back)]
Footnote 572: This partial renewal of a ministry, known in Italy as a rimpasto, was, and still is, rendered easy by the average ministry's lack of political solidarity.[(Back)]
Footnote 573: This coalition policy—the so-called transformismo—did not originate with Depretis. As early as 1873 a portion of the Right under Minghetti, by joining the Left, had overturned the Lanza-Sella cabinet; and in 1876 Minghetti himself had fallen a victim to a similar defection of Conservative deputies.[(Back)]
Footnote 574: Cardon, Del governo nella monarchia costituzionale, 125.[(Back)]
Footnote 575: For an exposition of party conditions during the past decade see A. Labrioli, Storia di dieci anni, 1899-1909 (Milan, 1910).[(Back)]
Footnote 576: The idea is expressed in the phrase cattolici deputati, si, deputati cattolici, no.[(Back)]
Footnote 577: Eufrasio, Il Non Expedit, in Nuova Antologia, Sept. 1, 1904.[(Back)]
Footnote 578: The political parties of Italy are described briefly in Lowell, Governments and Parties, II., Chap. 4, and at more length in King and Okey, Italy To-day, Chaps. 1-3. Special works of importance upon the subject include M. Minghetti, I partiti politici e la ingerenza loro nella giustizia e nell' amministrazione (2d ed., Bologna, 1881); P. Penciolelli, Le gouvernement parlementaire et la lutte des partis en Italie (Paris, 1911); and S. Sighele, Il nazionalismo e i partiti politici (Milan, 1911). Of value are R. Bonfadini, I partiti parlamentari, in Nuova Antologia, Feb. 15, 1894, and A. Torresin, Statistica delle elezioni generali politiche, in La Riforma Sociale, Aug. 15, 1900. A useful biography is W. J. Stillman, Francesco Crispi (London, 1899), and an invaluable repository of information is M. Prichard-Agnetti (trans.), The Memoirs of Francesco Crispi, 2 vols. (New York, 1912). On the parties of the Extreme Left the following may profitably be consulted: F. S. Nitti, Il partito radicale (Turin and Rome, 1907); P. Villari, Scritti sulla questione sociale in Italia (Florence, 1902); R. Bonghi, Gli ultimi fatti parlamentari, in Nuova Antologia, Jan. 1, 1895; G. Alessio, Partiti e programmi, ibid., Oct. 16, 1900; G. Louis-Jaray, Le socialisme municipal en Italie, in Annales des Sciences Politiques, May, 1904; R. Meynadier, Les partis d'extrême gauche et la monarchie en Italie, in Questions Diplomatiques et Coloniales, April 1, 1908; F. Magri, Riformisti e rivoluzionari nel partito socialista italiano, in Rassegna Nazionale, Nov. 16, 1906, and April 1, 1907; R. Soldi, Le varie correnti nel partito socialista italiano, in Giornale degli Economisti, June, 1903. On recent Italian elections see G. Gidel, Les élections générales italiennes de novembre 1904, in Annales des Sciences Politiques, Jan., 1905; P. Quentin-Bauchart, Les élections italiennes de mars 1909, ibid., July, 1909.[(Back)]
Footnote 579: For an English version of the Perpetual League of 1291 see Vincent, Government in Switzerland, 285-288. The best account in English of the origins of the Confederation is contained in W. D. McCrackan, The Rise of the Swiss Republic (2d ed., New York, 1901). Important are A. Rilliet, Les origines de la confédération suisse (Geneva, 1868); P. Vauchier, Les commencements de la confédération suisse (Lausanne, 1891); W. Oechsli, Die Anfange der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft (Zürich, 1891). Of the last-mentioned excellent work there is a French translation, under the title Les origines de la confédération suisse (Bern, 1891). The origins of the Swiss Confederation were described in a scientific manner for the first time in the works of J. E. Kopp: Urkunden zur Geschichte der eidgenössischen Bünde (Leipzig and Berlin, 1835), and Geschichte der eidgenössischen Bünde (Leipzig and Berlin, 1845-1852). The texts of all of the Swiss alliances to 1513 are printed in J. von Ah, Die Bundesbriefe der alten Eidgenossen (Einsiedeln, 1891).[(Back)]
Footnote 580: Lucerne joined the alliance in 1332; Zürich in 1351; Glarus and Zug in 1352; Bern in 1353; Freiburg and Solothurn in 1481; Basel and Schaffhausen in 1501; and Appenzell in 1513. "Swiss history is largely the history of the drawing together of bits of each of the Imperial kingdoms (Germany, Italy, and Burgundy) for common defense against a common foe—the Hapsburgs; and, when this family have secured to themselves the permanent possession of the Empire, the Swiss league little by little wins its independence of the Empire, practically in 1499, formally in 1648. Originally a member of the Empire, the Confederation becomes first an ally, then merely a friend." Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th ed., XXVI., 246.[(Back)]
Footnote 581: To these districts, however, the name canton was applied; and, indeed, this was the first occasion upon which the name was employed officially in Switzerland.[(Back)]
Footnote 582: McCrackan, Rise of the Swiss Republic, 295-312; A. von Tillier, Geschichte der helvetischen Republik, 3 vols. (Bern, 1843); Muret, L'Invasion de la Suisse en 1798 (Lausanne, 1881-1884); L. Marsauche, La confédération helvétique (Neuchâtel, 1890).[(Back)]
Footnote 583: It is in this instrument that the Confederation was for the first time designated officially as "Switzerland."[(Back)]
Footnote 584: Cambridge Modern History, IX., Chap. 4 (bibliography, pp. 805-807). The best general work on the period 1798-1813 is W. Oechsli, Geschichte der Schweiz im XIX. Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1903), I.[(Back)]
Footnote 585: This statement needs to be qualified by the observation that the half-canton Nidwalden approved the constitution August 30, and only when compelled by force to do so.[(Back)]
Footnote 586: Three of the cantons—Unterwalden, Basel, and Appenzell—were divided into half-cantons, each with a government of its own; but each possessed only half a vote in the Diet.[(Back)]
Footnote 587: B. Van Muyden, La suisse sous le pacte de 1815, 2 vols. (Lausanne and Paris, 1890-1892); A. von Tillier, Geschichte der Eidgenossenschaft während der sogen. Restaurationsepoche, 1814-1830, 3 vols. (Bern and Zürich, 1848-1850); ibid., Geschichte der Eidgenossenschaft während der Zeit des sogeheissenen Fortschritts, 1830-1846, 3 vols. (Bern, 1854-1855).[(Back)]
Footnote 588: McCracken, Rise of the Swiss Republic, 325-330.[(Back)]
Footnote 589: Lucerne, Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Zug, Freiburg, and the Valais.[(Back)]
Footnote 590: A. Stern, Zur Geschichte des Sonderbundes, in Historische Zeitschrift, 1879; W. B. Duffield, The War of the Sonderbund, in English Historical Review, Oct., 1895; and P. Matter, Le Sonderbund, in Annales de l'École Libre des Sciences Politiques, Jan. 15, 1896.[(Back)]
Footnote 591: For the methods of constitutional amendment see p. [431].[(Back)]
Footnote 592: W. Oechsli, in Cambridge Modern History, XI., 234. A brief survey of the constitutional history of Switzerland from 1848 to 1874 is contained in Chap. 8 of the volume mentioned (bibliography, pp. 914-918). Two excellent works are C. Hilty, Les constitutions fédérales de la confédération suisse; exposé historique (Neuchâtel, 1891), and T. Curti, Geschichte der Schweiz im XIX. Jahrhundert (Neuchâtel, 1902). A fairly satisfactory book is L. Hug and R. Stead, Switzerland (New York, 1889). The text of the constitution may be found in S. Kaiser and J. Strickler, Geschichte und Texte der Bundesverfassungen der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft von der helvetischen Staatsumwälzung bis zur Gegenwart (Bern, 1901), and in Lowell, Governments and Parties, II., 405-431. English versions are printed in Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 257-290; McCrackan, Rise of the Swiss Republic, 373-403; Vincent, Government in Switzerland, 289-332; and Old South Leaflets, General Series, No. 18. The texts of all federal constitutions after 1798 are included in the work of Kaiser and Strickler. A good collection of recent documents is P. Wolf, Die schweizerische Bundesgesetzgebung (2d ed., Basel, 1905-1908). The principal treatises on the Swiss constitutional system are J. J. Blumer, Handbuch des schweizerischen Bundesstaatsrechtes (2d ed., Schaffhausen, 1877-1887); J. Schollenberger, Bundesverfassung der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft (Berlin, 1905); ibid., Das Bundesstaatsrecht der Schweiz Geschichte und System (Berlin, 1902); and W. Burckhardt, Kommentar der Schweiz; Bundesverfassung vom 29 Mai 1874 (Bern, 1905). Two excellent briefer treatises are N. Droz, Instruction civique (Lausanne, 1884) and A. von Orelli, Das Staatsrecht der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft (Freiburg, 1885), in Marquardsen's Handbuch. The best treatise in English upon the Swiss governmental system is J. M. Vincent, Government in Switzerland (New York, 1900). Older works include B. Moses, The Federal Government of Switzerland (Oakland, 1889); F. Adams and C. Cunningham, The Swiss Confederation (London, 1889); and B. Winchester, The Swiss Republic (Philadelphia, 1891). Mention should be made of A. B. Hart, Introduction to the Study of Federal Government (Boston, 1891); also of an exposition of Swiss federalism in Dicey, Law of the Constitution, 7th ed., 517-529.[(Back)]
Footnote 593: Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 257.[(Back)]
Footnote 594: The total area of the Confederation is approximately 16,000 square miles; the total population, according to the census of December 1, 1910, is 3,741,971.[(Back)]
Footnote 595: Art. 3. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 257.[(Back)]
Footnote 596: In the form in which it now exists the Swiss constitution is one of the most comprehensive instruments of the kind in existence. Aside from various temporary provisions, it contains, in all, 123 articles, some of considerable length. As is true of the German constitution, there is in it much that ordinarily has no place in the fundamental law of a nation. A curious illustration is afforded by an amendment of 1893 to the effect that "the killing of animals without benumbing before the drawing of blood is forbidden; this provision applies to every method of slaughter and to every species of animals." Art. 25. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 263. The adoption of this amendment was an expression of antisemitic prejudice.[(Back)]
Footnote 597: Arts. 5 and 6. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 258.[(Back)]
Footnote 598: Art. 8. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 258.[(Back)]
Footnote 599: Arts. 15-23. Ibid., II., 260-262.[(Back)]
Footnote 600: McCrackan, Rise of the Swiss Republic, 354-363; Payen, La neutralisation de la Suisse, in Annales de l'École Libre des Sciences Politiques, Oct. 15, 1892.[(Back)]
Footnote 601: Art. 27. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 263.[(Back)]
Footnote 602: Art. 49. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 271-272.[(Back)]
Footnote 603: "The customs system shall be within the control of the Confederation. The Confederation may levy export and import duties." Art. 28. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 263. The constitution stipulates further that imports of materials essential for the manufactures and agriculture of the country, and of necessaries of life in general, shall be taxed as low as possible; also that export taxes shall be kept at a minimum. Art. 42 prescribes that the expenditures of the Confederation shall be met from the income from federal property, the proceeds of the postal and telegraph services, the proceeds of the powder monopoly, half of the gross receipts from the tax on military exemptions levied by the cantons, the proceeds of the federal customs, and, finally, in case of necessity, contributions levied upon the cantons in proportion to their wealth and taxable resources. Dodd, II., 269.[(Back)]
Footnote 604: Art. 27. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 263.[(Back)]
Footnote 605: A. Souriac, L'évolution de la juridiction fédérale en Suisse (Paris, 1909).[(Back)]
Footnote 606: On the governments of the cantons the principal general works are J. Schollenberger, Grundriss der Staats-und Verwaltungsrechts der schweizerischen Kantone, 3 vols. (Zürich, 1898-1900), and J. Dubs, Das öffentliche Recht der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft (Zürich, 1877-1878), I. Brief accounts will be found in Vincent, the Government of Switzerland, Chaps. 1-12.[(Back)]
Footnote 607: The area of Zug is 92 square miles; of Glarus, 267; of the Unterwaldens, 295; of the Appenzells, 162. The longest dimension of any one of these cantons is but thirty miles, and the distance to be traversed by the citizen who wishes to attend the Landesgemeinde of his canton rarely exceeds ten miles. It was once the fashion to represent the Swiss Landesgemeinde as a direct survival of the primitive Germanic popular assembly. For the classic statement of this view see Freeman, Growth of the English Constitution, Chap. 1. There is, however, every reason to believe that between the two institutions there is no historical connection.[(Back)]
Footnote 608: H. D. Lloyd, A Sovereign People (New York, 1907), Chap. 4.[(Back)]
Footnote 609: For an excellent account of the introduction of proportional representation in the canton of Ticino see J. Galland, La démocratie tessinoise et la représentation proportionnelle (Grenoble, 1909). The canton in which the principle has been adopted most recently is St. Gall. In 1893, 1901, and 1906 it was there rejected by the people, but at the referendum of February, 1912, it was approved, and in the following November the cantonal legislature formally adopted it. For a brief exposition of the workings of the system see Vincent, Government in Switzerland, Chap. 4. An important study of the subject is E. Klöti, Die Proportionalwahl in der Schweiz; Geschichte, Darstellung und Kritik (Bern, 1901). On the proposed introduction of proportional representation in the federal government see p. 433.[(Back)]
Footnote 610: Lowell, Governments and Parties, II., 243.[(Back)]
Footnote 611: It will be observed, of course, that in the cantons which maintain a Landesgemeinde there is no occasion for the employment of the referendum upon either constitutional or legislative questions. The people there act directly and necessarily upon every important proposition.[(Back)]
Footnote 612: Important treatises on the Swiss referendum are T. Curti, Geschichte der schweizerischen Volksgesetzgebung (Zürich, 1885); ibid., Die Volksabstimmung in der schweizerischen Gesetzgebung (Zürich, 1886). A French version of the former work, by J. Ronjat, has appeared under the title Le référendum: histoire de la législation populaire en Suisse (Paris, 1905). Of large value is Curti, Die Resultate des schweizerischen Referendums (2d ed., Bern, 1911). An older account is J. A. Herzog, Das Referendum in der Schweiz (Berlin, 1885). An excellent book is S. Duploige, Le référendum en Suisse (Brussels, 1892), of which there is an English translation, by C. P. Trevelyan, under the title The Referendum in Switzerland (London, 1898). Of value also are Stüssi, Referendum und Initiative in den Schweizerkantonen (Zürich, 1894), and J. Signorel, Étude de législation comparée sur le référendum législatif (Paris, 1896). Mention may be made of J. Delpech, Quelques observations à propos du référendum et des Landesgemeinde suisse, in Revue du Droit Public, April-June, 1906.[(Back)]
Footnote 613: A. Keller, Das Volksinitiativrecht nach den schweizerischen Kantonsverfassungen (Zürich, 1889).[(Back)]
Footnote 614: In the Landesgemeinde cantons the Landammann is elected by the primary assembly.[(Back)]
Footnote 615: Vincent, Government in Switzerland, Chap. 10; Adams and Cunningham, The Swiss Confederation, Chap. 8; Lloyd, A Sovereign People, Chap. 3.[(Back)]
Footnote 616: Art. 95. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 281.[(Back)]
Footnote 617: No longer, as prior to 1888, necessarily that of foreign affairs.[(Back)]
Footnote 618: Art. 103. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 284. For a synopsis of the law of July 8, 1887, whereby an apportionment of functions was made among the various departments see Dupriez, Les Ministres, II., 239-246.[(Back)]
Footnote 619: Members of the Council are re-elected, almost as a matter of course, as long as they are willing to serve. Between 1848 and 1893 the average period of service exceeded ten years. Lowell, Governments and Parties, II., 203.[(Back)]
Footnote 620: The resignation, in 1891, of M. Welti, a member of the Council since 1867, by reason of the fact that the people rejected his project for the governmental purchase of railway shares occasioned general consternation.[(Back)]
Footnote 621: For interesting observations upon the advantages and disadvantages of the Swiss system see Lowell, Governments and Parties, II., 204-208. See also Vincent, Government in Switzerland, Chap. 16; Dupriez, Les Ministres, II., 188-203.[(Back)]
Footnote 622: Art. 102. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 282-284; Dupriez, Les Ministres, II., 218-225.[(Back)]
Footnote 623: Art. 113. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 286. The nature and functions of the Swiss executive are treated briefly in Vincent, Government in Switzerland, Chap. 17, and Adams and Cunningham, The Swiss Confederation, Chap. 4. An excellent account is that in Dupriez, Les Ministres, II., 182-246. Of value are Blumer and Morel, Handbuch des schweizerischen Bundesstaatsrechts, III., 34-92, and Dubs, Le droit public de la confédération suisse, II., 77-105.[(Back)]
Footnote 624: In French, the Conseil National and the Conseil des États.[(Back)]
Footnote 625: This denial of clerical eligibility was inspired by fear of Catholic influences.[(Back)]
Footnote 626: Arts. 72-79. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 277-278.[(Back)]
Footnote 627: "Neither the president nor the vice-president may be chosen at any session from the canton from which the president for the preceding session was chosen; and the vice-presidency may not be held during two successive regular sessions by representatives of the same canton." Art. 82.[(Back)]
Footnote 628: Arts. 80-83. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 278.[(Back)]
Footnote 629: Art. 84. Ibid., II., 278.[(Back)]
Footnote 630: The principal duty of the chancellor is the keeping of the minutes of the National Council. A vice-chancellor, appointed by the Federal Council, performs a similar function in the Council of States, under responsibility to the chancellor.[(Back)]
Footnote 631: Art. 85, §§ 1-14. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 278-279.[(Back)]
Footnote 632: For a brief account of the procedure of the chambers see Vincent, Government in Switzerland, 181-187.[(Back)]
Footnote 633: On the operation of the optional referendum see Lowell, Governments and Parties, II., 252-261. "From 1874 till 1908 the Federal Assembly passed 261 bills and resolutions which could constitutionally be subjected to the referendum. Thirty of these 261 were actually voted on by the people, who ratified eleven and rejected nineteen of them. The effect of the federal optional legislative referendum was, then, to hold up a little more than seven per cent of the statutory output of the Federal Assembly." W. E. Rappard, in American Political Science Review, Aug., 1912, 357. On the most recent exercise of the federal referendum (the adoption, February 4, 1912, of a national Accident and Sickness Insurance bill) see M. Turmann, Le référendum suisse du 4 février—la loi fédérale sur l'assurance-maladie et l'assurance accident, in Le Correspondant, Feb. 10, 1912. This particular referendum was called for by 75,000 voters. The measure submitted was approved by a vote of 287,566 to 241,416, on a poll of 63.04 per cent of the registered electorate.[(Back)]
Footnote 634: Arts. 118-123. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 287-289.[(Back)]
Footnote 635: C. Borgeaud, Le plébiscite du 4 novembre 1894, in Revue du Droit Public, Nov.-Dec., 1894. The adverse votes were decisive, i.e., 308,289 to 75,880 and 347,401 to 145,362 respectively.[(Back)]
Footnote 636: The introduction of proportional representation in Switzerland is advocated especially by the Socialists and the Clericals, to whom principally would accrue the benefits of the system. The Liberals are favorable to the principle, though they prefer to postpone the issue. The Radicals are solidly opposed. At the referendum of 1900 the project was rejected by 11-1/2 to 10-1/2 cantons, and by a popular majority of 75,000; at that of October 23, 1910, it was approved by 12 to 10 cantons, but was rejected popularly by a majority of less than 25,000 (265,194 negative, 240,305 affirmative). Rather curiously, the defeat arose largely from the defection of the Catholic canton of Freiburg, which in 1900 was favorable by a vote of 13,000 to 3,800. The canton's vote in 1910 was for rejection, by 11,200 to 3,900. By those best acquainted with the situation this astonishing reversal is explained by the influence which is exercised in the canton to-day by M. Python, a dictator who opposes any innovation whereby his own controlling position would be menaced. Not unnaturally, the friends of the project (and in 1910 all parties save the Radicals gave it their support) regard the outcome in 1910 as a certain forecast of eventual victory. In nine of the cantonal governments, beginning with that of Ticino in 1891, the principle has been already put in operation. In truth, the defeat of 1910 was followed promptly by a triumph in the important canton of St. Gall, where the proportional system was adopted for the first time, February 5, 1911, for elections of the cantonal council. See E. Secretan, Suisse, in Revue Politique et Parlementaire, Feb., 1911; G. Daneo, La rappresentanza proporzionale nella Svizzera, in Nuova Antologia, Sept. 16, 1910.[(Back)]
Footnote 637: Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 280-281. For references on the initiative and the referendum see p. [420]. A very satisfactory appraisal of the operation of these principles in Switzerland may be found in Lloyd, A Sovereign People, chaps. 14-15. See also W. E. Rappard, The Initiative and the Referendum in Switzerland, in American Political Science Review, Aug., 1912.[(Back)]
Footnote 638: Upon this subject, especially the effects of the referendum upon political parties, see Lowell, Governments and Parties, II., 314-332.[(Back)]
Footnote 639: On Swiss political parties see Lowell, Governments and Parties, II., Chap. 13; Adams and Cunningham, The Swiss Confederation, Chap. 7.[(Back)]
Footnote 640: Art. 114. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 287.[(Back)]
Footnote 641: Art. 112. Ibid., II., 286.[(Back)]
Footnote 642: On the Swiss federal judiciary see Vincent, Government in Switzerland, Chap. 15; Adams and Cunningham, The Swiss Confederation, Chap. 5.[(Back)]
Footnote 643: This designation was first employed in a diploma of the Emperor Francis Joseph I., November 14, 1868 (see p. [459]).[(Back)]
Footnote 644: Lowell, Governments and Parties, II., 177.[(Back)]
Footnote 645: See p. [448].[(Back)]
Footnote 646: At the diet of Pressburg, in 1687-1688, the Hungarian crown had been declared hereditary in the house of Hapsburg, and the Austrian heir, Joseph, had been crowned hereditary king. In 1697 Transylvania was united to the Hungarian monarchy. The banat of Temesvár was acquired by the Hapsburgs in 1718. The term "banat" denotes a border district, or march.[(Back)]
Footnote 647: J. Andrássy, Development of Hungarian Constitutional Liberty (London, 1908), 93.[(Back)]
Footnote 648: Charles VI. as emperor.[(Back)]
Footnote 649: The Pragmatic Sanction was accepted at different dates by the various diets of the Austro-Hungarian lands: in 1713 by Croatia, and from 1720 to 1724 by the other diets. It was finally proclaimed a fundamental law in 1724.[(Back)]
Footnote 650: As emperor of Austria, Francis I. (1804-1835).[(Back)]
Footnote 651: Technically the control of the government was vested in a small group of dignitaries known as the Staatskonferenz, or State Conference. The nominal president of this body was the Archduke Louis, representing the crown; but the actual direction of its proceedings fell to Metternich. H. von Sybel, Die Österreichische Staatskonferenz von 1836, in Historische Zeitschrift, 1877.[(Back)]
Footnote 652: On Austria during the period of Metternich see Cambridge Modern History, X., Chap. 11, XI., Chap. 3; Lavisse et Rambaud, Histoire Générale, X., Chap. 17; A. Stern, Geschichte Europas (Berlin, 1904-1911), I., Chap. 3; A. Springer, Geschichte Österreichs seit dem Wiener Frieden 1809 (Leipzig, 1863), I., 275-322; H. Meynert, Kaiser Franz I. (Vienna, 1872).[(Back)]
Footnote 653: Brief accounts of the revolution of 1848-1849 in Austria-Hungary will be found in Cambridge Modern History, XI., Chaps. 6-7 (bibliography, pp. 887-893), and Lavisse et Rambaud, Histoire Générale, XI., Chap. 4. The most important treatise is H. Friedjung, Österreich von 1848 bis 1860 (2d ed., Stuttgart and Berlin, 1908), the first volume of which covers the period 1848-1851. There is a serviceable account in L. Leger, History of Austria-Hungary from the Beginning to the Year 1878, trans. by B. Hill (London, 1889), Chaps. 30-33. Older accounts in English include W. H. Stiles, Austria in 1848-9 (New York, 1852), and W. Coxe, History of the House of Austria (3d ed., London, 1907). The Hungarian phases of the subject are admirably presented in L. Eisenmann, Le compromis austro-hongroise (Paris, 1904).[(Back)]
Footnote 654: On Austro-Hungarian affairs in the period 1860-1867 see Cambridge Modern History, XI., Chap. 15, XII., Chap. 7 (bibliography, pp. 876-882), and Lavisse et Rambaud, Histoire Générale, XI., Chap. 13. The best treatise is L. Eisenmann, Le compromis austro-hongroise (Paris, 1904). An account by an active participant is J. Andrássy, Ungarns Ausgleich mit Österreich von Jahre 1867 (Leipzig, 1897). The best detailed account in English is Leger, History of Austria-Hungary, Chaps. 34-35. Two important biographies are: A. Forster, Francis Deák, a Memoir (London, 1880), and E. Ebeling, F. F. Graf von Beust (Leipzig, 1870-71).[(Back)]
Footnote 655: It should be emphasized that the phrase "Austrian Empire," properly used, denotes Austria alone. Hungary is no part of the Empire. Throughout the following description effort has been made to avoid inaccuracy of expression by referring to Austria-Hungary as the "dual monarchy," or simply as "the monarchy." The nomenclature of the Austro-Hungarian union is cumbersome, but therein it merely reflects the character of the union itself.[(Back)]
Footnote 656: Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 81.[(Back)]
Footnote 657: See p. [479].[(Back)]
Footnote 658: Law concerning the General Rights of Citizens. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 71-74.[(Back)]
Footnote 659: The texts of the fundamental laws at present in operation are printed in E. Bernatzik, Die österreichischen Verfassungsgesetze (2d ed., Vienna, 1911), and in a collection issued by the Austrian Government under the title Die Staatsgrundgesetze (7th ed., Vienna, 1900). The statutes of 1867 are in Lowell, Governments and Parties, II., 378-404, and, in English translation, in Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 71-89. The best description in English of the Austrian governmental system is Lowell, op. cit.; II., Chap. 8. The best extended treatise is J. Ulbrich, Lehrbuch des österreichischen Staatsrechts (Vienna, 1883). Excellent briefer works are L. Gumplowicz, Das österreichische Staatsrecht (3d ed., Vienna, 1907); J. Ulbrich, Österreichisches Staatsrecht (3d ed., Tübingen, 1904), in Marquardsen's Handbuch; and R. von Herrnritt, Handbuch des österreichischen Verfassungsrechtes (Tübingen, 1910). On the workings of the governmental system something may be gleaned from G. Drage, Austria-Hungary (London, 1909); S. Whitman, Austria (New York, 1879) and H. Rumbold, Francis Joseph and his Times (New York, 1909).[(Back)]
Footnote 660: Issued definitely in 1724.[(Back)]
Footnote 661: Law concerning the Exercise of Administrative and Executive Power, December 21, 1867, § 8. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 88.[(Back)]
Footnote 662: There is a joint ministry of finance, though each of the monarchies maintains a separate ministry for the administration of its own fiscal affairs. On the joint ministries see p. [510].[(Back)]
Footnote 663: Law concerning the Exercise of Administrative and Executive Power, December 21, 1867, § 9. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 88-89.[(Back)]
Footnote 664: W. Beaumont, Cabinets éphémères et ministères provisoires en Autriche, in Annales des Sciences Politiques, March, 1900; H. Hantich, Nouvelle phase du parlementarisme en Autriche, in Questions Diplomatiques et Coloniales, February 1, 1910.[(Back)]
Footnote 665: It is interesting to observe that this guarantee against the wholesale creation of peers was brought forward with the object of winning for the Government's Universal Suffrage Bill the assent of the upper chamber.[(Back)]
Footnote 666: Hazen, Europe since 1815, 399.[(Back)]
Footnote 667: By a law of 1882 the direct-tax qualification had been reduced to 5 florins.[(Back)]
Footnote 668: For tables exhibiting comparatively the distribution of seats in 1867, 1873, 1896, and 1907, see W. Beaumont, Le suffrage universel en Autriche: la loi du 26 janvier 1907 in Annales des Sciences Politiques, Sept., 1907.[(Back)]
Footnote 669: As has been pointed out, the pledge was redeemed in 1907 by a measure fixing the minimum number of life peers at 150 and the maximum at 170. See p. [466].[(Back)]
Footnote 670: On the electoral law of 1907 see W. Beaumont, Le suffrage universel en Autriche: la loi du 26 janvier 1907, in Annales des Sciences Politiques, Sept., 1907; H. Hantich, Le suffrage universel en Autriche, in Questions Diplomatiques et Coloniales, Feb. 16, 1907; M. E. Zweig, La réforme électorale en Autriche, in Revue du Droit Public, April-June and July-Sept., 1907.[(Back)]
Footnote 671: Law of December 21, 1867, concerning Imperial Representation, § 10. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 77.[(Back)]
Footnote 672: Law of December 21, 1867, concerning Imperial Representation, § 13. Dodd, Ibid., I., 81.[(Back)]
Footnote 673: For a collection of the rules of order of the Austrian Parliament see K. and O. Neisser, Die Geschäftsordnung des Abgeordnetenhaus des Reichsrates, 2 vols. (Vienna, 1909).[(Back)]
Footnote 674: Issued under warrant of the much-controverted Section 14. See p. [461].[(Back)]
Footnote 675: Law of December 21, 1867, concerning Imperial Representation, § 21. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 83. A work of value is G. Kolmer, Parlament und Verfassung in Österreich (Vienna, 1909).[(Back)]
Footnote 676: Lowell, Governments and Parties, II., 95.[(Back)]
Footnote 677: As at first reconstituted, the ministry contained a German Liberal, but he soon resigned.[(Back)]
Footnote 678: In the Chamber the Czechs, Poles, and Clericals controlled each approximately 55 votes.[(Back)]
Footnote 679: The forcefully expressed view of an eminent Austrian authority, written during the parliamentary deadlock which marked the close of the last century, is of interest. "His [Taaffe's] prolonged ministry had decisive effects upon the political life of Austria. It rendered forever impossible a return to Germanizing centralism. It filled the administrative hierarchy with Slavs, who, remaining Slavs, placed at the service of their national propaganda their official influence. In combatting the Liberal party it restored the power of the court, of the aristocracy, of the Church, and it facilitated the obnoxious restoration of clericalism, by which Austria to-day is dominated. It at the same time aroused and corrupted the nationalities and the parties. It habituated them to give rein unceasingly to their ambitions and to seek to attain them less by their own force and labor than by intrigue. The public demoralization, illustrated to-day so clearly by the Austrian crisis, is properly the result of the Taaffe system." M. L. Eisenmann, in Lavisse et Rambaud, Histoire Générale, XII., 177.[(Back)]
Footnote 680: See p. [467].[(Back)]
Footnote 681: On Austrian party politics see Lowell, Governments and Parties, II., 94-123; Drage, Austria-Hungary, Chaps, 1, 3, 12; K. Schwechler, Die österreichische Sozialdemokratie (Graz, 1907); S. Marmorek, L'Obstruction au parlement autrichien (Paris, 1908); and E. Benés, Le problème autrichien et la question tchèque; étude sur les luttes politiques des nationalités slaves en Autriche (Paris, 1908). Among valuable articles in periodicals may be mentioned: W. Beaumont, La crise du parlementarisme au Autriche; les élections législatives et la situation politique, in Annales des Sciences Politiques, March 15, 1901; K. Kramer, La situation politique en Autriche, ibid., October 15, 1901; G. L. Jaray, L'Autriche nouvelle: sentiments nationaux et préoccupations sociales, ibid., May 15 and Sept. 15, 1908, and La physionomie nouvelle de la question austro-hongroise, in Questions Diplomatiques et Coloniales, Dec. 16, 1910; Kolmer, La vie politique et parlementaire en Autriche, in Revue Politique et Parlementaire, July 10, 1911; and G. Blondel, Les dernières élections en Autriche-Hongrie, in La Réforme Sociale, Aug. 1 and 15, 1911.[(Back)]
Footnote 682: Art. 7. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 86.[(Back)]
Footnote 683: Located at Vienna, Graz, Trieste, Innsbrück, Zara, Prague, Brünn, Cracow, and Lemberg.[(Back)]
Footnote 684: Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 84-85.[(Back)]
Footnote 685: When the class system of voting for members of the Reichsrath was on the point of being abolished by the law of January 26, 1907, there was raised the question as to whether a similar step should not be taken in respect to provincial elections. It was generally agreed, however, that the absence of an aristocratic upper chamber in the provincial diet renders the class system within the province not wholly undesirable. The provinces were encouraged to liberalize their franchise regulations, but not to abandon the prevailing electoral system. The province of Lower Austria led the way by increasing the membership of its diet from 79 to 127, to be elected as follows: 58 by manhood suffrage throughout the province, 31 by the rural communes, 16 by the large landholders, 15 by the towns, and 4 by the chambers of commerce. Two bishops and the rector of the University of Vienna were continued as members.[(Back)]
Footnote 686: Law of December 21, 1867, concerning Imperial Representation, § 12. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 79.[(Back)]
Footnote 687: J. Redlich, Das Wesen der österreichischen Kommunalverfassung (Leipzig, 1910).[(Back)]
Footnote 688: There is an interesting comparative study of the Bulla Aurea and the Great Charter in E. Hantos, The Magna Carta of the English and of the Hungarian Constitution (London, 1904).[(Back)]
Footnote 689: The texts of all of the fundamental laws of Hungary at present in operation are printed in G. Steinbach, Die ungarischen Verfassungsgesetze (3d ed., Vienna, 1900). English translations of the more important are in Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 93-111. The standard treatise on the Hungarian constitutional system is S. Rádo-Rotheld, Die ungarische Verfassung (Berlin, 1898), upon which is based A. de Bertha, La constitution hongroise (Paris, 1898). In both of these works the Magyar domination in Hungary is regarded with favor. A readable book is A. de Bertha, La Hongrie moderne de 1849 à 1901; étude historique (Paris, 1901). An older treatise, in three volumes, is A. von Virozil, Das Staatsrecht des Königsreichs Ungarn (Pest, 1865-1866). Valuable works of more recent publication include G. Steinbach, Die ungarischen Verfassungsgesetze (Vienna, 1906); A. Timon, Ungarische Verfassungs-und Rechtsgeschichte (2d ed., Berlin, 1908); H. Marczoll, Ungarisches Verfassungsrecht (Tübingen, 1909); and especially G. von Ferdinandy, Staats und Verwaltungsrecht des Königreichs Ungarn und seiner Nebenländer (Hanover, 1909). Worthy of mention is P. Matter, La constitution hongroise, in Annales de l'École Libre des Sciences Politiques, July 15, 1889, and April 15, 1890. Excellent discussions for English readers will be found in J. Andrássy, The Development of Hungarian Constitutional Liberty (London, 1908); C. M. Knatchbull-Hugessen, The Political Evolution of the Hungarian Nation (London, 1908); and P. Alden (ed.), Hungary of To-day (London and New York, 1910). The celebration, in 1896, of the thousandth anniversary of the establishment of the Magyars in Europe was made the occasion of the publication of a multitude of more or less popular books devoted, as a rule, to a review of Hungarian national development. Among them may be mentioned: A. Vambéry, Hungary in Ancient and Modern Times (London, 1897); R. Chélard, La Hongrie millénaire (Paris, 1906); and M. Gelléri, Aus der Vergangenheit und Gegenwart des tausendjährigen Ungarn (Budapest, 1896).[(Back)]
Footnote 690: Law III. of 1848, § 3. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 94.[(Back)]
Footnote 691: Law III. of 1848, § 13. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 94.[(Back)]
Footnote 692: Law III. of 1848, § 37. Ibid., I., 97.[(Back)]
Footnote 693: Law VII. of 1885 altering the Organization of the Table of Magnates. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 100-105.[(Back)]
Footnote 694: The number is, of course, variable. The old Table of Magnates was a very large body, consisting of more than 800 members.[(Back)]
Footnote 695: Law V. of 1848 concerning the Election of Representatives, § 5. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 105.[(Back)]
Footnote 696: On the status of the Croatian kingdom see p. [507].[(Back)]
Footnote 697: It is but fair to say that in Hungary proper the Magyar percentage in 1900 was 51.4.[(Back)]
Footnote 698: Of the 413 representatives of Hungary at Budapest in 1909, but 26 were non-Magyars, and after the elections of June, 1910, but 7.[(Back)]
Footnote 699: Equivalent to the completion of one-half of the course of secondary instruction.[(Back)]
Footnote 700: On the question of the Hungarian suffrage see S. Aberdam, La crise hongroise, in Revue Politique et Parlementaire, Oct. 10, 1909, and Les récentes crises politiques en Hongrie, in Revue des Sciences Politiques, May-June and July-Aug., 1912; G. Louis-Jaray, Le suffrage universel en Hongrie, in Questions Diplomatiques et Coloniales, February 16, 1909; R. Henry, La crise hongroise, ibid., June 1, 1910; J. Mailath, Les élections générales hongroises, ibid., Aug. 16, 1910, and The Hungarian Elections, in Contemporary Review, Oct., 1910; F. de Gerando, Le radicalisme hongroise, in Revue Politique et Parlementaire, July, 1911; A. Duboscq, La réforme électorale en Hongrie, in Questions Diplomatiques et Coloniales, July 1, 1912; S. Huszadik, La Hongrie contemporaine et le suffrage universel (Paris, 1909); and B. Auerbach, Races et nationalités en Autriche-Hongrie (2d ed., Paris, 1910).[(Back)]
Footnote 701: Seatus Viator, Corruption and Reform in Hungary: a Study of Electoral Practice (London, 1911).[(Back)]
Footnote 702: King Francis Joseph I. has been absent upon this important occasion but once since 1867. Apponyi, in Alden, Hungary of To-day, 166.[(Back)]
Footnote 703: Ibid., 166-175.[(Back)]
Footnote 704: Law III. of 1848 concerning the Formation of a Responsible Hungarian Ministry, §§ 33-34. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 97.[(Back)]
Footnote 705: See p. [495].[(Back)]
Footnote 706: For a brief account of Hungarian party politics to 1896 see Lowell, Governments and Parties, II., 152-161. For references to current periodicals see p. [497].[(Back)]
Footnote 707: Until 1848 the grand-principality of Transylvania also enjoyed a considerable measure of autonomy. In 1848 it was united with Hungary. In 1849 it regained its ancient independence, but in 1867 it was again joined with Hungary. By legislation of 1868 and 1876 it was fully incorporated in the kingdom, 75 seats being awarded it in the Chamber of Deputies at Budapest in lieu of its provincial diet, which was abolished.[(Back)]
Footnote 708: Under the agreement 44 per cent of the Croatian-Slavonian revenue is retained for local needs and the remaining 56 per cent is devoted to common expenditures of the kingdom upon the army, public works, and the national debt. It is alleged, among other things, that this apportionment is unjust, and, furthermore, that the Hungarian authorities systematically divert local funds to national uses.[(Back)]
Footnote 709: An English version of the statute of 1868 regulating the status of Croatia-Slavonia is printed in Drage, Austria-Hungary, 767-783. For extended discussions of the subject see Drage, op. cit., Chap. ii; Geosztanyi, in P. Alden (ed.), Hungary of To-day, Chap. ii; G. Horn, Le Compromis de 1868 entre la Croatie et la Hongrie (Paris, 1907); G. de Montbel, La condition politique de la Croatie-Slavonie dans la monarchie austro-hongroise (Toulouse, 1909); and R. Gonnard, Entre Drave et Save; études économiques, politiques, et sociales sur la Croatie-Slavonie (Paris, 1911). See also R. Henry, La Hongrie, la Croatie, et les nationalités, in Questions Diplomatiques et Coloniales, Aug. 16, 1907; J. Mailath Hongrie et Croatie, ibid., Nov. 1, 1907.[(Back)]
Footnote 710: Drage, Austria-Hungary. Chap. 12; H. Friedjung, Der Ausgleich mit Ungarn (Leipzig, 1877); Count Andrássy, Ungarns Ausgleich mit Österreich von Jahre 1867 (Leipzig, 1897); L. Eisenmann, Le compromis austro-hongroise (Paris, 1904). The Austrian and Hungarian texts of the Ausgleich laws, with German versions in parallel columns, are printed in I. Zolger, Der staatsrechtliche Ausgleich zwischen Österreich und Ungarn (Leipzig, 1911). English versions are in Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 114-122, and Drage, Austria-Hungary, 744-750, 753-766. In a speech in the Hungarian Chamber November 23, 1903, Count István Tisza sought to demonstrate that, properly, there is no such thing as an Austro-Hungarian Ausgleich—that the two instruments of 1867 are not only of different date but are essentially independent, each being revocable at will by the power by which it was enacted. An able polemic in opposition to the views of Tisza is to be found in F. Tezner, Ausgleichsrecht und Ausgleichspolitik (Vienna, 1907). Tezner is an Austrian publicist.[(Back)]
Footnote 711: As an illustration of the sensitiveness of the Hungarians in the matter of their Austrian relations the fact may be cited that in 1889, after prolonged effort, an arrangement was procured in accordance with which the joint sovereign, in the capacity of commander of the armed forces, is known as Emperor and King, not as Emperor-King.[(Back)]
Footnote 712: V. Duruy, L'Armée austro-hongroise, in Revue de Paris, Jan. 15, 1909; M. B., L'Armée autrichienne, in Annales des Sciences Politiques, May, 1909; Com. Davin, La marine austro-hongroise, in Questions Diplomatiques et Coloniales, Aug. 16, 1909.[(Back)]
Footnote 713: See pp. [479-481], [502-504].[(Back)]
Footnote 714: L. Louis-Jaray, Les relations austro-hongroises et le nouveau compromis économique, in Questions Diplomatiques et Coloniales, Jan. 16 and Feb. 1, 1908; and Les dispositions économiques du nouveau compromis austro-hongrois, in Revue Économique Internationale, March, 1908.[(Back)]
Footnote 715: The texts of the organic acts of 1910 are printed in K. Lamp, Die Rechtsnatur der Verfassung Bosniens und der Herzegowina vom 17 Februar 1910, in Jahrbuch des Öffentlichen Rechts (Tübingen, 1911), V.; L. Geller, Bosnisch-herzegowinische Verfassungs und politische Grundgesetze (Vienna, 1910); and in Zeitschrift für Völkerrecht und Bundesstaatsrecht, IV., No. 5. See also F. Komlössy, Das Rechtsverhältniss Bosniens und des Herzegowina zu Ungarn (Pressburg, 1911).[(Back)]
Footnote 716: L. Delplace, La Belgique sous la domination française, 2 vols. (Louvain, 1896); L. de Lanzac de Laborie, La domination française en Belgique, 2 vols. (Paris, 1895).[(Back)]
Footnote 717: L. Legrand, La révolution française en Hollande: la république batave (Paris, 1894).[(Back)]
Footnote 718: These ceded territories comprised the ancestral domains of the house of Nassau which lay in Germany—Dietz, Siegen, Hadamar, and Dillenburg. The grand-duchy of Luxemburg was joined with the Netherlands by a personal union only, and in its capital, as a fortress of the German Confederation, was maintained a Prussian garrison. William dealt with the territory, however, precisely as if it were an integral part of his kingdom, extending to it the constitution of 1815 and administering its affairs through the agency of Dutch officials. At the time of the Belgian revolt, in 1830, Luxemburg broke away from Dutch rule and there ensued in the history of the grand-duchy an anomalous period during which the legal status of the territory was hotly disputed. In 1839 the Conference of London assigned to Belgium that portion of the grand-duchy which was contiguous to her frontiers and remanded the remainder to the status of an hereditary possession of the house of Nassau. In 1856 a separate constitution was granted the people of the territory, and in 1867, following the dissolution of the old Germanic Confederation, the grand-duchy was declared by an international conference at London to be a sovereign and independent (but neutral) state, under the guaranty of the powers. The connection between Luxemburg and Holland was thereafter purely dynastic. Until the death of William III., in 1890, the king of the Netherlands was also grand-duke of Luxemburg; but with the accession of Queen Wilhelmina the union of the two countries was terminated, by reason of the fact that females were at that time excluded from the throne of the grand-duchy. A law of 1907, however, vested the succession in the princess Marie, eldest daughter of the reigning Grand-Duke William; and upon the death of her father, Feb. 26, 1912, this heiress succeeded to the grand-ducal throne. The head of the state is the grand-duke (or grand-duchess). There is a council of state nominated by the sovereign and a chamber of deputies of 53 members, elected directly by the cantons for six years. The state has an area of but 998 square miles and a population (in 1910) of 259,891. P. Eyschen, Das Staatsrecht des Grossherzogtums Luxemburg (Tübingen, 1910).[(Back)]
Footnote 719: On the constitutional aspects of Dutch-Belgian history in the period 1815-1840 see Cambridge Modern History, X., Chap. 16 (bibliography, pp. 848-851); D. C. Boulger, History of Belgium, 2 vols. (London, 1909), I.; Stern, Geschichte Europas, IV., Chap. 2. General works of importance include J. B. Nothomb, Essai historique et politique sur la révolution belge, 3 vols. (4th ed., Brussels, 1876); C. White, The Belgian Revolution, 2 vols. (London, 1835); C. V. de Bavay, Histoire de la révolution belge de 1830 (Brussels, 1873); L. Hymans, Histoire politique et parlementaire de la Belgique de 1814 à 1830 (Brussels, 1869); J. J. Thonissen, La Belgique sous le règne de Leopold Ier, 3 vols. (Louvain, 1861).[(Back)]
Footnote 720: For that of Belgium see p. [534].[(Back)]
Footnote 721: Cambridge Modern History, XI., Chap. 23.[(Back)]
Footnote 722: Arts. 194-197. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 118. The text of the constitution, in English translation, is printed in Dodd, II., 80-119. An excellent annotated edition of the instrument, in Dutch, is G. L. van den Helm, De Grondwet voor het koningrijk der Nederlanden (The Hague, 1889). An elaborate commentary is contained in J. T. Buijs, De Grondwet, 3 vols. (Arnheim, 1883-1888). One of the best expositions of the Dutch constitutional system is L. de Hartog, Das Staatsrecht des Königreichs der Niederlande (Freiburg, 1886), in Marquardsen's Handbuch, though this work antedates the amendments of 1887. More recent is J. van Hamel, Staats-und Verwaltungsrecht des Königreichs der Niederlande (Hanover, 1910).[(Back)]
Footnote 723: The official title is "The Kingdom of the Netherlands." In ordinary usage, however, the term "Holland" is more commonly employed.[(Back)]
Footnote 724: Wilhelmina was at the time but ten years of age. Until she attained her majority, August 31, 1898, a regency was exercised by the Queen-Dowager Emma. E. Lemonon, La succession au trône néerlandais, in Questions Diplomatiques et Coloniales, December 1, 1908.[(Back)]
Footnote 725: Arts. 20-21. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 84.[(Back)]
Footnote 726: Art. 75. Ibid., II., 94.[(Back)]
Footnote 727: Art. 54. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 90.[(Back)]
Footnote 728: Art. 94. Ibid., II., 99.[(Back)]
Footnote 729: Save that treaties which provide for modifications of the boundaries of the state, or impose a public pecuniary obligation, or contain any other provision touching legal rights, may not be approved by the crown until after sanction shall have been accorded by the States-General, unless the power has been reserved to the crown by law to conclude such a treaty. Art. 59. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 91.[(Back)]
Footnote 730: Art. 61. Ibid., II., 91.[(Back)]
Footnote 731: Art. 61. Ibid.[(Back)]
Footnote 732: The provincial quotas are as follows: South Holland, 10; North Holland, 9; North Brabant and Gelderland, 6 each; Friesland, 4; Overyssel, Groningen, and Limberg, 3 each; Zealand, Utrecht, and Drenthe, 2 each. Prior to the constitutional revision of 1848 members of the upper house were appointed by the king.[(Back)]
Footnote 733: Art. 90. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 98.[(Back)]
Footnote 734: Art. 73. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 94.[(Back)]
Footnote 735: Art. 103. Ibid., II., 100.[(Back)]
Footnote 736: Art. 83. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 96.[(Back)]
Footnote 737: Art. 110. Ibid., II., 101.[(Back)]
Footnote 738: Art. 95. Ibid., II., 99.[(Back)]
Footnote 739: See p. [523].[(Back)]
Footnote 740: On Dutch political parties see P. Verschave, La Hollande politique; le rôle des catholiques néerlandais depuis dix ans, in Le Correspondant, April 10, 1908; Les élections générales et la situation politique aux pays-bas: l'organisation de la campagne électorale, ibid., Nov. 25, 1909; and La Hollande politique; un parti catholique en pays protestant (Paris, 1910).[(Back)]
Footnote 741: Arts. 149-161. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 110-112.[(Back)]
Footnote 742: Arts. 162-166. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 112-113.[(Back)]
Footnote 743: Arts. 127-141. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 105-108.[(Back)]
Footnote 744: Arts. 142-148. Ibid., II., 108-110.[(Back)]
Footnote 745: Art. 25. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 130.[(Back)]
Footnote 746: Art. 131. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 146. The text of the constitution of Belgium, in English translation, is printed in Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 126-148, and in the Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, May, 1896, Supplement (translation by J. M. Vincent). French texts of the constitution and of important laws will be found in F. Larcier, Code politique et administratif de la Belgique (2d ed., Brussels, 1893). The standard commentary is J. J. Thonissen, La constitution belge (3d ed., Brussels, 1879). Works of value relating to the amendments of 1893-1894 are C. Thiebault et A. Henry, Commentaire législatif des articles révisés de la constitution belge (Brussels, 1894), and Beltjens, La constitution belge révisée (Liège, 1895). The best treatises on the Belgian constitutional system are P. Errera, Das Staatsrecht des Königreichs Belgien (Tübingen, 1909), and Traité de droit public belge: droit constitutionnel, droit administratif (Paris, 1908), and O. Orban, Le droit constitutionnel de la Belgique, 3 vols. (Liège, 1906-1911). An older but excellent work is A. Giron, La droit public de la Belgique (Brussels, 1884). A convenient elementary book on the subject is F. Masson et C. Wiliquet, Manuel de droit constitutionnel (7th ed., Brussels, 1904). A useful volume is E. Flandin, Institutions politiques de l'Europe contemporaine (2d ed., Paris, 1907), I.[(Back)]
Footnote 747: This privilege was conferred by an amendment (Art. 61) adopted September 7, 1893.[(Back)]
Footnote 748: Arts. 60, 79-85. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 136, 138-139.[(Back)]
Footnote 749: The minister of war, regularly an active military official, has been usually not a legislative member. Aside from this one post, however, the custom of selecting ministers exclusively from the chambers has been followed almost as rigorously in Belgium as in Great Britain. And so largely are the ministers taken from the lower house that the Senate not infrequently has no representative at all in the cabinet.[(Back)]
Footnote 750: Arts. 86-91. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 139-140.[(Back)]
Footnote 751: Arts. 63-64, 89. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 137, 140.[(Back)]
Footnote 752: Dupriez, Les Ministres, I., 210-230; O. Kerchove de Denterghem, De la responsabilité des ministres dans le droit public belge (Paris, 1867).[(Back)]
Footnote 753: Art. 78. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 138.[(Back)]
Footnote 754: Arts. 66-67. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 137-138.[(Back)]
Footnote 755: Art. 58. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 135.[(Back)]
Footnote 756: They may not be, and may not have been within two years preceding their election, members of the assembly which returns them.[(Back)]
Footnote 757: Art. 56. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 135.[(Back)]
Footnote 758: This is true also of the Senate.[(Back)]
Footnote 759: It will be remembered that for the purpose of considering constitutional amendments the chambers meet in joint session.[(Back)]
Footnote 760: The Nyssens scheme was brought to the attention of the Belgian people through the medium of a pamphlet entitled "Le suffrage universel tempéré."[(Back)]
Footnote 761: Art. 47. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 132-133.[(Back)]
Footnote 762: On the earlier aspects of Belgian electoral reform see J. Van den Heuvel, De la révision de la constitution (Brussels, 1892); L. Arnaud, La révision belge, 1890-1893 (Paris and Brussels, 1894); La réforme électorale en Belgique, in Annales de l'École Libre des Sciences Politiques, July, 1894; E. Van der Smissen, L'État actuel des partis politiques en Belgique, ibid., Sept., 1898. An important work by a leading socialist and a deputy from Brussels is L. Bertrand, Histoire de la démocratie et du socialisme en Belgique depuis 1830, 2 vols. (Brussels and Paris, 1906-1907). Mention may be made also of E. Vandervelde et J. Destree, Le socialisme en Belgique (2d ed., Paris, 1903) and the older work of E. de Laveleye, Le parti clérical en Belgique (Brussels, 1874). A careful study is J. Barthélemy, L'organisation du suffrage et l'expérience belge (Paris, 1912). In 1910-1911 the number of parliamentary electors was 1,697,619, of whom 993,070 had one vote, 395,866 had two votes, and 308,683 had three votes.[(Back)]
Footnote 763: Another interesting proposal in 1893 was that at the discretion of the crown a legislative measure might be submitted to direct popular vote. By reason of the fear that such a scheme would vest in the crown an excess of power the experiment was not tried.[(Back)]
Footnote 764: In point of fact, the lists as published and as placed before the voter are indicated merely by number.[(Back)]
Footnote 765: Valuable books dealing with proportional representation in Belgium are G. Lachapelle, La représentation proportionnelle en France et en Belgique (Paris, 1911); F. Goblet d'Alviella, La représentation proportionelle en Belgique, and La représentation proportionelle intégrale (Paris, 1910); Barriéty, La représentation proportionelle en Belgique (Paris, 1906); Dubois, La représentation proportionelle soumise à l'expérience belge (Lille, 1906); and J. Humphreys, Proportional Representation (London, 1911). A careful account is contained in the Report and Evidence of the British Royal Commission on Electoral Systems (1910), Report, Cd. 5,163; Evidence, Cd. 5,352. Useful articles are: E. Mahaim, Proportional Representation and the Debates upon the Electoral Question in Belgium, in Annals of American Academy of Political and Social Science, May, 1900; E. Van der Smissen, La représentation proportionnelle en Belgique et les élections générales de mai 1900, in Annales des Sciences Politiques, July-Sept., 1900; and J. Humphreys, Proportional Representation in Belgium, in Contemporary Review, Oct., 1908.[(Back)]
Footnote 766: It will be recalled that the term of deputies is four years, half retiring every two years. There is, therefore, a parliamentary election, but not throughout the entire country, every second year.[(Back)]
Footnote 767: In the five provinces of Brabant, Anvers, Namur, West Flanders, and Luxemburg, the term of whose deputies was about to expire.[(Back)]
Footnote 768: August 15, 1911, Socialists and Liberals combined in an anti-plural-vote demonstration in Brussels in which 150,000 people are estimated to have taken part. For an able defense of plural voting under the system prevailing in Belgium see L. Dupriez, L'Organisation du suffrage universel en Belgique. Cf. E. Van der Smissen, La question du suffrage universel en Belgique, in Annales des Sciences Politiques, Sept., 1902. On recent aspects of Belgian politics consult L. Dupriez, L'évolution des partis politiques en Belgique et les élections de mai 1906, ibid., Sept., 1906; A. Kahn, Les élections belges, in Questions Diplomatiques et Coloniales, June 16, 1910; and J. Van den Heuvel, Les élections belges, in Le Correspondant, June 25, 1912. J. H. Humphreys, Proportional Representation in Belgium, in Contemporary Review, Oct., 1908, contains a concrete account of the elections of 1908. A useful volume is A. Fromes, Code électoral belge (Brussels, 1908).[(Back)]
Footnote 769: Arts. 70-72. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 137.[(Back)]
Footnote 770: Arts. 92-107. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 140-142. Roubion, La séparation des pouvoirs administratif et judiciaire en Belgique (Paris, 1905).[(Back)]
Footnote 771: Arts. 108-109. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 142-143.[(Back)]
Footnote 772: Not including the canton, which exists purely for judicial purposes. It is the jurisdiction of the justice of the peace.[(Back)]
Footnote 773: Antwerp, Brabant, East Flanders, West Flanders, Hainaut, Liège, Limburg, Luxemburg, and Namur.[(Back)]
Footnote 774: In 1902, 1,146,482 communal electors cast a total of 2,007,704 votes. In 1910-1911 there were 1,440,141 provincial, and 1,300,514 communal, voters.[(Back)]
Footnote 775: Dupriez, Les Ministres, 262-276; E. de Laveleye, Local Government and Taxation, in Cobden Club Essays (London, 1875).[(Back)]
Footnote 776: The nominal sovereign was Margaret's great-nephew, Eric of Pomerania, who was elected at a convention of representatives of the three kingdoms held simultaneously with the establishment of the Union. Eric was deposed in 1439.[(Back)]
Footnote 777: R. N. Bain, Scandinavia, a Political History of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden (Cambridge, 1905), Chap. 3; P. B. Watson, The Swedish Revolution under Gustavus Vasa (London, 1889).[(Back)]
Footnote 778: In the Swedish diet the peasantry constituted a fourth estate, but in Denmark no political power was possessed by this class.[(Back)]
Footnote 779: Bain, Scandinavia, 266.[(Back)]
Footnote 780: For sketches of Danish political history prior to 1814 see Bain, Scandinavia, Chaps. 2, 4, 7, 10, 15; Lavisse et Rambaud, Histoire Générale, III., Chap. 14, IV., Chap. 15; VI., Chap. 17; VII., Chap. 23; IX., Chap. 23. An important Danish work is P. F. Barfod, Danmarks Historie, 1319-1536 (Copenhagen, 1885).[(Back)]
Footnote 781: The ordinance establishing the provincial assemblies was promulgated May 28, 1831, but the assemblies did not come into existence until after the supplementary decrees of May 15, 1834. In 1843 Iceland was granted "home rule," with the right to maintain an independent legislature.[(Back)]
Footnote 782: Holstein and Lauenburg were German in population and were members of the German Confederation. Southern Schleswig also was inhabited by German-speaking people, though the duchy did not belong to the Confederation. Schleswig and Holstein had been joined with Denmark under a precarious form of union since the Middle Ages. Lauenburg was acquired, with the assent of the Allies, in 1814-1815 in partial compensation for the loss of Norway.[(Back)]
Footnote 783: Bain, Scandinavia, Chap. 16; Cambridge Modern History, XI., Chap. 24 (bibliography, pp. 961-962); Lavisse et Rambaud, Histoire Générale, X., Chap. 18; C. F. Allen, Histoire de Danemark depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu'à nos jours (Copenhagen, 1878).[(Back)]
Footnote 784: Cambridge Modern History, XI., Chap. 16; Lavisse et Rambaud, Histoire Générale, XI., Chap. 12; J. W. Headlam, Bismarck and the Foundation of the German Empire (New York, 1909), Chap. 8; H. Delbrück, Der Deutsch-Dänische Krieg, 1864 (Berlin, 1905).[(Back)]
Footnote 785: Arts. 80-94. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 278-280.[(Back)]
Footnote 786: Art. 95. Ibid., I., 280.[(Back)]
Footnote 787: The text of the Danish constitution, in English translation, is printed in Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 267-281; H. Weitemeyer, Denmark (London, 1891), 203-217; and British and Foreign State Papers, LVIII. (1867-1868), 1,223 ff. The best brief treatise on the Danish constitutional system is C. Goos and H. Hansen, Das Staatsrecht des Königsreichs Dänemark (Freiburg, 1889), in Marquardsen's Handbuch. A Danish edition of this work was issued at Copenhagen in 1890. The best extended commentaries are H. Matzen, Den Danske Statsforfatningsret (3d ed., Copenhagen, 1897-1901) and C. G. Holck, Den Danske Statsforfatningsret (Copenhagen, 1869). T. H. Aschehoug, Den Nordiske Statsret (Copenhagen, 1885) is a useful study, from a comparative point of view, of the constitutional law of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.[(Back)]
Footnote 788: Art. 1. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 267.[(Back)]
Footnote 789: Prince Christian became, in 1863, King Christian IX.[(Back)]
Footnote 790: One original text of this pledge must be preserved in the archives of the crown, another in those of the Rigsdag. Art. 7. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 267.[(Back)]
Footnote 791: Art. 12. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 268.[(Back)]
Footnote 792: Art. 34. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 272. The status of the Faröe Islands is that of an integral portion of the kingdom, not that of a dependency. It is analogous to the status of Algeria in the French Republic. No other outlying Danish territory is represented in the Rigsdag.[(Back)]
Footnote 793: For details see Art. 37 of the constitution. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 272.[(Back)]
Footnote 794: It is of interest to observe that Denmark was the first nation to make use of a system of proportional representation. The principle was introduced originally as early as 1855, in the constitution promulgated in that year, and it was retained through the constitutional changes of 1863 and 1866, although its application was restricted to the election of members of the upper chamber. An account of its introduction is contained in La représentation proportionnelle (Paris, 1888), published by the French Society for the Study of Proportional Representation.[(Back)]
Footnote 795: Art. 30. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 271.[(Back)]
Footnote 796: Art. 53. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 274.[(Back)]
Footnote 797: A group which, after the formation of the Deuntzer ministry, split off from the Conservatives in the upper chamber.[(Back)]
Footnote 798: The salient facts relating to the political history of Denmark since 1870 may be gleaned from the successive volumes of the Annual Register. Works of importance dealing with the subject include N. Neergaard, Danmarks Riges Historie siden 1852 (Copenhagen, 1909); H. Holm, Forligets förste Rigsdagssamling 1894-1895 (Copenhagen, 1895), and Kampen om Ministeriet Reedtz-Thott (Copenhagen, 1897); H. Barfod, Hans Majestaet Kong Christian IX. (Copenhagen, 1888); and A. Thorsöe, Kong Christian den Niende (Copenhagen, 1905).[(Back)]
Footnote 799: At the age of sixty-five they may be retired on full salary.[(Back)]
Footnote 800: Arts. 68-74. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, I., 276-277.[(Back)]
Footnote 801: The bill was carried in the Folkething by a vote of 57 to 42; in the Landsthing by a vote of 38 to 5.[(Back)]
Footnote 802: Bain, Scandinavia, Chaps. 8, 11; Cambridge Modern History, IV. Chaps. 5, 20; Lavisse et Rambaud, Histoire Générale, III., Chap. 14; IV.; Chap. 15.[(Back)]
Footnote 803: Bain, Scandinavia, Chaps. 12-13; Cambridge Modern History, V., Chaps. 18-19; Lavisse et Rambaud, Histoire Générale, VI., Chap. 17.[(Back)]
Footnote 804: Gustavus IV., being a minor at his accession, did not assume control of the government until November 1, 1796.[(Back)]
Footnote 805: See p. [589]. Bain, Scandinavia, Chap. 14; Lavisse et Rambaud, Histoire Générale, VII., Chap. 23; VIII., Chap. 23.[(Back)]
Footnote 806: Bain, Scandinavia, Chaps. 4, 5, 7, 10, 15; H. H. Boyesen, A History of Norway from the Earliest Times (2d ed., London, 1900).[(Back)]
Footnote 807: Upon the death of Charles XIII., February 5, 1818, the "prince" succeeded to the throne under the name of Charles XIV. He reigned until 1844.[(Back)]
Footnote 808: C. Schefer, Bernadotte roi (Paris, 1899); L. Pingaud, Bernadotte, Napoléon, et les Bourbons (Paris, 1901); G. R. Lagerhjelm, Napoleon och Carl Johan, 1813 (Stockholm, 1891).[(Back)]
Footnote 809: G. Björlin, Der Krieg in Norwegen, 1814 (Stuttgart, 1895).[(Back)]
Footnote 810: Haakon VI. reigned 1343-1380, shortly before the Union of Kalmar. For brief accounts of the relations of Sweden and Norway under the union see Bain, Scandinavia, Chap. 17; Cambridge Modern History, XI., Chap. 24, XII., Chap. 11; Lavisse et Rambaud, Histoire Générale, X., Chap. 18; XI., Chap. 12; XII., Chap. 7. The best general treatise is A. Aall and G. Nikol, Die Norwegische-schwedische Union, ihr Bestehen und ihre Lösung (Breslau, 1912). From the Norwegian point of view the subject is well treated in F. Nansen, Norge og Foreningen med Sverige (Christiania, 1905), in translation, Norway and the Union with Sweden (London, 1905); from the Swedish, in K. Nordlung, Den svensk-norska krisen (Upsala and Stockholm, 1905), in translation. The Swedish-Norwegian Union Crisis, A History with Documents (Stockholm, 1905). Worthy of mention are R. Pillons, L'Union scandinave (Paris, 1899); A. Mohn, La Suède et la révolution norvégienne (Geneva and Paris, 1906); and Jordan, La séparation de la Suède et de la Norvège (Paris, 1906). A useful survey is P. Woultrin, in Annales des Sciences Politiques, Jan. 15 and March 15, 1906.[(Back)]
Footnote 811: See p. [589].[(Back)]
Footnote 812: Art. 112. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 143. An English version of the Norwegian constitution is printed in Dodd, ibid., II., 123-143, and in H. L. Braekstad, The Constitution of the Kingdom of Norway (London, 1905). The standard treatise on the Norwegian system of government is T. H. Aschehoug, Norges Nuvaerende Statsforfatning (2d ed., Christiania, 1891-1893); but a more available work is an earlier one by the same author, Das Staatsrecht der vereinigten Königreiche Schweden und Norwegen (Freiburg, 1886), in Marquardsen's Handbuch. The most recent and, on the whole the most useful, treatise is B. Morgenstierne, Das Staatsrecht des Königreichs Norwegen (Tübingen, 1911).[(Back)]
Footnote 813: Art. 30. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 128.[(Back)]
Footnote 814: Arts. 16, 17, 20-26. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 125-127.[(Back)]
Footnote 815: At the election of 1909 the total number of parliamentary electors was 785,358. The number of votes recorded, however, was but 487,193.[(Back)]
Footnote 816: Arts. 59-64. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 134-135.[(Back)]
Footnote 817: Art. 75. Ibid., II., 136.[(Back)]
Footnote 818: Art. 79. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 137-138.[(Back)]
Footnote 819: Son of the earlier premier, Frederick Stang.[(Back)]
Footnote 820: A brief account of Norwegian political parties to 1900 will be found in Lavisse et Rambaud, Histoire Générale, XII., 266-274; to 1906, in Cambridge Modern History, XII., 280-290. For additional references see pp. [578-579].[(Back)]
Footnote 821: Art. 96. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 141.[(Back)]
Footnote 822: Arts. 86-87. Ibid., II., 139.[(Back)]
Footnote 823: See p. [572].[(Back)]
Footnote 824: Arts. 81-82. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 240. In 1908 the ex-premier Staaff proposed that when the two chambers should disagree upon questions concerning the constitution and general laws resort should be had to a popular referendum; but the suggestion was negatived by the upper house unanimously and by the lower by a vote of 115 to 78. The text of the Swedish constitution, together with the supplementary fundamental laws of the kingdom, is contained in W. Uppström, Sveriges Grundlager och konstitutionela stadgar jemte kommunallagarne samt Norges Grundlov (6th ed., Stockholm, 1903). An English version is printed in Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 219-251, and a French one in Dareste, Constitutions Modernes (3d ed.), II., 46-114. The best brief treatise upon Swedish constitutional history is P. Fahlbeck, La constitution suédoise et le parlementarisme moderne (Paris, 1905). The best description of the Swedish government as it was a quarter of a century ago is T. H. Aschehoug, Das Staatsrecht der vereinigten königreiche Schweden und Norwegen (Freiburg, 1886), in Marquardsen's Handbuch. The principal treatise in Swedish is C. Naumann, Sveriges statsförfatningsrätt (2d ed., Stockholm, 1879-1884).[(Back)]
Footnote 825: Art. 4. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 220.[(Back)]
Footnote 826: Art. 13. Ibid., 223.[(Back)]
Footnote 827: Art. 9. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 221.[(Back)]
Footnote 828: These amounts were substituted in 1909 for 80,000 and 4,000 respectively.[(Back)]
Footnote 829: Under the prevailing system, each elector in the towns had one vote for every 100 kroner income, subject to a limit of 100 votes; each one in the country had ten votes for every 100 kroner income, subject to a limit of 5,000 votes.[(Back)]
Footnote 830: In the main, the scheme of proportional representation adopted in Sweden is similar to that in operation in Belgium (see pp. [542-545]). Electors are expected to write at the head of their ballot papers the name or motto of their party. The papers bearing the same name or emblem are then grouped together, the numbers in each group are ascertained, and the seats available are allotted to these groups in accordance with the d'Hondt rule, irrespective of the number of votes obtained by individual candidates. The candidate receiving the largest number of votes is declared elected. The papers on which his name appears are then marked down to the value of one-half, the relative position of the remaining candidates is ascertained afresh, and the highest of these is declared elected, and so on. Unlike the Belgian system, the Swedish plan provides for the allotment of but a single seat at a time. Humphreys, Proportional Representation, 296-313.[(Back)]
Footnote 831: Art. 109. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 249.[(Back)]
Footnote 832: Art. 53. Ibid., II., 234.[(Back)]
Footnote 833: Art. 57. Ibid., 234.[(Back)]
Footnote 834: Arts. 96-100. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 244-245.[(Back)]
Footnote 835: V. Pinot, Le parlementarisme suédois, in Revue Politique et Parlementaire, Sept. 10, 1912.[(Back)]
Footnote 836: One of these comprises simply the city of Stockholm.[(Back)]
Footnote 837: For brief accounts of the Napoleonic régime in Spain see Cambridge Modern History, IX., Chap. 11 (bibliography, pp. 851-853); Lavisse et Rambaud, Histoire Générale, IX., Chap. 6; A. Fournier, Life of Napoleon the First, 2 vols., (new ed. New York, 1911), II., Chaps. 14-15; J. H. Rose, Life of Napoleon I. (London, 1902), Chap. 28; M. A. S. Hume, Modern Spain, 1788-1898 (London, 1899), Chaps. 2-4; and H. B. Clarke, Modern Spain, 1815-1898 (Cambridge, 1906), Chap. 1. Of the numerous histories of the Peninsular War the most celebrated is W. Napier, History of the War in the Peninsula and the South of France, 1807-1814, 10 vols. (London, 1828).[(Back)]
Footnote 838: On the period covered by Ferdinand's reign see Cambridge Modern History, X., Chap. 7 (bibliography, pp. 808-811); Lavisse et Rambaud, Histoire Générale, X., Chap. 6; Clarke, Modern Spain, Chaps. 2-4, and Hume, Modern Spain, 1788-1898, Chaps. 5-6. Extended works which touch upon the constitutional aspects of the period include: H. Gmelin, Studien zur Spanischen Verfassungsgeschichte des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts (Stuttgart, 1905); G. Diercks, Geschichte Spaniens (Berlin, 1895); A. Borrego, Historia de las Cortes de España durante el siglo XIX. (Madrid, 1885); and M. Calvo y Martin, Regimem parlamentario de España en el siglo XIX. (Madrid, 1883). A valuable essay is P. Bancada, El sentido social de la revolucion de 1820, in Revista Contemporânea (August, 1903).[(Back)]
Footnote 839: In the mediæval states of Spain there was no discrimination against female succession. The Spanish Salic Law was enacted by a decree of Philip V. in 1713, at the close of the War of the Spanish Succession. Its original object was to prevent the union of the crowns of France and Spain. In view of the change which had come in the international situation, Charles IV., supported by the Cortes, in 1789 abrogated the act of 1713 and re-established the law of Siete Partidas which permitted the succession of women. This measure was recorded in the archives, but was not published at the time; so that what Ferdinand VII. did was simply to publish, May 19, 1830, at the instigation of the Queen, this pragmatica, or law, of 1789. The birth of Isabella occurred the following October 10.[(Back)]
Footnote 840: R. Altamira, in Cambridge Modern History, X., 238.[(Back)]
Footnote 841: One established conditions under which senatorial seats might be made hereditary.[(Back)]
Footnote 842: Cambridge Modern History, X., Chap. 7; XI., Chap. 20; Lavisse et Rambaud, Histoire Générale, X., Chap. 6; XI., Chap. 9; Hume, Modern Spain, Chaps. 7-12; Clarke, Modern Spain, Chaps. 5-11; Mariano, La Regencia de D. Baldomero Espartero (Madrid, 1870); J. Perez de Guzman, Las Cortes y los Gobiernos del reinado de Da Isabel II., in La España Moderna, 1903.[(Back)]
Footnote 843: Castelar favored a consolidated and radical republic; Serrano, a consolidated and conservative republic; Pi y Margall, a federal republic, on the pattern of the United States; Pavia, a republic which should be predominantly military.[(Back)]
Footnote 844: In this connection may be mentioned a remark of General Prim, one of the leading spirits in the provisional government of 1868. When asked why at that time he did not establish a republic his reply was: "It would have been a republic without republicans." There was no less a dearth of real republicans in 1873-1874.[(Back)]
Footnote 845: On the revolutionary and republican periods see Cambridge Modern History XI., Chap. 20 (bibliography, pp. 945-949); Lavisse et Rambaud, Histoire Générale, XII., Chap. 9; Hume, Modern Spain, Chap. 10; V. Cherbuliez, L'Espagne politique, 1868-1873 (Paris, 1874); W. Lauser, Geschichte Spaniens von dem Sturz Isabellas, 1868-1875 (Leipzig, 1877); E. H. Strobel, The Spanish Revolution, 1868-1875 (London, 1898); E. Rodriguez Solis, Historia del partido republicano español (Madrid, 1893); Pi y Margall, Amadeo de Saboya (Madrid, 1884); H. R. Whitehouse, Amadeus, King of Spain (New York, 1897). A significant work is E. Castelar, Historia del movimiento republicano en Europa (Madrid, 1873-1874). Special works dealing with the restoration include A. Houghton, Les origines de la restauration des Bourbons en Espagne (Paris, 1890); Diez de Tejada, Historia de la restauracion (Madrid, 1879).[(Back)]
Footnote 846: No. 1. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 199-203.[(Back)]
Footnote 847: By Article II Roman Catholicism is declared to be the religion of the state. "The nation," it is stipulated further, "binds itself to maintain this religion and its ministers." Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 201.[(Back)]
Footnote 848: An official text of the constitution of 1876 is published by the Spanish Government under the title Constitución politica de la monarchia Española y leyes complementarias (4th ed., Madrid, 1901). The texts of all of the Spanish constitutions of the nineteenth century are printed in the first volume of Muro y Martinez, Constituciones de España y de las demas naciones de Europa, con la historia general de España (Madrid, 1881); also in the first volume—Constituciones y reglamentos (Madrid, 1906)—of a collection projected by the Spanish Government under the title of Publicaciones Parlamentarias. English versions of the instrument of 1876 appear in British and Foreign State Papers, LXVII. (1875-1876), 118 ff., and Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 199-216. An excellent brief treatise on Spanish constitutional development is H. Gmelin, Studien zur spanischen Verfassungsgeschichte des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts (Stuttgart, 1905); on Spanish constitutional law, M. Torres Campos, Das Staatsrecht des Königreichs Spanien (Freiburg, 1889), in Marquardsen's Handbuch; on Spanish administrative law, V. Santamaria de Paredes, Curso de derecho administrativo (5th ed., Madrid, 1898); and on the comparative aspects of Spanish institutions, R. de Oloriz, La Constitución española comparada con las de Inglaterra, Estados-Unidos, Francia y Alemania (Valencia, 1904). More extended works of importance include V. Santamaria de Paredes, Curso de derecho politico (6th ed., Madrid, 1898), and A. Posada, Tratado de derecho administrativo (Madrid, 1897-1898). A monumental collection of laws relating to Spanish administrative affairs is M. Martinez Alcubilla, Diccionario de la administración Española, Peninsular y Ultramarina (5th ed., 1892-1894), to which is added annually an appendix containing texts of the most recent laws and decrees. Special treatises of importance are M. M. Calvo, Regimen parlamentario en España (Madrid, 1883); J. Costa, Oligarquia y Caciquismo como la forma actual del Gobierno en España (Madrid, 1903); and Y. Guytot, L'évolution politique et sociale de l'Espagne (Paris, 1899). Mention may be made of R. Fraoso, Las constituciones de España, in Revista de España, June-July, 1880.[(Back)]
Footnote 849: Arts. 59-61. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 211.[(Back)]
Footnote 850: She was, however, but a child five years of age.[(Back)]
Footnote 851: Art. 62. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 212.[(Back)]
Footnote 852: Art. 50. Ibid., II., 210.[(Back)]
Footnote 853: It is required that subsequent to a declaration of war or the conclusion of peace the king shall submit to the Cortes a report accompanied by pertinent documents.[(Back)]
Footnote 854: The rank of grandee (grande) is a dignity conferred by the sovereign, either for life or as an hereditary honor.[(Back)]
Footnote 855: Art. 21. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 204[(Back)]
.
Footnote 856: Arts. 20-26. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 203-206.[(Back)]
Footnote 857: There is the customary regulation that soldiers and sailors in active service may not vote.[(Back)]
Footnote 858: J. Vila Serra, Manual de elecciones de Diputados a Cortes (Valencia, 1907); J. Lon y Albareda, Nueva ley electoral de 8 de Agosto de 1907, comentada (Madrid, 1907); M. Vivanco y L. San Martin, La reforma electoral (Madrid, 1907).[(Back)]
Footnote 859: It is to be observed that these guarantees are not quite absolute. During the crisis of 1904 the Maura government required the Congress to suspend the legislative immunity of no fewer than 140 members, and for the first time since 1834 deputies were handed over to the courts to be tried for offenses of a purely political character.[(Back)]
Footnote 860: Arts. 32-47. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 207-209. On the Cortes may be consulted, in addition to the constitutional treatises mentioned on pp. 612-613, A. Borrego, Historia de las Cortes de Españo durante el siglo XIX. (Madrid, 1885), and A. Pons y Umbert, Organizaciôn y funcionamento de las Cortes segun las constituciones españolas y reglamentacion de dicho cuerpo colegislador (Madrid, 1906).[(Back)]
Footnote 861: The exact distribution of seats was as follows: Conservatives, 256; Liberals, 66; Solidarists, 53; Republicans, 32; Democrats, 9; Independents, 8.[(Back)]
Footnote 862: November 12, 1912, Premier Canalejas was assassinated. He was succeeded by the president of the Congress of Deputies, Alvaro de Romanones, under whom the Liberal ministry was continued in office.[(Back)]
Footnote 863: Some seats vacant.[(Back)]
Footnote 864: On political parties in Spain two older works are A. Borrego, Organizaciôn de los Partidos (Madrid, 1855) and El Partido Conservador (Madrid, 1857). Two valuable books are E. Rodriguez Solis, Historia del partido republicano español (Madrid, 1893) and B. M. Andrade y Uribe, Maura und di Konservativen Partei in Spanien (Karlsruhe, 1912). The subject is sketched excellently to 1898 in Clarke, Modern Spain, Chaps. 14-16. In the domain of periodical literature may be mentioned A. Marvaud, Les élections espagnoles de mai 1907, in Annales des Sciences Politiques, July, 1907; C. David, Les élections espagnoles, in Questions Diplomatiques et Coloniales, May 16, 1907; A. Marvaud, Un aspect nouveau du Catalanisme, ibid., June 16, 1907; La situation politique et financière de l'Espagne, ibid., Dec. 16, 1908; La rentrée des Cortes et la situation en Espagne, ibid., June 16, 1910. A well-informed sketch is L. G. Guijarro, Spain since 1898, in Yale Review, May, 1909.[(Back)]
Footnote 865: Art. 76. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 213.[(Back)]
Footnote 866: G. Marin, La jurisdiction contentieuse administrative en Espagne, in Revue du Droit Public, Oct.-Dec., 1906.[(Back)]
Footnote 867: Art. 84. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 215.[(Back)]
Footnote 868: J. Gascon y Marin, La réforme du régime local en Espagne, in Revue du Droit Public, April-June, 1909.[(Back)]
Footnote 869: In the meantime a revolt which was impending in Brazil at the time of King John's withdrawal had run its course. September 7, 1822, the regent Dom Pedro, who freely cast in his lot with the revolutionists, proclaimed the country's independence, and some weeks later he was declared constitutional emperor. Protest from Lisbon was emphatic, but means of coercing the rebellious colony were not at hand, and, in 1825, under constraint of the powers, King John was compelled to recognize the independence of his transoceanic dominion.[(Back)]
Footnote 870: Cambridge Modern History, X., Chap. 10; Lavisse et Rambaud, Histoire Générale, X., Chap. 6; H. M. Stephens, Portugal (New York, 1903), Chap. 18. A general treatise covering the period is W. Bollaert, The Wars of Succession of Portugal and Spain from 1821 to 1840 (London, 1870).[(Back)]
Footnote 871: So called from the coup d'état of September, 1836, mentioned shortly.[(Back)]
Footnote 872: E. Bavoux, Costa Cabral; notes historiques sur sa carrière et son ministère (Paris, 1846).[(Back)]
Footnote 873: By official calculation, 78.6 per cent in 1900.[(Back)]
Footnote 874: On the political history of Portugal since the establishment of constitutionalism see Cambridge Modern History, XI., Chap. 20, XII., Chap. 10; and Lavisse et Rambaud, Histoire Générale, XI., Chap. 9, XII., Chap, 9. A serviceable general work is J. P. Oliveira Martins, Historia de Portugal (4th ed., Lisbon, 1901). An older and more detailed treatise is H. Schaefer, Geschichte von Portugal (2d ed., Hamburg, 1874), and a useful survey is R. de Vezeley, Le Portugal politique (Paris, 1890). For a good brief survey of Portuguese party politics see A. Marvaud, La crise en Portugal et les élections d'avril 1908, in Annales des Sciences Politiques, July, 1908.[(Back)]
Footnote 875: The text of the constitution was published by the state under the title of Carta Constitucional da Monarchia Portugueza ... e Diplomas Correlativos (Lisbon, 1890). An annotated translation is in Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 145-179. An excellent treatise is J. J. Tavares de Medeiros, Das Staatsrecht des Königsreichs Portugal (Freiburg, 1892), in Marquardsen's Handbuch. Important Portuguese works include L. P. Coimbre, Estudios sobre a Carta Constitucional de 1814 e Acto Addicional de 1852 (Lisbon, 1878-1880), and Coelho da Rocha, Ensaio sobre a Historia do Governo e da Legislaçao de Portugal.[(Back)]
Footnote 876: Foreign Affairs, Interior, Finance, Justice and Worship, War, Marine and Colonies, and Public Works.[(Back)]
Footnote 877: Arts. 107-112. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 168-169.[(Back)]
Footnote 878: Arts. 75-77. Ibid., II., 162-164.[(Back)]
Footnote 879: The Azores and Madeira are regarded as integral parts of the nation.[(Back)]
Footnote 880: Arts. 45-62. Dodd, Modern Constitutions, II., 156-159.[(Back)]
Footnote 881: Arts. 118-131. Ibid., II., 169-171.[(Back)]
Footnote 882: Ten of the fourteen Republican deputies were elected in Lisbon. The popular vote in that city was: Republicans, 15,104; Monarchists of all parties, 9,108. In 1908 the numbers were 13,074 and 10,982 respectively.[(Back)]
Footnote 883: Provisions relating to the executive are contained in Arts. 36-55.[(Back)]
Footnote 884: A French translation of the Portuguese constitution of 1911 will be found in Revue du Droit Public, Oct.-Dec, 1911. Various aspects of the revolution of 1910 and of subsequent developments are discussed in E. J. Dillon, Republican Portugal, in Contemporary Review, Nov., 1910; R. Recouly, La république en Portugal, in Revue Politique et Parlementaire, Nov. 10, 1910; W. Archer, The Portuguese Republic, in Fortnightly Review, Feb., 1911; and A. Marvaud, Les débuts de la république portugaise, in Annales des Sciences Politiques, March-April and May-June, 1911. The subject is covered briefly in V. de B. Cunha, Eight Centuries of Portuguese Monarchy (London, 1911), and A. Marvaud, Le Portugal et ses colonies; étude politique et économique (Paris, 1912).[(Back)]
Transcriber's note:
The listing in the index for "Switzerland, Bundesrath" refers the reader "Switzerland, Federal Council", which is absent in the original text.