To My Father

PREFACE

It is a matter of common observation that during the opening years of the twentieth century there has been, in many portions of the civilized world, a substantial quickening of interest in the principles and problems of human government. The United States is happily among those countries in which the phenomenon can be observed, and we have witnessed in recent times not only the organization of societies and the establishment of journals designed to foster research within the field, but also a notable multiplication and strengthening of courses in political science open to students in our colleges and universities, as well as the development of clubs, forums, extension courses, and other facilities for the increasing of political information and the stimulation of political thinking on the part of the people at large. It is the object of this book to promote the intelligent study of government by supplying working descriptions of the governmental systems of the various countries of western and central Europe as they have taken form and as they operate at the present day. Conceived and prepared primarily as a text for use in college courses, it is hoped none the less that the volume may prove of service to persons everywhere whose interest in the subject leads them to seek the sort of information which is here presented.

The content of the book has been determined, in the main, by three considerations. In the first place, it has been deemed desirable to afford a wide opportunity for the comparative study of political institutions, especially by reason of the familiar fact that the governmental system of a minor country may, and frequently does, exhibit elements of novelty and of importance not inferior to those to be observed in the political organization of a greater state. Hence there are included descriptions of the governments of the minor as well as of the major nations of western and central Europe; and the original purpose to attempt some treatment of the governments of the eastern nations has been abandoned, somewhat reluctantly, only because of the demands of space, and because it was felt that this portion of the projected work would perhaps meet no very serious need in the usual college courses. In the second place, it is believed that the intelligent study of present-day governments must involve at all stages the taking into careful account of the historical origins and growth of these governments. Hence a considerable amount of space has been devoted to sketches of constitutional history, which, however, are in all instances so arranged that they may readily be omitted if their omission is deemed desirable. In the case of countries whose political system underwent a general reconstitution during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic era it has been thought not feasible to allude, even briefly, to historical developments prior to the later eighteenth century. In the third place, it has been considered desirable to include in the book some treatment of political parties and of the institutions of local administration.

Within a field so expansive it has been possible to undertake but an introduction to a majority of the subjects touched upon. In the foot-notes will be found references to books, documents, and periodical materials of widely varying types, and it is hoped that some of these may serve to guide student and reader to more intensive information.

The preparation of the book has been facilitated by the encouragement and the expert advice accorded me by a number of teachers of government in colleges and universities in various portions of the country. And I have had at all times the patient and discriminating assistance of my wife. For neither the plan nor the details of the work, however, can responsibility be attached to anyone save myself. I can only hope that amidst the multitude of facts, some elusive and many subject to constant change, which I have attempted here to set down, not many seriously vitiating errors may have escaped detection.

Frederic Austin Ogg.
Cambridge, Massachusetts,
January 10, 1913.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART I.—GREAT BRITAIN

CHAPTER

I. The Foundations of the Constitution

  1. [The Importance of Historical Background]
  2. [Anglo-Saxon Beginnings]
  3. [The Norman-Plantagenet Period]
  4. [The Rise of Parliament]
  5. [Administrative and Judicial Development]
  6. [The Tudor Monarchy]
  7. [Parliament under the Tudors]
  8. [The Stuarts: Crown and Parliament]
  9. [The Later Stuarts: the Revolution of 1688-1689]

II. The Constitution since the Seventeenth Century

  1. [Crown and Parliament after 1789]
  2. [Rise of the Cabinet and of Political Parties]
  3. [The Scottish and Irish Unions]
  4. [The Nature and Sources of the Constitution]
  5. [The Flexibility of the Constitution]

III. The Crown and the Ministry

  1. [The Crown: Legal Status and Privileges]
  2. [The Powers of the Crown]
  3. [The Importance and Strength of the Monarchy]
  4. [Privy Council, Ministry, and Cabinet]
  5. [The Executive Departments]
  6. [The Cabinet: Composition and Character]
  7. [The Cabinet in Action]

IV. Parliament: The House of Commons

  1. [The House of Commons prior to 1832]
  2. [Parliamentary Reform, 1832-1885]
  3. [The Franchise and the Electoral Questions of To-day]
  4. [Electoral Procedure and Regulations]

V. Parliament: The House of Lords

  1. [Composition]
  2. [The Reform of the Lords: the Question prior to 1909]
  3. [The Question of the Lords, 1909-1911]
  4. [The Parliament Act of 1911 and After]

VI. Parliament, Organization, Functions, Procedure

  1. [The Assembling of the Chambers]
  2. [Organization of the House of Commons]
  3. [Organization of the House of Lords]
  4. [Privileges of the Houses and of Members]
  5. [The Functions of Parliament]
  6. [General Aspects of Parliamentary Procedure]
  7. [The Conduct of Business in the two Houses]

VII. Political Parties

  1. [Parliamentarism and the Party System]
  2. [Parties in the Later Eighteenth and Earlier Nineteenth Centuries]
  3. [The Second Era of Whig [Liberal] Ascendancy, 1830-1874]
  4. [The Second Era of Conservative Ascendancy, 1874-1905]
  5. [The Liberal Revival]
  6. [The Rule of the Liberals, 1906-1912]
  7. [The Parties of To-day]

VIII. Justice and Local Government

  1. [English Law]
  2. [The Inferior Courts]
  3. [The Higher Courts]
  4. [Local Government to the Municipal Corporations Act, 1835]
  5. [Local Government Reform, 1835-1912]
  6. [Local and Central Government]
  7. [Local Government To-day: Rural]
  8. [Local Government To-day: Urban]

PART II.—GERMANY

IX. The Empire and its Constitution

  1. [Political Development Prior to 1848]
  2. [The Creation of the Empire]
  3. [The Constitution: Nature of the Empire]
  4. [The Empire and the States ]

X. The Imperial Government: Emperor, Chancellor, and Bundesrath

  1. [The Emperor]
  2. [The Chancellor ]
  3. [The Bundesrath]

XI. The Imperial Government: Reichstag, Parties, Judiciary

  1. [Composition of the Reichstag—Electoral System]
  2. [Organization and Powers of the Reichstag]
  3. [The Rise of Political Parties]
  4. [Party Politics after 1878]
  5. [Parties since 1907]
  6. [Law and Justice]

XII. The Constitution of Prussia—The Crown and the Ministry

  1. [The German States and their Governments]
  2. [The Rise of Constitutionalism in Prussia]
  3. [The Crown and the Ministry]

XIII. The Prussian Landtag—Local Government

  1. [Composition of the Landtag]
  2. [The Movement for Electoral Reform]
  3. [Organization and Functions of the Landtag]
  4. [Local Government: Origins and Principles]
  5. [Local Government: Areas and Organs]

XIV. The Minor German States—Alsace-Lorraine

  1. [The More Important Monarchies ]
  2. [The Lesser Monarchies and the City Republics]
  3. [Alsace-Lorraine]

PART III.—FRANCE

XV. Constitutions since 1789

  1. [A Century of Political Instability]
  2. [The Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era]
  3. [From the Restoration to the Revolution of 1848 ]
  4. [The Second Republic and the Second Empire]
  5. [The Establishment of the Third Republic]
  6. [The Constitution of To-day]

XVI. The President, the Ministry, and Parliament

  1. [The President]
  2. [The Ministry]
  3. [Parliament: Senate and Chamber of Deputies]
  4. [The Problem of Electoral Reform]

XVII. Parliamentary Procedure—Political Parties

  1. [Organization and Workings of the Chambers]
  2. [Political Parties since 1871]

XVIII. Justice and Local Government

  1. [French Law]
  2. [The Courts]
  3. [Local Government: Development since 1789]
  4. [Local Government To-day]

PART IV.—ITALY

XIX. Constitutional Development in the Nineteenth Century

  1. [The Era of Napoleon]
  2. [The Restoration and the Revolution of 1848]
  3. [The Achievement of Unification]
  4. [The Constitution]

XX. The Italian Government System

  1. [The Crown and the Ministry]
  2. [Parliament: the Senate]
  3. [The Chamber of Deputies—Parliamentary Procedure]
  4. [The Judiciary ]
  5. [Local Government]

XXI. State and Church—Political Parties

  1. [Quirinal and Vatican ]
  2. [Parties and Ministries, 1861-1896]
  3. [The Era of Composite Ministries, 1896-1912 ]
  4. [Phases of Party Politics]

PART V.—SWITZERLAND

XXII. The Constitutional System—The Cantons

  1. [The Confederation and Its Constitutions]
  2. [The Nation and the States]
  3. [Cantonal Legislation: the Referendum and the Initiative ]
  4. [The Cantonal Executive and Judiciary]

XXIII. The Federal Government

  1. [The Executive]
  2. [Legislation: the Federal Assembly]
  3. [Legislation: the Referendum and the Initiative]
  4. [Political Parties]
  5. [The Judiciary]

PART VI.—AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

XXIV. Austria-Hungary Prior to the Ausgleich

  1. [Austrian Political Development to 1815]
  2. [Hungarian Political Development to 1815 ]
  3. [The Era of Metternich ]
  4. [The Revolution of 1848]
  5. [The Revival of Constitutionalism: the Ausgleich]

XXV. The Government and Parties of Austria

  1. [The Constitution]
  2. [The Crown and the Ministry]
  3. [The Reichsrath—the Electoral System]
  4. [Political Parties]
  5. [The Judiciary and Local Government ]

XXVI. The Government and Parties of Hungary

  1. [The Constitution]
  2. [The Crown and the Ministry]
  3. [Parliament—the Electoral System ]
  4. [Political Parties]
  5. [The Judiciary and Local Government ]

XXVII. Austria-Hungary: The Joint Government

  1. [The Common Organs of Government]
  2. [The Territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina]

PART VII.—THE LOW COUNTRIES

XXVIII. The Government of Holland

  1. [A Century of Political Development]
  2. [The Crown and the Ministry]
  3. [The States-General and Political Parties]
  4. [The Judiciary and Local Government ]

XXIX. The Government of Belgium

  1. [The Constitution—the Crown and the Ministry]
  2. [The Houses of Parliament—the Electoral System]
  3. [Parties and Electoral Reform since 1894—Parliamentary Procedure]
  4. [The Judiciary and Local Government]

PART VIII.—SCANDINAVIA

XXX. The Government of Denmark

  1. [Development Prior to 1814]
  2. [The Rise of Constitutionalism, 1814-1866]
  3. [The Crown and the Ministry]
  4. [The Rigsdag—Political Parties]
  5. [The Judiciary and Local Government]

XXXI. The Swedish-Norwegian Union and the Government of Norway

  1. [Political Development to 1814]
  2. [The Swedish-Norwegian Union, 1814-1905]
  3. [The Norwegian Constitution—Crown and Ministry]
  4. [The Storthing—Political Parties]
  5. [The Judiciary and Local Government]

XXXII. The Government of Sweden

  1. [The Constitution—the Crown and the Ministry]
  2. [The Riksdag—the Electoral System]
  3. [The Riksdag in Operation—Political Parties ]
  4. [The Judiciary and Local Government]

PART IX.—THE IBERIAN STATES

XXXIII. The Government of Spain.

  1. [The Beginnings of Constitutionalism]
  2. [Political and Constitutional Development, 1833-1876]
  3. [The Present Constitution]
  4. [The Crown and the Ministry ]
  5. [The Cortes]
  6. [Political Parties ]
  7. [The Judiciary and Local Government]

XXXIV. The Government of Portugal

  1. [A Century of Political Development]
  2. [The Government of the Kingdom]
  3. [The Revolution of 1910 ]
  4. [The Constitution of 1911]

GOVERNMENTS OF EUROPE

PART I.—GREAT BRITAIN