Migration of the yellow-billed loon
The semiannual movements of the yellow-billed loon present an unusual problem in migration. It breeds along the Arctic coast, probably from Cape Prince of Wales eastward to Franklin Bay, and also in the interior of northern Canada south to Clinton-Colden, Aylmer, and Artillery Lakes, where it is rather common. It has been reported as already present by May 25 at the mouth of the Liard River, in southwestern Mackenzie. This coincides with the time that first arrivals are noted fully 700 miles north, at Point Barrow, Alaska. The problem has been to ascertain the route used by these birds to their principal nesting grounds in the interior.
For a long time it was believed that this big diver did not winter in large numbers anywhere on the Pacific coast, and it had been supposed that the spring route extended 2,000 miles northeastward from a wintering ground somewhere in eastern Asia to Bering Strait, then 500 miles still northeast to round Point Barrow, then 500 miles east to the coast of Mackenzie, and finally 700 miles south—in spring—to the region near the eastern end of Great Slave Lake.
The yellow-billed loon is a powerful flier, and it is probable that this suggested route is correct for those birds that breed in the northern coastal regions. A reasonable doubt may be entertained, however, whether the breeding birds of Great Slave Lake and contiguous areas reach their breeding grounds by the 700-mile flight south from the Arctic coast. Within recent years it has been found that these birds are fairly common in the maze of channels and islands off the coast of southeastern Alaska as late as the last of October and in February. Possibly they are present there during the period from November through January also, or they may at that time move farther off shore and so escape detection. If this region is an important wintering ground, as seems probable, then it is likely that the breeding birds of the interior reach their nesting grounds by a flight eastward across the mountains, a trip that is well within their flying ability, rather than by a circuitous route around the northern coast. The air-line distance from southeastern Alaska to the mouth of the Liard River is in fact less than the distance to that point from the mouth of the Mackenzie.
Differing routes to various parts of a large breeding or wintering ground, and used by large groups of individuals of other species, are not unknown. For example, the redhead duck is one of the common breeding ducks of the Bear River marshes of Utah, where a great many have been banded each summer. The recovery records of banded redheads show that while many travel westward to California, others start their fall migration in the opposite direction and, flying eastward across the Rocky Mountains, either turn southeast across the plains to the Gulf of Mexico, or deliberately proceed in a northeasterly direction to join the flocks of this species moving toward the Atlantic coast from the prairie regions of southern Canada.
Conclusions
The migration of birds as it is known today had its beginning in times so remote that its origins have been entirely obscured, and it can be interpreted now only in terms of present conditions. The causes underlying migration are exceedingly complex. The mystery that formerly cloaked the periodic travels of birds, however, has been largely dispelled through the fairly complete information that is now available concerning the extent and times of the seasonal journeys of most of the species. Many gaps, however, still remain in our knowledge of the subject. Much has been learned, and present knowledge is being placed on record, but it must be left to future study to clear away many of the uncertainties that continue to make bird migration one of the most fascinating subjects in the science of ornithology.
Each kind of bird seems to have its own reaction to its environment, so that the character of movement differs widely in the various species, and seldom do any two present the same picture. In fact, bird migration has been described as a phase of geographic distribution wherein there is a more or less regular seasonal shifting of the avian population caused by the same factors that determine the ranges of the sedentary species. If this view is correct, then it must be recognized that the far-reaching works of man in altering the natural condition of the earth's surface can so change the environment necessary for the well-being of the birds as to bring about changes in their yearly travels. The nature and extent of the changes wrought by man on the North American Continent are easily apparent. Forests have been extensively cut away and their places have been taken by second growth or cultivated land, and wide stretches of prairie and plain have been broken up, irrigated, and devoted to agriculture. These great changes are exerting a profound effect upon the native bird populations, and the various species may be either benefited or adversely affected thereby.
The Federal Government has recognized its responsibility to the migratory birds under changing conditions brought about by man, and by enabling acts for carrying out treaty obligations, it is now giving most species legal protection under regulations administered by the Fish and Wildlife Service. Much is being done by legislation for the welfare of the birds. The effectiveness of these conservation laws, however, is increased in the same measure that the people of the country become acquainted with the facts in the life histories of the migrants and interest themselves personally in the well-being of the various species. Long before the white man came to America the birds had established their seasonal lanes of migration throughout the Western Hemisphere. The economic, inspirational, and esthetic values of these migratory species dictate that they be permitted to continue their long-accustomed and still-mysterious habits of migration from clime to clime.
Appendix I—List of Birds Mentioned in the Text
| Common name | Scientific name |
| American egret | Casmerodius albus egretta |
| Arctic tern | Sterna paradisaea |
| Atlantic brant | Branta bernicla hrota |
| Atlantic golden plover | Pluvialis dominica dominica |
| Bank swallow | Riparia riparia |
| Barn swallow | Hirundo rustica erythrogaster |
| Bartramian sandpiper or upland plover | Bartramia longicauda |
| Belted kingfisher | Ceryle alcyon |
| Black-and-white warbler | Mniotilta varia |
| Black-billed cuckoo | Coccyzus erythropthalmus |
| Black brant | Branta bernicla nigricans |
| Black-capped chickadee | Parus atricapillus atricapillus |
| Black-crowned night heron | Nycticorax nycticorax hoactli |
| Black duck | Anas rubripes |
| Black-headed grosbeak | Pheucticus melanocephalus |
| Blackpolled warbler | Dendroica striata |
| Black-throated blue warbler | Dendroica caerulescens |
| Bluebird | Sialia sialis |
| Blue goose | Chen caerulescens |
| Blue jay | Cyanocitta cristata |
| Bluethroat | Cyanosylvia suecica |
| Blue-winged teal | Anas discors |
| Bobolink | Dolichonyx orizivorus |
| Bobwhite | Colinus virginianus |
| Bohemian [greater] waxwing | Bombycilla garrulus pallidiceps |
| Brewer's blackbird | Euphagus cyanocephalus |
| Broad-winged hawk | Bueto platypterus |
| Bronzed grackle | Quiscalus guiscula versicolor |
| Brown [tree] creeper | Certhia familiaris |
| Cackling [Canada] goose | Branta canadensis minima |
| California quail | Lophortyx californica |
| Canada goose | Branta canadensis |
| Canvasback | Aythya valisineria |
| Cape May warbler | Dendroica tigrina |
| Cardinal | Richmondena cardinalis |
| Carolina chickadee | Parus carolinensis |
| Carolina wren | Thryothorus ludovicianus |
| Chimney swift | Chaetura pelagica |
| Chipping sparrow | Spizella passerina |
| Chuck-wills-widow | Caprimulgus carolinensis |
| Clark's nutcracker | Nucifraga columbiana |
| Cliff swallow | Petrochelidon pyrrhonota |
| Common tern | Sterna hirundo |
| Cooper's hawk | Accipiter cooperi |
| Coot [American] | Fulica americana |
| Cowbird | Molothrus ater |
| Crossbill | Loxia curvirostra |
| Crow | Corvus brachyrhynchos |
| Duck hawk [peregrine falcon] | Falco peregrinus |
| Eastern fox sparrow | Passerella iliaca iliaca |
| Eider | Somateria mollissima |
| Emperor goose | Philacte canagica |
| Evening grosbeak | Hesperiphona vespertina |
| European blackbird | Turdus merula merula |
| Field sparrow | Spizella pusilla |
| Forster's tern | Sterna forsteri |
| Frigate [man-o'-war] bird | Fregata magnificens |
| Golden-crowned kinglet | Regulus satrapa |
| Golden plover | Pluvialis apricaria |
| Golden-winged warbler | Vermivora chrysoptera |
| Goshawk | Accipiter gentilis |
| Grackle | Quiscalus quiscula |
| Gray-cheeked thrush | Hylocichla minima |
| Greenland wheatear | Oenanthe oenanthe leucorhoa |
| Harris's sparrow | Zonotrichia querula |
| Hermit thrush | Hylocichla guttata |
| Herring gull | Larus argentatus |
| Horned lark | Eremophila alpestris |
| Horned owl | Bubo virginianus |
| House finch | Carpodacus mexicanus |
| Ipswich sparrow | Passerculus princeps |
| Jacksnipe [see Wilson's snipe] | Capella gallinago delicata |
| Junco | Junco hyemalis |
| Kentucky warbler | Oporonis formosus |
| Kingbird | Tyrannus tyrannus |
| Knot | Calidris canutus |
| Kodiak fox sparrow | Passerella iliaca hyperborea |
| Lapland longspur | Calcarius lapponicus |
| Lapwing | Vanellus vanellus |
| Lesser yellowlegs | Totanus flavipes |
| Little blue heron | Florida caerulea |
| Loggerhead shrike | Lanius ludovicianus |
| Long-billed marsh wren | Telmatodytes palustris |
| Mallard | Anas platyrhynchos |
| Maryland yellowthroat | Geothlypis trichas trichas |
| Meadowlark | Sturnella magna |
| Migratory quail | Coturnix coturnix |
| Mockingbird | Mimus polyglottos |
| Mourning dove | Zenaidura macroura |
| Myrtle warbler | Dendroica coronata |
| Nighthawk | Chordeilies minor |
| Noddy tern | Amous stolidus |
| Northern phalarope | Lobipes lobatus |
| Northern robin | Turdus migratorius migratorius |
| Orchard oriole | Icterus spurius |
| Ovenbird | Seiurus aurocapillus |
| Pacific [American] golden plover | Pluvialis dominica fulva |
| Parasitic jaeger | Stercorarius parasiticus |
| Peregrine falcon [duck hawk] | Falco peregrinus |
| Pine Grosbeak | Pinicola enucleator |
| Pine warbler | Dendroica pinus |
| Pintail | Anas acuta tzitzihoa |
| Pipit | Anthus spinoletta |
| Poor-will | Phalaenoptilus nuttallii |
| Purple finch | Carpodacus purpureus |
| Purple martin | Progne subis |
| Purple sandpiper | Erolia maritima |
| Raven | Corvus corax |
| Red-eyed vireo | Vireo olivaceus |
| Redhead | Aythya americana |
| Red-legged kittiwake | Rissa brevirostris |
| Redpoll | Acanthis flammea |
| Redstart | Setophaga ruticilla |
| Red-tailed hawk | Buteo jamaicensis |
| Red-winged blackbird | Agelaius phoeniceus |
| Robin | Turdus migratorius |
| Rock wren | Salpinctes obsoletus |
| Rose-breasted grosbeak | Pheucticus ludovicianus |
| Ross's goose | Chen rossi |
| Ross's gull | Rhodostethia rosea |
| Rosy finch | Leucosticte tephrocotis |
| Rough-legged hawk | Buteo lagopus |
| Ruby-throated hummingbird | Archilochus colubris |
| Ruffed grouse | Bonasa umbellus |
| Rusty blackbird | Euphagus carolinus |
| Sanderling | Crocethia alba |
| Scarlet tanager | Piranga olivacea |
| Scaup | Aythya marila |
| Screech owl | Otus asio |
| Sharp-shinned hawk | Accipiter striatus |
| Shumagin fox sparrow | Passerella iliaca unalaschensis |
| Slate-colored junco | Junco hyemalis |
| Snow bunting | Plectrophenax nivalis |
| Snow goose | Chen hyperborea |
| Snowy heron | Leucophoyx thula |
| Snowy owl | Nyctea scandiaca |
| Song sparrow | Melospiza melodia |
| Sooty fox sparrow | Passerella iliaca fuliginosa |
| Sooty tern | Sterna fuscata |
| Sora or Carolina rail | Porzana Carolina |
| Southern robin | Turdus migratorius achrusterus |
| Starling | Sturnus vulgaris |
| Swainson's hawk | Buteo swainsoni |
| Swamp sparrow | Melospiza georgiana |
| Townsend's fox sparrow | Passerella iliaca townsendi |
| Tree sparrow | Spizella arborea |
| Tufted titmouse | Parus bicolor |
| Turkey vulture | Cathartes aura |
| Turnstone | Arenaria interpres |
| Upland plover [Bartramian sandpiper] | Bartramia longicauda |
| Valdez fox sparrow | Passerella iliaca sinuosa |
| Vesper sparrow | Pooecetes gramineus |
| Western palm warbler | Dendroica palmarum palmarum |
| Western tanager | Piranga ludoviciana |
| Western wood pewee | Contopus richardsonii |
| White-breasted nuthatch | Sitta carolinensis |
| White-throated sparrow | Zonotrichia albicollis |
| White-winged scoter | Melanitta fusca |
| Widgeon | Mareca americana |
| Williamson's sapsucker | Sphyrapicus thyroideus |
| Wilson's [common] snipe | Capella gallinago delicata |
| Winter wren | Troglodytes troglodytes |
| Woodcock | Scolopax rusticola |
| Wood thrush | Hylocichla mustelina |
| Worm-eating warbler | Helmitheros vermivorus |
| Wrentit | Chamaea fasciata |
| Yakutat fox sparrow | Passerella iliaca annectens |
| Yellow-billed cuckoo | Coccyzus americanus |
| Yellow-billed loon | Gavia adamsii |
| Yellow-headed blackbird | Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus |
| Yellow palm warbler | Dendroica palmarum hypochrysea |
| Yellow warbler | Dendroica petechia |
Appendix II—Bird Banding
Frequent reference has been made in this bulletin to bird banding as a means for obtaining information on the migrations and life histories of birds. Since 1920 this work in North America has been under the direction of the Fish and Wildlife Service in cooperation with the Dominion Wildlife Service of Canada. Each year birds to the number of a quarter of a million or more may be marked with numbered bands.
As anyone interested in birds, either game or nongame, may have a marked individual come into his hands, there are several pertinent details that should be remembered if the recovery record is to have maximum value in advancing the science of ornithology.
1. The reporting letter should be addressed to: Bird Banding Office, Patuxent Research Refuge, Fish and Wildlife Service, Laurel, Md.
2. In the letter print the full number of the band, including the series designation and the serial number. The series designation may be a single letter or a two- or three-digit number and may be stamped to the left or over the serial number. The series designation, if a number such as "48" or "50," is not a date and should not be so interpreted. Full numbers are correctly written as: A-678901; 48-345920; 141-543678; 20-167; 496-00517; etc.
3. If the bird is alive and uninjured, read the number carefully without removing the band, and release the bird. It may be reported again. If it is dead, remove the band and, after flattening it out, attach it to the letter with scotch tape or surgical adhesive tape. Should it be desired as a souvenir, it will be returned upon request.
4. Give in the report the exact date, the location (town, county, State, etc.) and the manner in which the bird was obtained, that is, whether it was shot, found dead, trapped, etc.
5. Print your own name and permanent address clearly on the letter.
6. Keep a record of the band number and refer to it should there be any subsequent correspondence about it with the Service. The number is always the clue to any record of a banded bird.
Some bands may bear the inscription "Notify F. and Wildlife Service, Washington, D. C." or "Notify Biological Survey, Washington, D. C.," and on the smaller sizes these may be abbreviated to "F. and W. Serv. Wash. D. C." or "Biol. Surv. Wash. D. C."
All reports of the recovery of banded birds will be acknowledged with the name of the bird, the date and place where it was banded, and the name and address of the bander.
The banding of birds is done by regular officers of the United States and Dominion Services, by biologists and technicians of the States and Provinces, and by volunteer cooperators who are specially licensed under the provisions of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act. The banding of migratory waterfowl is largely restricted to Federal and State officers and is done chiefly in refuge areas. Most nongame birds are banded by volunteer cooperators who are scattered over the United States, Canada, and Alaska. The bands are furnished without charge by the Service but each station operator supplies his own traps and other equipment.
To participate in this work, certain rules must be adhered to. Applicants for banding permits:
1. Must be at least 18 years of age.
2. Must be thoroughly competent to identify positively all local birds.
3. Must have their ability vouched for by three recognized ornithologists or by other banders.
Application blanks for the Federal permits required may be obtained from the Bird Banding Office, Patuxent Research Refuge, Fish and Wildlife Service, Laurel, Md., or, in Canada, from the Chief, Dominion Wildlife Service, Ottawa, Ontario.
Bibliography
Since almost every faunal paper on birds has a bearing on the subject of migration, only a few can be listed in this publication. Those included were selected to aid the student wishing to pursue the subject further and to cover not only all cited in the text but also others consulted and used in its preparation.
Allard, H. A.
1928. Bird migration from the point of view of light and length of day changes. Am. Naturalist 62, pp. 385-408.
Austin, O. L., Jr.
1928. Migration-routes of the Arctic tern (Sterna paradisaea Brunnich). Northeastern Bird Banding Assn. Bull., vol, 4, pp. 121-125.
Baird, S. F.
1866. The distribution and migration of North American birds. Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 41, pp. 78-90, 184-192, 337-347.
Bergtold, W. H.
1926. Avian gonads and migration. The Condor, vol. 28, pp. 114-120.
Bissonette, Thomas Hume
1936. Normal progressive changes in the ovary of the starling (Sturnus vulgaris) from December to April. The Auk, vol. 53, pp. 31-50, illus.
1939. Sexual photoperiodicity in the blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata). Wilson Bull., vol. 51, pp. 227-232, pis. 9-11.
Clark, Austin H.
1925. Animal flight. Sci. Monthly, vol. 20, pp. 5-20. Clarke, W. E.
1912. Studies in bird migration. 2 vol., illus. London. Cooke, May Thacher
1937. Flight speed of birds. U. S. Dept. Agr. Cir. 428, 13 pp.
1945. Transoceanic recoveries of banded birds. Bird-Banding, vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 123-129.
Cooke, W. W.
1888. Report on bird migration in the Mississippi Valley in the years 1884 and 1885. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Econ. Ornith. Bull. 2, 313 pp., illus.
1904. Distribution and migration of North American warblers. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Biol. Survey Bull. 18, 142 pp.
1904. The effect of altitude on bird migration. The Auk, vol. 21, pp. 338-341.
1905a. Routes of bird migration. The Auk, vol. 22, pp. 1-11.
1905b. The winter ranges of the warblers (Mniotiltidae). The Auk, vol. 22, pp. 296-299.
1906. Distribution and migration of North American ducks, geese, and swans. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Biol. Survey Bull, 26, 90 pp.
1908. Averaging migration dates. The Auk, vol. 25, pp. 485-486.
1910. Distribution and migration of North American shore birds. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Biol. Survey Bull. 35, 100 pp., illus.
1913a. Distribution and migration of North American herons and their allies. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Biol. Survey Bull. 45, 70 pp., illus.
1913b. The relation of bird migration to the weather. The Auk, vol. 30, pp. 205-221, illus.
1914. Distribution and migration of North American rails and their allies. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 128, 50 pp. illus,
1915a. Bird migration. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 185, 47 pp., illus.
1915b. Bird migration in the Mackenzie Valley. The Auk, vol. 32, pp. 442-459, illus.
1915c. Distribution and migration of North American gulls and their allies. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 292, 70 pp., illus.
1915d. The yellow-billed loon: A problem in migration. The Condor, vol. 17, pp. 213-214.
Coues, E.
1878. Birds of the Colorado Valley, a repository of scientific and popular information concerning North American ornithology. U. S. Dept. Interior Misc. Pub. II, 807 pp., illus.
DeLury, Ralph E.
1938. Sunspot Influences. Jour. Royal Astron. Soc. of Can., pt. 1, March 1938, pt. 2, April 1938, 50 pp.
Dixon, Joseph
1916. Migration of the yellow-billed loon. The Auk, vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 370-376.
Eaton, Richard Jefferson
1933-34. The migratory movements of certain colonies of herring gulls. Bird-Banding, vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 165-176; vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 1-19; vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 70-84.
Earner, Donald S.
1945. The return of robins to their birthplaces. Bird-Banding, vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 81-99.
Furlong, W. R.
1933. Land-birds in a gale at sea. Bird Lore, vol. 35, No. 5, pp. 263-265.
Gätke, H.
1895. Heligoland as an ornithological observatory, the results of fifty years' experience. (Transl. from the German by R. Rosenstock). 599 pp., illus. Edinburgh.
Gordon, Donald A.
1948. Some considerations of bird migration: continental drift and bird migration. Science, vol. 108, pp. 705-711.
Griffin, Donald R.
1940. Homing experiments with Leach's petrels. The Auk, vol. 57, No. 1, pp. 61-74.
1943. Homing experiments with herring gulls and common terns. Bird-Banding, vol. 14, No. 1 and 2, pp. 7-33.
1944. The sensory basis of bird navigation. Quart. Rev. of Biol., vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 15-31.
Grinnell, J.
1931. Some angles in the problem of bird migration. The Auk, vol. 48, pp. 22-32.
Gross, A. O.
1927. The snowy owl migration of 1926-27. The Auk, vol. 44, pp. 479-493, illus.
1947. Cyclic invasions of the snowy owl and the migration of 1945-46. The Auk, vol. 64, No. 4, pp. 584-601.
Harrison, T. H.
1931. On the normal flight speeds of birds. Brit. Birds, vol. 25, pp. 86-96. Jaeger, Edmund C.
1948. Does the poor-will "hibernate"? The Condor, vol. 50, p. 45.
1949. Further observations on the hibernation of the poor-will. The Condor, vol. 51, pp. 105-109.
Lewis, Harrison F.
1937. Migrations of the American brant (Branta bernicla hrota). The Auk, vol. 54, pp. 73-95.
Lincoln, F. C.
1917. Bohemian waxwing (Bombycilla garrula) in Colorado. The Auk, vol. 34, p. 341.
1922. Trapping ducks for banding purposes: with an account of the results obtained from one waterfowl station. The Auk, vol. 39, pp. 322-334, illus.
1924a. Banding notes on the migration of the pintail. The Condor, vol. 26, pp. 88-90.
1924b. Returns from banded birds, 1920 to 1923, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull.
1268, 56 pp., illus.
1926. The migration of the cackling goose. The Condor, vol. 28, pp. 153-157, illus.
1927a. Notes on the migration of young common terns. Northeastern Bird Banding Assoc. Bull., vol. 3, pp. 23-28, illus.
1927b. Returns from banded birds, 1923 to 1926. U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bull. No. 32, 95 pp., illus.
1928. The migration of young North American herring gulls. The Auk, vol. 45, pp. 49-59.
1934a. Distribution and migration of the redhead (Nyroca americana). Trans. 20th Am. Game Conf., pp. 280-287, map.
1934b. The operation of homing instinct. Bird-Banding, vol. 5, No. 4, pp. 149-155.
1935a. Ancestral highways of the sky. American Forests, vol. 41, No. 4, pp. 157, 159, and 196, 4 figs.
1935b. The migration of North American birds. U. S. Dept. Agr. Cir. 363, 72 pp., 29 figs., bibliog.
1935c. The waterfowl flyways of North America. U. S. Dept. Agr, Cir. 342, 12 pp., illus.
1936. Trans-Atlantic flight of gull-billed tern. The Auk, vol. 53, No. 3,
1937a. The enigma of bird migration. Sci. Digest, vol. 1. No. 5, pp. 63-65.
1937b. Our greatest travelers. In "The Book of Birds," Nat. Geog. Soc, vol. 2, pp. 301-350, 1937.
1939a. The migration of American birds. Doubleday, Doran & Co., New York, pp. i-xii and 1-189, col. pl. i-xii, maps 1-22.
1939b. The individual vs. the species in migration studies. The Auk, vol. 56, No. 3, pp. 250-254.
1940. When the dove travels. Outdoor Georgia, vol. 1. No. 4, pp. 9 and 22 (1 map).
1941. The waterfowl flyways. "Wild Ducks," Am. Wildlife Inst., pp. 20-29.
1942a. La migración de aves en el Hemisferio Occidental. Pub. and dist. by Panam. Sec. of the Int. Comm. for the Protection of Birds. Pp. 1-12, illus. (maps). Both Spanish and English versions.
1942b. Migration routes and flyways. In "Ducks, Geese and Swans of North America," by Francis H. Kortright, Am. Wildlife Inst., pp. 47-53.
1944a. Regulation by flyways. Am. Rifleman, vol. 92, No. 11, pp. 21-23, 26, illus. (3 maps).
1944b. Chimney swift winter range discovered. The Auk, vol. 61, No. 4, pp. 604-609, map.
1945a. The mourning dove as a game bird. Fish and Wildlife Serv. Cir. 10, pp. 1-8, illus.
1945b. Flyway regulations. Trans. 10th N. A. Wildlife Conf., pp. 50-51.
1946. Keeping up with the waterfowl. Audubon Mag., vol. 48, No. 3, pp. 194-205, 7 illus., 10 maps. Reprinted as Fish and Wildlife Serv. Leaflet 294, April 1947, pp. 1-10.
1949. The Mississippi flyway. Lead-off chapter in "Wildfowling in the Mississippi Flyway" ed. by Eugene V. Connett, D. Van Nostrand Co., New York, pp. 1-18, map, 12 photos.
Lowery, George H.
1945, Trans-Gulf spring migration of birds and the coastal hiatus. Wilson Bull., vol. 57, No. 2, pp. 92-121, pis. 9, 10.
1946. Evidence of trans-Gulf migration. The Auk, vol. 63, No. 2, pp. 175-211.
McMillan, Neil T.
1938. Birds and the wind. Bird Lore, vol. 40, No. 6, 3 plates. Reprinted Smithsonian Kept, for 1939, pp. 355-363.
Magee, M. J.
1928. Evening grosbeak recoveries. Northeastern Bird Banding Assoc. Bull., vol. 4, pp. 56-59.
Main, John S.
1932. The influence of temperature on migration. Wilson Bull., vol. 44, pp. 10-12.
May, J. B.
1929. Recoveries of black-crowned night herons banded in Massachusetts. Northeastern Bird Banding Assoc. Bull., vol. 5, pp. 7-16, illus.
Palmén, J. A.
1893. Report on the migration of birds. Transl. from the German by C. W. Shoemaker. Smithsonian Inst. Ann. Rept., 1892, pp. 375-396, illus.
Phillips, J. C. and F. C. Lincoln
1930. American waterfowl: their present situation and the outlook for their future. Houghton Mifflin Co., Cambridge, Mass., pp. i-xv, 1-312, illus.
Pough, Richard H.
1948. Out of the night sky. Audubon Mag., vol. 50, No. 6, pp. 354-355, illus.
Rense, William A.
1946. Astronomy and ornithology. Popular Astron., vol. 54, No. 2, pp. 1-19. Robbins, Chandler S.
1949. Weather and bird migration. The Wood Thrush, vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 130-144.
Rowan, W.
1925. Relation of light to bird migration and developmental changes. Nature [London] vol. 115, pp. 494-495.
1926. On photoperiodism, reproductive periodicity, and the annual migrations of birds and certain fishes. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Proc., vol. 38, pp. 147-189.
1930a. Experiments in bird migration. II. Reversed migration. Nat. Acad. Sci. Proc, vol. 16, p. 520-525.
1930b. The mechanism of bird migration. Sci. Progress, vol. 25, pp. 70-78.
1931. The riddle of migration. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, pp. i-xiv, 1-151, illus.
Snyder, L. L.
1943. The snowy owl migration of 1941-42. Wilson Bull. vol. 55, No. i, pp. 8-10.
Taverner, P. A.
1935. Continental land masses and their effect upon bird life. The Condor, vol. 37, pp. 160-162, 2 illus.
Warner, Lucien H.
1931. The present status of the problems of orientation and homing by birds. Quart. Rev. of Biol., vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 208-214.
Watson, J. B., and K. S. Lashley
1915. An historical and experimental study of homing. Carnegie Inst. Washington, Dept. Marine Biol. Papers, vol. 7, pp. 1-60, illus.
Wetmore, A.
1923. Migration records from wild ducks and other birds banded in the Salt Lake Valley, Utah. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 1145, 16 pp., illus.
1926. The migration of birds. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass., pp. i-viii, 1-217, illus.
1932. Bird migration. Sci. Monthly, vol. 34, pp. 459-462.
Williams, George G.
1945. Do birds cross the Gulf of Mexico in Spring? The Auk, vol. 62, No. 1, pp. 98-111, map.
1947. Lowery on trans-Gulf migration. The Auk, vol. 64, No. 2, pp. 217-237.
Winkenwerder, H. A.
1902. The migration of birds with special reference to nocturnal flight. Wisconsin Nat. Hist. Soc. vol. 2 n. s. pp. 177-263, illus.
Wolfson, Albert
1940. A preliminary report on some experiments on bird migration. The Condor, vol. 42, No. 2, pp. 93-99.
1945. The role of the pituitary, fat deposition, and body weight in bird migration. The Condor, vol. 47, No. 3, pp. 95-127.
1948. Bird migration and the concept of continental drift. Science, vol. 108, No. 2793, pp. 23-30.
Woodbury, Angus M.
1941. Animal migration—periodic response theory. The Auk, vol. 58, pp. 463-505.
Yeagley, Henry L.
1947. A preliminary study of a physical basis of bird navigation. Jour. Applied Physics, vol. 18, No. 12, pp. 1035-1063.
Index
[ [A] ] [ [B] ] [ [C] ] [ [D] ] [ [E] ] [ [F] ] [ [G] ] [ [H] ] [ [I] ] [ [J] ] [ [K] ] [ [L] ]
[ [M] ] [ [N] ] [ [O] ] [ [P] ] [ [Q] ] [ [R] ] [ [S] ] [ [T] ] [ [V] ] [ [W] ] [ [Y] ]
Advantages of migration, [6]
Aerial obstructions, [76]
Altitudes of travel, [26]
Ancestral home theory, [8]
Arctic route, [68]
Aristotle, [2], [4], [5]
Atlantic coast route, [53]
Atlantic oceanic route, [48]
Baldpate, [62]
Banding studies, [81], [92]
Blackbird, [32], [33], [60]
Brewer's, [32]
European, [4]
red-winged, [22], [32], [33], [35], [37]
rusty, [70]
yellow-headed, [32]
Bluebird, [9], [34], [37], [81]
Bluethroat, [19]
Bobolink, [32], [55], [56 (map)], [69], [70], [71]
Bobwhite, [32], [34], [82], [83]
Brant, [57], [58]
Atlantic, [57]
Black, [68]
Bullbat, [32]
Bunting, snow, [34]
Canvasback, [58]
Cardinal, [34], [82]
Chickadee, [7], [72]
black-capped, [83]
Carolina, [83]
Chuck-wills-widow, [55]
Clarke, W. E., [4], [6]
Compsothlypidae, [32]
Conclusions, [85]
Continental drift, theory of, [11]
Coot, [55]
Coues, Elliott, [4]
Cowbird, [29]
Crane, [2], [4], [6], [16], [26], [27], [28]
Creeper, brown, [75]
Crossbill, [7], [32], [74]
Crow, [20], [22], [32]
Clark's, [73]
Cuckoo, black-billed, [55]
yellow-billed, [55]
Diurnal migration, [15]
Diving birds, [16]
Dove, [4]
mourning, [19]
turtle, [2], [6]
Duck, [2], [15], [16], [19], [20], [21], [32], [33], [37], [42], [58], [60], [61], [62], [68]
black, [20], [33], [58], [61]
eider, [68]
scaup, [58]
sea, [59], [63]
Eel, [29]
Egret, [73]
Eider, [68]
Evolution of migration routes, [70]
Exhaustion, [78]
Falcon, peregrine, [19]
Fall flights, [37]
Finch, [43]
house, [82]
purple, [74]
rosy, [72]
Fishes, [29]
Flicker, [70]
Flight speed, [18]
Flycatcher, [15], [19], [31]
Fly ways, [46]
Atlantic, [49 (map)], [58]
Mississippi, [50 (map)]
Central, [51 (map)]
Pacific, [52 (map)]
Gätke, Heinrich, [19]
Goose, [2], [4], [15], [16], [19], [20], [21], [33], [59], [60], [61], [62]
blue, [22], [32], [61], [62]
cackling, [63]
Canada, [15], [21], [22 (map)], [32], [58], [59], [81]
emperor, [68]
Ross's, [64 (map)]
snow, [32], [72]
Gordon, Donald A., [30]
Goshawk, [12]
Grackle, [37]
bronzed, [32]
Great Lakes route, [60]
Grebe, [34]
Grosbeak, [45], [74]
black-headed, [37]
evening, [74]
pine, [72]
rose-breasted, [33], [45], [46 (map)]
Gross, Alfred O., [74]
Groups, movements of, [12]
Grouse, ruffed, [82]
Gull, [16], [68], [73], [78]
herring, [73]
Ross's, [68]
Hawk, [2], [16], [19], [26], [34], [42]
broad-winged, [16]
Cooper's, [16]
duck, [19], [20]
red-tailed, [16]
rough-legged, [16]
sharp-shinned, [16]
Swainson's, [16]
Herodotus, [2]
Heron, [19], [20], [73]
black-crowned night, [73]
little blue, [73]
snowy, [73]
Hesiod, [2]
Hesperornis, [11]
Hibernation, [4]
Homer, [2]
Homing instinct, [30]
Hummingbird, ruby-throated, [79]
Ichthyornis, [11]
Influence of weather, [80]
Insects, [29]
Jacksnipe, [37]
Jaeger, Edmund C., [5]
Jaeger, parasitic, [68]
Jay, blue, [34], [83]
Junco, [10], [34], [72]
slate-colored, [37], [70], [75]
Kingbird, [32], [42], [55]
Kingfisher, belted, [34]
Kinglet, [77]
golden-crowned, [75]
Kite, [4]
Kittiwake, red-legged, [68]
Knot, [11], [42]
Lapwing, [28]
Lark, horned, [19]
meadow, [34], [76]
Lewis, Harrison F., [57]
Lincoln, Frederick C., [5]
Long distance migrations, [38]
Longspur, [34], [76]
Lapland, [37], [75]
Loon, [16]
yellow-billed, [84], [85]
Mackenzie Valley route, [60]
Magnetic sense, [30]
Magnus, Olaus, [4]
Mallard, [22], [31], [33], [58]
Man-o'-war bird, [30]
Martin, purple, [12]
Migration, advantages of, [6]
altitudes, [26]
distances, [38]
diurnal, [15]
fall, [37]
historical accounts, [4]
long distance, [38]
mystery of, [4]
nocturnal, [15]
origin, [7]
perils, [75]
problems, [81]
routes, [41]
segregation during, [31]
short, [34]
species and groups, [12]
speed, [18]
theories of causes, [7]
undetermined, [34]
vagrant, [73]
variable, [35]
vertical, [72]
weather, [80]
Mississippi Valley route, [60]
Mockingbird, [83]
Movements of residents, [82]
Movements of species and groups, [12]
Murre, [29]
Mystery of migration, [4]
Nighthawk, [9], [16], [32], [38], [55], [60], [70]
Nocturnal migration, [15]
Northern ancestral home theory, [8]
Nutcracker, Clark's, [73]
Nuthatch, [7]
white-breasted, [83]
Orientation, [28]
Origin of migration, [7]
Oriole, [15]
orchard, [9]
Ovenbird, [70], [78], [80]
Owl, great horned, [34]
screech, [83]
snowy, [12], [74]
Pacific coast route, [63]
Pacific oceanic route, [66]
Passerella iliaca, [35]
Pelican, [4], [16], [26]
Perils, aerial obstructions, [76]
exhaustion, [78]
migration, [75]
storms, [75]
Pewee, western wood, [72]
Phalarope, [33]
northern, [27]
Photoperiodism, theory of, [9]
Pigeon, homing, [30], [31]
Pintail, [22], [55], [62], [79]
Pipit, [73]
Pliny, [4]
Plover, [15]
golden, [11], [19], [48], [49], [51], [54 (map)], [66], [68], [71], [79]
upland, [15]
Poor-will, [5]
Problems, migration, [81]
banding studies, [81]
migration of the white-throated sparrow, [84]
migration of the yellow-billed loon, [84]
movements of residents, [82]
Quail, [2], [34]
California, [82]
migratory, [2]
Rail, [4], [15]
Carolina, [79]
Raven, [19]
Redhead, [58], [62], [85]
Redpoll, [12]
Redstart, [14], [45], [47 (map)], [70], [78]
Residents, movements of, [82]
Robin, [9], [22], [24], [33], [34], [35], [61], [70], [76]
Routes, [41], [53 (map)]
Arctic, [68]
Atlantic coast, [53]
Atlantic oceanic, [48]
"bobolink," [55], [56 (map)]
evolution of, [70]
flyways, [46]
Great Lakes, [60]
Great Plains, [62]
Mackenzie Valley, [60]
Mississippi Valley, [60]
narrow, [42]
Pacific coast, [63]
Pacific oceanic, [66]
Rocky Mountain, [62]
wide, [42]
Rowan, William, [10]
Salmon, [29]
Sanderling, [11], [27]
Sandpiper, [15], [27]
Bartramian, [15]
purple, [42]
Sapsucker, Williamson's, [72]
Scaup, [58]
Scoter, [63]
white-winged, [59], [65]
Segregation, [31]
Shore bird, [9], [11], [12], [32], [33], [38], [42], [48], [50], [55], [57], [60], [61]
Short and undetermined migrations, [34]
Shrike, [19], [34]
loggerhead, [37]
Snipe, [15]
Wilson's, [37]
Snowbird, [10]
Sora, [79]
Southern ancestral home theory, [8]
Sparrow, [15], [31], [32], [34], [60], [76], [77]
chipping, [37], [70]
field, [37]
fox, [35], [36 (map)]
Harris's, [43 (map)], [44], [45]
Ipswich, [43]
song, [33], [34]
swamp, [75]
tree, [34], [37], [75]
vesper, [37]
white-throated, [75], [84]
Species, movements of, [12]
Speed, flight, [18]
migration, [18]
Starling, [4]
Stork, [2], [4], [6], [27]
Storms, [75]
Swallow, [2], [4], [6], [9], [17], [18], [26], [32], [34], [57]
bank, [55]
barn, [20], [38], [60]
cliff, [16], [17 (map)], [26], [38]
hibernating, [4]
Swan, [4]
Swift, [4], [16], [19], [20], [34]
chimney, [4], [32]
Tanager, [55], [66]
scarlet, [33], [44 (map)], [45]
western, [65 (map)], [66], [67 (map)]
Teal, blue-winged, [20], [55], [58], [60]
Tern, arctic, [11], [38], [39 (map)], [40], [41], [68]
common, [40]
Forster's, [40]
noddy, [30]
sooty, [30]
Theories of migration, [7]
Thrush, [4], [15], [19], [21], [27], [31], [38], [60], [77]
gray-cheeked, [21], [23 (map)], [55]
hermit, [75]
wood, [55]
Titlark, [73]
Titmouse, [34]
tufted, [82]
Transmutation, [5]
Turd us migratorius, [35]
Turnstone, [11]
Turtle [dove], [2], [6]
Vagrant migration, [73]
Variable migrations within species, [35]
Vertical migration, [72]
Vireo, [15], [55], [75], [77]
red-eyed, [69 (map)], [70]
Vulture, [26]
turkey, [34]
Warbler, [15], [17], [18], [27], [60], [75], [76]
black and white, [12], [13 (map)], [14 (map)]
blackpolled, [16], [18], [24], [25 (map)], [55], [60], [70]
black-throated blue, [14]
Cape May, [37]
golden-winged, [63]
Kentucky, [63]
myrtle, [61], [70]
palm, [37]
pine, [37]
summer, [21]
wood, [31], [32]
worm-eating, [63]
yellow, [14], [21], [70]
Waterfowl, [20], [47], [55], [58], [59], [61], [64],93
Waxwing, [32], [33]
Bohemian, [12], [74]
Weather, influence of, [80]
Wheatear, Greenland, [11]
Widgeon, [55]
American, [62]
Woodcock, [37]
Woodpecker, [34]
Wren, [15]
Carolina, [34], [82], [83]
long-billed marsh, [33]
rock, [37]
winter, [34], [75]
Wrentit, [82]
Yeagley, Henry L., [30]
Yellowlegs, lesser, [21]
Yellowthroat, Maryland, [35], [78]
◯
Transcriber Note
Illustrations moved to prevent splitting paragraphs. Minor typos corrected.