The Project Gutenberg eBook, A Manual of the Historical Development of Art, by G. G. (Gustavus George) Zerffi
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A MANUAL OF THE
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ART.
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A MANUAL
OF THE HISTORICAL
DEVELOPMENT OF ART
Pre-historic—Ancient—Classic—Early Christian
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, and Ornamentation
BY
G. G. ZERFFI, Ph.D., F.R.S.L.
ONE OF THE LECTURERS OF H. M. DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND ART.
LONDON:
HARDWICKE & BOGUE, 192 PICCADILLY, W.
1876.
LONDON: PRINTED BY
SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE
AND PARLIAMENT STREET
The right of translation is reserved.
This Book is Inscribed
TO
E. J. POYNTER, Esq., R.A.
DIRECTOR OF THE ART TRAINING SCHOOLS,
SOUTH KENSINGTON,
IN RECOGNITION OF HIS GENIUS AS A PAINTER,
AND OF
HIS UNTIRING EFFORTS IN PROMOTING
HIGHER ART EDUCATION.
[PREFACE.]
An experience of more than eight years as Lecturer on the ‘Historical Development of Art,’ at the National Art Training School, South Kensington, has convinced me of the necessity for a short and concise Manual, which should serve both the public and students as a guide to the study of the history of art. In all our educational establishments, colleges, and ladies’ schools, the study of art-history, which ought to form one of the most important subjects of our educational system, is entirely neglected. To suggest and to excite to such a study is the aim of this book. It would be impossible to exhaust in a short volume even that section of the subject which I propose to treat, and the most that can be done is to give outlines, which must be filled in by further studies.
Art is at last assuming a better position with us, thanks to the influence of the lamented Prince Consort, to whom we undoubtedly owe the revival of the culture of sciences and arts, and the indefatigable exertions of the Government, aided by munificent grants of Parliament. But much more is to be desired from the public. If the ‘National Association for the Promotion of Social Science’ is a faithful mirror of our intellectual stand-point, we certainly have not yet attained a very high position as an artistic national body. For twenty years the Association has met and has discussed a variety of topics, and this year, for the first time, it occurred to the learned socialists that there was such a factor in humanity as art, and the congress allowed an art-section to be opened under the presidency of Mr. E. J. Poynter, R.A., the director of the ‘National Art Training School.’ Four questions were proposed for discussion, and I gave anticipatory answers to these, before the congress was opened, in my introductory lecture to the students of the Art Training School. These answers will serve as so many reasons for the issue of this book, and I therefore reproduce them here, with the questions to which they refer.
1. ‘What are the best methods of securing the improvement of Street Architecture, especially as regards its connection with public buildings?’
Answer.—Architects must be trained in art-history to prevent them from committing glaring anachronisms in brick, mortar, stone, iron, wood, or any other building material. Our street architecture cannot improve so long as we allow any original genius to copy mediæval oddities, and revive by-gone monstrosities at random, in perfect contradiction to the spirit of our times.
2. ‘How best can the encouragement of Mural Decoration, especially Frescoes, be secured?’
Answer.—This might be attained by enlarging the area of national interest beyond horse-racing, pigeon-shooting, and deer-stalking, the buying of old china, mediæval candlesticks, ewers and salvers, or of old pictures, that can scarcely be seen; and extending our general art-support to our own talented artists, even though they may not all be Michael Angelos or Raphaels. We could allow them to decorate the walls of our town-houses, public buildings, chapels, churches, banks, and museums. We must, however, first train their minds to a correct appreciation of art-history, of the world’s history, and of the glorious History of England, thus enriching their imaginations with the illustrious deeds of the past, in which they may mirror our present state, and foreshadow a continually progressing glorious future. For there is a mysterious and marvellous ‘one-ness’ in the religious, social, and artistic development of humanity which I have tried in the pages of this book continually to point out.
No civilised and wealthy country on the surface of our globe, can boast of more heroic deeds on sea and land, in and out of Parliament; of more splendid conquests by warlike and peaceful means than ours. The Wars of the Roses, the colonisation of America, the occupation of India, the peopling of Australia, the struggles of conformists and non-conformists, of Cavaliers and Roundheads, of Churchmen and Puritans, of Independents and Royalists, of Papists and Covenanters, of Iconoclasts and Free-thinkers, all offer stirring scenes; and yet, if we want to see on canvas pictures of our past, we must turn to France or Germany for them. I am sorry to say that until lately the Iconoclasts have borne all before them. As, however, the ‘National Association’ has at length consented to allow the discussion of art, and as words are in general precursors of deeds, we may expect some results from our awakened interest in art-matters.
3. ‘What is the influence of academies upon the art of the nation?’
Answer.—Academies have no influence whatever, if the nation itself takes no interest in art, and has no art-education from a general, theoretical, and historical point of view. So long as art is considered a mere luxury, because a house does not keep out cold and wet better, if it be outwardly decorated; so long as it is thought that a parlour need but have red curtains to be a parlour; that our walls may be covered with any description of hideously-shaped, realistically-wrought Chinese or Japanese flowers, if they are only kept in greenish or brownish neutral tints; so long as we fancy that our wainscotings may be bright light, though the paper above be dark; and that a window is admirable, if only provided with a pointed arch, and some trefoil or quatrefoil to keep out as much light as possible; academies can do nothing. So long as we neglect higher esthetical culture and training in our public schools, our academy will but reflect this neglect. In reviewing the past I have throughout endeavoured to show the close connection of art-forms with the general, social, religious, intellectual, and moral conditions of the different nations and periods in which they appeared. It is erroneous to suppose that art has only to treat of straight or waving lines, of triangles, squares, and circles, of imitations of flowers, animals, and men, of nature and nothing but nature. The study of art comprises man in all his thoughts and actions, and has to add to this the phenomena of the whole outer world, from crystallisations to the heavenly vault, studded with innumerable stars at night, or glowing with light and life in colours at day-time. If our academy were to take this to heart, and expand its curriculum so as to have the students taught the beauties of Greek, English, and German poetry, we should not be obliged to turn to foreigners for worthy illustrations of our immortal Shakespeare, Milton, or even Tennyson. The art-historian knows that academies neither produced a Pheidias nor a Praxiteles, neither a Raphael nor an Albert Dürer; neither a Rubens nor a Holbein; neither a Gainsborough nor a Hogarth; neither a Canova nor a Flaxman. For art-academies, as mere outgrowths of fashion, unless rooted in the earnest, artistic spirit of a nation, only foster mannerism, pander to the general bad taste of the wealthy classes, and one-sidedly cultivate portrait-painting, whilst they shut out landscape or historical figure-painting. Academies have rarely encouraged grand ideas; they create a kind of parlour or bed-room art, with nice, but very small, sentiments, water-colour effusions and flower imitations, in which the Chinese surpass us by far. So long as our academy will have great names on its programmes, as nominal lecturers, so called because they do not lecture; so long as it will systematically neglect to teach our rising artists Universal History, Art History, Archæology, Comparative Mythology, Symbolism, Iconography, Esthetics from a higher scientific point, and Psychology with special reference to artistic composition, and so long as these subjects are ignored in our general educational establishments, we shall in vain try to compete at large with other nations, however many isolated great artists we may produce. Artists in all ages reflected in their products the general sentiments of the times in which they lived, and of the people for whom they worked; every page of this book bears out this assertion. Art is a mighty civiliser of humanity and elevates the whole of our earthly existence, for it purifies passions and pacifies our mind. Art is the eternally-active genius of humanity. Let our academy acknowledge this, and it will at least try to imitate the Art Training School at South Kensington, which has continually worked in the direction of enlarging the range of the studies of its students.
4. ‘What is the influence upon society of Decorative Art and Art-workmanship in all household details?’
Answer.—If this question had been asked with an eye to business, we might answer that decorative art makes trade brisk, induces people to buy ornaments, and fills the pockets of dealers in curiosities. But this is not our aim. So long as we fail to look upon art as an earnest and serious study, as important and necessary to our social wellbeing as either ethics or science, the influence of decorative art must be confined to enticing people to plaster their walls with all sorts of China plate, or pay dearly for Japanese trays, screens, or cupboards, because they have not learnt to distinguish between the quaint and the comical, the beautiful and the ugly. Their taste is still on a level with that of untrained children, who have plenty of money in their pockets, do not know what to buy, and rush to purchase the ugliest monstrosities. If half the money that is wasted in these directions were to be devoted to the encouragement of our hard-working rising artists, we might soon boast of still greater successes than we can proudly point to, despite the adverse circumstances under which artists have to labour amongst us. Art with us is still looked upon as an extravagance, a luxury, as it was with the Romans of old, and this produces a craving for oddities. We hang up big china cockatoos, or place big china dogs, or stags with big china antlers, on our hearth-rugs. We have coarse china frogs and lizards, crabs or lobsters, from which we eat our fruit or fish; or a life-like salmon with staring eyes is brought on our table, its back takes off, and we scoop out the real cooked salmon with which its inside is filled. Form of dish, association of ideas, and action of the host are more worthy of anthropophagi than civilised beings of the nineteenth century. So long as art-history and esthetics are not made regular studies, not only in art-schools but also in general educational establishments, and especially ladies’ schools, our national consciousness of art in general and the requirements of our age in particular cannot improve. Art is a branch of human knowledge, ingenuity, and creative force in which ladies, trained to appreciate beauty, might be made better ‘helps,’ than in the kitchen, the pantry, or the larder. The national wealth of France consists in the nation’s superiority in taste and artistic skill. The French arrange a few artificial flowers with an exquisite understanding of the juxtaposition of colours and the combination of forms, and make us pay for a ‘bouquet’ on a bonnet from fifty to sixty francs, whilst the raw material costs from five to six francs; they do the same in terra-cotta, bronze, or iron. So long as everyone with us thinks himself justified in having his own bad taste gratified, because he can pay for it, decorative artists will serve that bad taste in all our household details. Art-history comprises not merely measurements of temples, heights of spires in feet, or of statues in cubits and inches.
We have of late years made gigantic strides in the advancement of street-architecture, though we do not yet know how to create perspective views of artistic beauty; we still indulge too much in mediæval crookedness and unintelligible windings. We still decorate too gaudily, or, falling into the other extreme, too much in neutral colours; but we are beginning to understand that man does not live on stone and brick alone, but also on taste in arranging and decorating the stone. London, with the exception of some of our monstrous railway bridges and railway stations, begins to look worthy of its position as the centre of the world’s commerce. Our streets have lately put on some stately ‘Sunday clothing’ in terra-cotta, Portland cement, and iron railings. Our glass and china, our furniture and carpets, begin to have more variegated patterns, though I am sorry to hear that foreigners are still generally appointed as the principal modellers. I base this assertion on the Report on the National Competition of the Works of Schools of Art for 1876, in which the examiners say: ‘Our want of that workman-like power over the material, which is so noticeable in all French productions in modelling, is still very conspicuous. As long as this continues a large proportion of the decorative figure or ornamental designs in relief made for the English market will be in the hands of foreign artists.’ The panacea of this evil will and can only be a higher intellectual training, not merely of the faculty of imitating and combining given forms in nature, but of endowing them with ideal beauty, fostered by a correct study of art-history.
There are no illustrations to this work, but I have annexed a long list of illustrated works on art. My aim in teaching, and writing, has been consistently to induce my hearers and readers to think and study for themselves. Bad or even good wood-cuts are by no means essential in art-books, for we possess in the British, Christy’s, and South Kensington Museums such invaluable art-collections, that we may write books without illustrations if we can induce readers and students to verify what we say by a diligent study of these specimens. Theoretical generalisation ought always to precede our special studies. We only then know when we are able to systematise, to group, to draw analogies, or to arrange our details according to some general principle. If we enter on any study without having prepared our mind to grasp the connecting links in an artistic or scientific subject, our knowledge of an incoherent mass of details will only dwarf our understanding, instead of brightening and clearing it, and we shall become technically-trained machines, instead of self-conscious and self-reasoning creators in any branch of art. The Art Library at the South Kensington Museum is, without any exaggeration, the completest in the world; it abounds in the best illustrated works of all nations. Art-books with bad or indifferent illustrations, or even with good illustrations, are not so much needed as art-books with unbiased theories, esthetical principles, and philosophical ideas, which may awaken the power of reasoning in both readers and students. It is only too often the case that, in seeing bad illustrations, the student imagines he knows everything about the work spoken of and produced in outlines. He must, however, go and see for himself. Art has its own fairy domain and its own most catholic realm, in which everyone is welcome who can contribute to the improvement, delight, and happiness of man. To induce readers and students to visit, with some fore-thought and fore-knowledge, our vast and unparalleled art-collections, and to convince them, that to detach the study of art from a correct appreciation of the ideas that engendered its forms, is an impossibility, was the task I set myself in writing the pages of this book.
London: October 1876.
[CONTENTS.]
| [CHAPTER I.] | |
| PROLEGOMENA. | |
| PAGE | |
| The phenomena of destruction and combination in Nature—The difference between the sublime and beautiful—Without man no beauty—Science, industry, and art—The utilitarian principle—Choice—The realistic, historical, and critical points of view in art—Crystallisations and their elements—Symmetry and eurythmy—Proportion, action, and expression—Man is the symbol of earthly perfection | 1 |
| [CHAPTER II.] | |
| ETHNOLOGY IN ITS BEARING ON ART. | |
| The Negro, the Turanian, and the Aryan: their characteristics, facial angle, amount of brain, and artistic capacities—Space and time—Art treated historically—Pottery in its development—Generalisation and its advantage | 22 |
| [CHAPTER III.] | |
| PRE-HISTORIC AND SAVAGE ART. | |
| Traces of man’s inventive and decorative force in by-gone ages—Classification of pre-historic products—The old stone age—The new stone age—The bronze and iron ages—Man’s first dwellings—Houses and temples—Lake- or pile-dwellings in their gradual development—Cranoges or wooden islands—Art in the western hemisphere—The stucco in the rock-hewn temple at Mitla in Mexico—Difference between art-products in North, Central, and South America—Cuzco, near Lake Titicaca—Pottery as a reliable historical record—The wild and fantastic mode of ornamentation in America, and its causes | 32 |
| [CHAPTER IV.] | |
| CHINESE ART. | |
| The Chinese language—The holy books of the Chinese—The sacred number five—Principle of ornamentation—Their towns—The wall with the Chinese not yet a completing part of the building—The enclosure, the frame, and the substructure—The trellis-work of the Chinese and its subdivision—Their Tshao-pings and Miaos—Mode of colouring—Silk-weavings and their usual patterns—Feather works and embroideries—Their deficiencies in painting—Their pottery—Causes of their failings in art in a higher sense. | 45 |
| [CHAPTER V.] | |
| INDIA, PERSIA, ASSYRIA, AND BABYLON. | |
| The Aryans on this and the other side of the Himâlâyan Mountains—Science and art the offsprings of religion—Endeavours to express abstract phenomena in concrete signs—The symbolic, dialectic, and mythological periods—The Indian trinity—The principal divinities of India, and their analogy with the Egyptian, Persian, and Greek gods—Indian epic poetry—The rock-hewn temples and Buddha—Stucco ornamentation—Causes of the gorgeousness of Indian art—Persia and the Persians—Their five cosmical elements—Historical development—The Zend-Avesta—Persepolis and its oldest monuments—Zoroaster—The Persian trinity—Light and darkness—Why no temples were constructed—The Babylonians and Ninivites—Their principles of ornamentation—Their wall decorations | 60 |
| [CHAPTER VI.] | |
| EGYPTIAN ART. | |
| The sphinx the emblem of Egyptian art—Long and short chronologists—Lepsius and his list of Egyptian dynasties—State of Egypt under Menes, who ruled 3892 B.C., according to Lepsius—Division of Egyptian art into periods—The forty-two holy books of the Egyptians—Their gods of the first, second, and third orders—The Egyptian trinity—The pyramidal period—The hieratic style—The Ptolemaic style—Their mode of ornamentation and symmetrophobia | 103 |
| [CHAPTER VII.] | |
| HEBREW ART. | |
| The Hebrews are a mixed race—Social and political condition of the Jews during 6,000 years—Description of the country and aspect of nature—Rabbi Manasseh Ben Israel—Architecture a sure measure of a nation’s social and political development—Egotistical character of nomadic traders—The temple and palace of Solomon, the only architectural efforts of the Jews—Sketch of their history, divided into eight periods—The tabernacle a tent—The first temple constructed on its plan—Ben David on the mysterious empty room above the Holy of Holies—Causes why the Jews had no art, and never attempted to have any | 132 |
| [CHAPTER VIII.] | |
| GREEK ART. | |
| Meshiah (humanity) was first freed by the Greeks in form, and by Christ in spirit—Aspect of nature—India, Egypt, and Persia as the component parts of Greek development—The different dialects of the Greeks—Their mythology—Traces of intelligible facts and historical events in the Greek myths—Zeus and his character—Prometheus and Faust—The nine muses and their leader—Greek life a continuous festivity—Greek poetry and philosophy—Greek artistic development—The Olympian, Pythian, Nemæan, and Isthmian games—Greek architecture: the temple—Building materials—Site of temples—Proportion—Plan of temples—The Doric, Ionic, and Korinthian orders and their subdivisions—The Attic style—Greek pottery and Greek sculpture—Different periods—The British Museum and Greek art—Onatas, Ageladas, Kalamis, Pheidias, Praxiteles, Skopas, and Lysippus—The Parthenon—Aphrodite no longer draped—The groups of Niobe, Laokoön, and the Farnese bull—Causes of the decline of Greek art | 153 |
| [CHAPTER IX.] | |
| ETRUSKAN ART. | |
| The first settlers in Etruria—Their gods of the first and second orders—The ritual of thunder—Temples and tombs—Subdivision of tombs—Cinerary chests—Excavations at Præneste—Pottery and metal works—Their style either Archaic or Etruskan—Division of Etruskan works of art into five principal categories | 212 |
| [CHAPTER X.] | |
| ROMAN ART. | |
| Characteristic differences between Greeks and Romans—The triple theocracy of Rome—The mythical period of the seven kings of Rome—Rome as republic—Roman mythology—Rome under the emperors—Roman public games—Roman literature the outgrowth of Greek literature—Polylithic wall decorations—The arch, cross-vault, and cupola—Periods of Roman art and their subdivisions—Temples—Fora and theatres—The mausoleum of Augustus—Hadrian, the divine architect—Triumphal arches—The baths of Caracalla—The advent of Christianity | 228 |
| [CHAPTER XI.] | |
| EARLY CHRISTIAN ART. | |
| North and south of our globe—Buddhism and Christianity—Christ’s divine teachings—Romanesque and Byzantine art-forms—Symbols, allegories, emblems, and myths—Catacombs at Rome and Naples—The sacredness of the number seven—Christian art in its essence and different phases—The spiritual element predominates—The first Christian churches—Constantine—Ravenna and its early churches—St. Sophia in the Byzantine style—Migration of northern nations—Their religious notions—The Teutons turn Christians—Wood and ivory carvings—Art in its relation to the progressive development of mankind—Summary and conclusion | 264 |
| [Bibliography] for the study of the historical development of Art | 301 |
| [Index] | 305 |
MANUAL
OF THE
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ART
[CHAPTER I.]
PROLEGOMENA.
Gazing at the heavens on a starry night, we see, in addition to myriads of sparkling worlds floating in the air, a great quantity of nebulæ—either decayed systems of worlds, or worlds in formation. Worlds which have lost their centre of gravity and fallen to pieces; or worlds which are seeking, according to the general law of gravitation, to form a central body by the attraction of cosmical ether. The one phenomenon is that of destruction, the other that of new formation.
This double process is continually repeating itself in the development of art. Consciously or unconsciously, the artists of the different nations, at different periods, devote themselves to the dissolution or reconstruction of artistic products. To become acquainted with this process, to trace the elements from which art is built up, or the influences which engender a dissolution of artistic forms, is of the greatest importance.
Art must be looked upon as the phenomenal result of certain religious, social, intellectual, and natural conditions. To trace these conditions, their origin, influence, and gradual development, by means of a critical and historical investigation into the causes which produced them, will be our task. For art is like a mirror: whatever looks into it is reflected by it. If a poor, untrained imagination stares into it, no one must be astonished that poor and distorted images result.
It is usually accepted as a truism that the essence of art is the reproduction of nature. Wherever, then, nature were reflected in the ‘Art-mirror,’ we should have the best work of art. But this is not so. For art has to reflect the phenomena of the makrokosm as a subjectively-conceived mikrokosm. We do not see matters as they really are, as each thing is surrounded by a thick fog of incidental, objective, and subjective peculiarities. This fog must be cleared away, to show us nature in the bright colours of intellectual and self-conscious idealisation.
Nature furnishes us with mortar and stones for the building, but the architect’s intellectual power has to arrange these elements, and to bring them into an artistic shape. Nature furnishes us with flowers, trees, animals and men; but the ornamental designer or painter has to reproduce and to group them so as to impress the forms of nature with an intellectual vitality.
Before the artist proceeds to his work he must become thoroughly conscious of the distinction between the SUBLIME and the BEAUTIFUL. It is essential that he should draw a strict line of demarcation between the two conceptions; in order not to waste his energies on the reproduction of objects which are beyond the powers of art.
During the long period of the cosmical formation of the earth, when mountains were towered upon mountains, rocks upheaved, islands submerged; when air, water, fire, and solid matter seemed engaged in never-ending conflict—nature was sublime. The dynamic force appeared to be the only element, and the counterbalancing static force was without influence. Gradually vegetable and animal life, in their first crude forms, commenced to show themselves.
Zoophites were developed into megatheriums and mastodons. Mammoths and elks sported on plains which now form the mountain tops of our continents. Scarcely visible coral animals were still engaged in constructing mountain chains, and a luxuriant vegetation covered the small continents. Such transformations, convulsions, and changes are gigantic, grand, awe-inspiring—sublime, but not beautiful. Whenever nature is at work, disturbing the air with electric currents or shaking huge mountains, so that they bow their lofty summits, or when the dry soil is rent asunder, and sends forth streams of glowing lava, we are in the presence of the sublime, not of the beautiful. Whenever man’s nature is overawed, whenever he is made to feel his impotence by the phenomena of nature, he faces the sublime. In art, only a few divinely-gifted and chosen geniuses have ever reached the sublime.
When, however, the cosmical forces had expended their exuberant powers—when a diversified climate had produced those plants and animals that surround us—when man appeared on this revolving planet, and by degrees reached self-consciousness as his highest development—then only beauty acquired existence and dominion on earth. Without men capable of understanding what is beautiful, art would have no meaning.
The aim of science is to vanquish error; the province of industry to subdue matter, and the vocation of art to produce beauty. The artist must not neglect science, for he has to be truthful, as error is ugly; he must make himself well acquainted with matter, for he has to use, to transform, and to modify it; and, finally, he has to hallow this scientifically-treated matter by impressing it with the stamp of ideal beauty.
The attainment of this, the perfection of art, has been slow and gradual. Though art, like all the inventions, took its origin in want and necessity, the utilitarian spirit is the very bane of art, for art flourishes only under the influence of the very highest intellectual culture.
Nature produces like art; but the products of nature are the unconscious effects of the immutable law of causation. The products of art are the results of the conscious intellectual power of the artist. It is the free, yet well-regulated, consciousness of the artist that elevates his productions into works of art. Undoubtedly the great store-house of the artist is nature; he learns from nature how to ornament, but he has to discern, to combine, to adapt, to select, his forms. The whole success of the artist, in whatever branch he works, must depend on an earnest and severe use of the word CHOICE.
‘He is truly great who knows the value of everything, and distinguishes what is more or less great, and what is most estimable, so as to begin from that, and to apply the genius, and fix the desires upon the execution of things worthy and great.’ This mode of thinking was followed by the most celebrated and enlightened artists from the ancient Greeks to our own time. They knew to distinguish that which was most worthy in nature, and to this they directed their study, diligence, and industry. Inferior geniuses, because they are attached to mediocrity, believe that a mere clinging to nature constitutes all art; and the lowest artists are enchanted with the minutiæ of little works, taking them for principal things; so that human ignorance passes from the trifling to the useless, from the useless to the ugly, and from the ugly to the false and chimerical.
In treating of the historical development of art, to enable artists to distinguish and to choose the best, and not only to imitate but to create consciously for themselves, it is necessary to make them theoretically acquainted with the progress of art.
To trace historically the changes art had to undergo is necessary for all really self-conscious artists. Art with us is still looked upon as entirely subject to individual taste. Everyone thinks himself competent to have an opinion on products of art. ‘De gustibus non est disputandum’ is heard not only in our drawing-rooms, but also in art-circles. This false and utterly untenable adage is the cause of the chaotic anarchy in our art-world.
So little as there can be differences in truth, can there be differences in beauty. It is the duty of philosophy to strive for truth; it is the task of the theoretical artist to point out what is beautiful.
We may treat art from three different points of view:—
1. From a realistic point of view, taking nature and geometry as its basis.
2. From an historical point of view; showing by antiquarian and archæological researches its gradual development.
3. From a critical point of view; propounding abstract principles of speculative philosophy and esthetics as applied to art.