Manual of Egyptian Archaeology and Guide to the Study of Antiquities in Egypt

by G. Maspero

EGYPTIAN ARCHAEOLOGY

[CHAPTER I.]

ARCHITECTURE--CIVIL AND MILITARY.

Archaeologists, when visiting Egypt, have so concentrated their attention upon temples and tombs, that not one has devoted himself to a careful examination of the existing remains of private dwellings and military buildings. Few countries, nevertheless, have preserved so many relics of their ancient civil architecture. Setting aside towns of Roman or Byzantine date, such as are found almost intact at Koft (Coptos), at Kom Ombo, and at El Agandiyeh, one-half at least of ancient Thebes still exists on the east and south of Karnak. The site of Memphis is covered with mounds, some of which are from fifty to sixty feet in height, each containing a core of houses in good preservation. At Kahûn, the ruins and remains of a whole provincial Twelfth Dynasty town have been laid bare; at Tell el Mask-hûtah, the granaries of Pithom are yet standing; at Sãn (Tanis) and Tell Basta (Bubastis), the Ptolemaic and Saïtic cities contain quarters of which plans might be made ([Note 1][)], and in many localities which escape the traveller's notice, there may be seen ruins of private dwellings which date back to the age of the Ramessides, or to a still earlier period. As regards fortresses, there are two in the town of Abydos alone, one of which is at least contemporary with the Sixth Dynasty; while the ramparts of El Kab, of Kom el Ahmar, of El Hibeh, and of Dakkeh, as well as part of the fortifications of Thebes, are still standing, and await the architect who shall deign to make them an object of serious study.

[1].--PRIVATE DWELLINGS.

The soil of Egypt, periodically washed by the inundation, is a black, compact, homogeneous clay, which becomes of stony hardness when dry. From immemorial time, the fellahin have used it for the construction of their houses. The hut of the poorest peasant is a mere rudely-shaped mass of this clay. A rectangular space, some eight or ten feet in width, by perhaps sixteen or eighteen feet in length, is enclosed in a wickerwork of palm- branches, coated on both sides with a layer of mud. As this coating cracks in the drying the fissures are filled in, and more coats of mud are daubed on until the walls attain a thickness of from four inches to a foot. Finally, the whole is roofed over with palm-branches and straw, the top being covered in with a thin layer of beaten earth. The height varies. In most huts, the ceiling is so low that to rise suddenly is dangerous both to one's head and to the structure, while in others the roof is six or seven feet from the floor. Windows, of course, there are none. Sometimes a hole is left in the middle of the roof to let the smoke out; but this is a refinement undreamed of by many.

At the first glance, it is not always easy to distinguish between these huts of wattle and daub and those built with crude bricks. The ordinary Egyptian brick is a mere oblong block of mud mixed with chopped straw and a little sand, and dried in the sun. At a spot where they are about to build, one man is told off to break up the ground; others carry the clods, and pile them in a heap, while others again mix them with water, knead the clay with their feet, and reduce it to a homogeneous paste. This paste, when sufficiently worked ([Note 2][)], is pressed by the head workman in moulds made of hard wood, while an assistant carries away the bricks as fast as they are shaped, and lays them out in rows at a little distance apart, to dry in the sun (fig. 1). A careful brickmaker will leave them thus for half a day, or even for a whole day, after which the bricks are piled in stacks in such wise that the air can circulate freely among them; and so they remain for a week or two before they are used. More frequently, however, they are exposed for only a few hours to the heat of the sun, and the building is begun while they are yet damp. The mud, however, is so tenacious that, notwithstanding this carelessness, they are not readily put out of shape. The outer faces of the bricks become disintegrated by the action of the weather, but those in the inner part of the wall remain intact, and are still separable. A good modern workman will easily mould a thousand bricks a day, and after a week's practice he may turn out 1,200, 1,500, or even 1,800. The ancient workmen, whose appliances in no wise differed from those of the present day, produced equally satisfactory results. The dimensions they generally adopted were 8.7 x 4.3 x 5.5 inches for ordinary bricks, or 15.0 x 7.1 x 5.5 for a larger size ([Note 3][)], though both larger and smaller are often met with in the ruins. Bricks issued from the royal workshops were sometimes stamped with the cartouches of the reigning monarch; while those made in private factories bore on the side a trade mark in red ochre, a squeeze of the moulder's fingers, or the stamp of the maker. By far the greater number have, however, no distinctive mark. Burnt bricks were not often used before the Roman period ([Note 4][)], nor tiles, either flat or curved. Glazed bricks appear to have been the fashion in the Delta. The finest specimen that I have seen, namely, one in the Gizeh Museum, is inscribed in black ink with the cartouches of Rameses III. The glaze of this brick is green, but other fragments are coloured blue, red, yellow, or white.

The nature of the soil does not allow of deep foundations. It consists of a thin bed of made earth, which, except in large towns, never reaches any degree of thickness; below this comes a very dense humus, permeated by slender veins of sand; and below this again--at the level of infiltration-- comes a bed of mud, more or less soft, according to the season. The native builders of the present day are content to remove only the made earth, and lay their foundations on the primeval soil; or, if that lies too deep, they stop at a yard or so below the surface. The old Egyptians did likewise; and I have never seen any ancient house of which the foundations were more than four feet deep. Even this is exceptional, the depth in most cases being not more than two feet. They very often did not trouble themselves to cut trenches at all; they merely levelled the space intended to be covered, and, having probably watered it to settle the soil, they at once laid the bricks upon the surface. When the house was finished, the scraps of mortar, the broken bricks, and all the accumulated refuse of the work, made a bed of eight inches or a foot in depth, and the base of the wall thus buried served instead of a foundation. When the new house rose on the ruins of an older one decayed by time or ruined by accident, the builders did not even take the trouble to raze the old walls to the ground. Levelling the surface of the ruins, they-built upon them at a level a few feet higher than before: thus each town stands upon one or several artificial mounds, the tops of which may occasionally rise to a height of from sixty to eighty feet above the surrounding country. The Greek historians attributed these artificial mounds to the wisdom of the kings, and especially to Sesostris, who, as they supposed, wished to raise the towns above the inundation. Some modern writers have even described the process, which they explain thus:--A cellular framework of brick walls, like a huge chess-board, formed the substructure, the cells being next filled in with earth, and the houses built upon this immense platform ([Note 5][)].

The gods dwelt in fortified mansions, or at any rate in redoubts to which the people of the place might fly for safety in the event of any sudden attack upon their town.

The lower classes lived in mere huts which, though built of bricks, were no better than those of the present fellahin.

Notwithstanding the prevalence of enteric disease and ophthalmia, the family crowded together into one or two rooms during the winter, and slept out on the roof under the shelter of mosquito nets in summer. On the roof also the women gossiped and cooked. The ground floor included both store- rooms, barns, and stables. Private granaries were generally in pairs (see fig. 11), brick-built in the same long conical shape as the state granaries, and carefully plastered with mud inside and out. Neither did the people of a house forget to find or to make hiding places in the walls or floors of their home, where they could secrete their household treasures--such as nuggets of gold and silver, precious stones, and jewellery for men and women--from thieves and tax-collectors alike. Wherever the upper floors still remain standing, they reproduce the ground-floor plan with scarcely any differences. These upper rooms were reached by an outside staircase, steep and narrow, and divided at short intervals by small square landings.

The roof was flat, and made probably, as at the present day, of closely laid rows of palm-branches covered with a coating of mud thick enough to withstand the effects of rain.

The mansions of the rich and great covered a large space of ground. They most frequently stood in the midst of a garden, or of an enclosed court planted with trees; and, like the commoner houses, they turned a blank front to the street, consisting of bare walls, battlemented like those of a fortress (fig. 11). Thus, home-life was strictly secluded, and the pleasure of seeing was sacrificed for the advantages of not being seen. The door was approached by a flight of two or three steps, or by a porch supported on columns (fig. 12) and adorned with statues (fig. 13), which gave it a monumental appearance, and indicated the social importance of the family.

Sometimes this was preceded by a pylon-gateway, such as usually heralded the approach to a temple. Inside the enclosure it was like a small town, divided into quarters by irregular walls. The dwelling-house stood at the farther end; the granaries, stabling, and open spaces being distributed in different parts of the grounds, according to some system to which we as yet possess no clue. These arrangements, however, were infinitely varied. If I would convey some idea of the residence of an Egyptian noble,--a residence half palace, half villa,--I cannot do better than reproduce two out of the many pictorial plans which have come down to us among the tomb-paintings of the Eighteenth Dynasty. The first (figs. 14, 15) represent a Theban house. The enclosure is square, and surrounded by an embattled wall. The main gate opens upon a road bordered with trees, which runs beside a canal, or perhaps an arm of the Nile. Low stone walls divide the garden into symmetrical compartments, like those which are seen to this day in the great gardens of Ekhmîm or Girgeh.

In the centre is a large trellis supported on four rows of slender pillars. Four small ponds, two to the right and two to the left, are stocked with ducks and geese. Two nurseries, two summer-houses, and various avenues of sycamores, date-palms, and dôm-palms fill up the intermediate space; while at the end, facing the entrance, stands a small three-storied house surmounted by a painted cornice.

The second plan is copied from one of the rock-cut tombs of Tell el Amarna (figs. 16, 17). Here we see a house situate at the end of the gardens of the great lord Aï, son-in-law of the Pharaoh Khûenaten, and himself afterwards king of Egypt. An oblong stone tank with sloping sides, and two descending flights of steps, faces the entrance. The building is rectangular, the width being somewhat greater than the depth. A large doorway opens in the middle of the front, and gives access to a court planted with trees and flanked by store-houses fully stocked with provisions.

I have touched chiefly upon houses of the second Theban period,[][2]] this being in fact the time of which we have most examples.

[2].--FORTRESSES.

Most of the towns, and even most of the larger villages, of ancient Egypt were walled.

The oldest fortresses are those of Abydos, El Kab, and Semneh. Abydos contained a sanctuary dedicated to Osiris, and was situate at the entrance to one of the roads leading to the Oasis. As the renown of the temple attracted pilgrims, so the position of the city caused it to be frequented by merchants; hence the prosperity which it derived from the influx of both classes of strangers exposed the city to incursions of the Libyan tribes.

The early Egyptians possessed no engines calculated to make an impression on very massive walls.

The same system of fortification which was in use for isolated fortresses was also employed for the protection of towns. At Heliopollis, at Sãn, at Sais, at Thebes, everywhere in short, we find long straight walls forming plain squares or parallelograms, without towers or bastions, ditches or outworks. The thickness of the walls, which varied from thirty to eighty feet, made such precautions needless. The gates, or at all events the principal ones, had jambs and lintels of stone, decorated with scenes and inscriptions; as, for instance, that of Ombos, which Champollion beheld yet in situ, and which dated from the reign of Thothmes III. The oldest and best preserved walled city in Egypt, namely, El Kab, belongs probably to the ancient empire (fig. 32). The Nile washed part of it away some years ago; but at the beginning of the present century it formed an irregular quadrilateral enclosure, measuring some 2,100 feet in length, by about a quarter less in breadth. The south front is constructed on the same principles as the wall at Kom es Sultan, the bricks being bedded in alternate horizontal and concave sections. Along the north and west fronts they are laid in undulating layers from end to end.

The rectangular plan, though excellent in a plain, was not always available in a hilly country.

New methods of fortification were revealed to the Egyptians in the course of the great Asiatic wars undertaken by the Pharaohs of the Eighteenth Dynasty.

Material evidence fails us almost entirely, after the reign of Rameses III. Towards the close of the eleventh century B.C., the high-priests of Amen repaired the walls of Thebes, of Gebeleyn, and of El Hibeh opposite Feshn. The territorial subdivision of the country, which took place under the successors of Sheshonk, compelled the provincial princes to multiply their strongholds. The campaign of Piankhi on the banks of the Nile is a series of successful sieges. Nothing, however, leads us to suppose that the art of fortification had at that time made any distinct progress; and when the Greek rulers succeeded the native Pharaohs, they most probably found it at much the same stage as it was left by the engineers of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties.

[3].--PUBLIC WORKS.

A permanent network of roads would be useless in a country like Egypt. The Nile here is the natural highway for purposes of commerce, and the pathways which intersect the fields suffice for foot-passengers, for cattle, and for the transport of goods from village to village. Ferry-boats for crossing the river, fords wherever the canals were shallow enough, and embanked dams thrown up here and there where the water was too deep for fordings, completed the system of internal communication. Bridges were rare. Up to the present time, we know of but one in the whole territory of ancient Egypt; and whether that one was long or short, built of stone or of wood, supported on arches or boldly flung across the stream from bank to bank, we cannot even conjecture. This bridge, close under the very walls of Zarû, [][4]] crossed the canal which separated the eastern frontier of Egypt from the desert regions of Arabia Petraea. A fortified enclosure protected this canal on the Asiatic side, as shown in the accompanying illustration (fig. 42).

The taxation of ancient Egypt was levied in kind, and government servants were paid after the same system. To workmen, there were monthly distributions of corn, oil, and wine, wherewith to support their families; while from end to end of the social scale, each functionary, in exchange for his labour, received cattle, stuffs, manufactured goods, and certain quantities of copper or precious metals. Thus it became necessary that the treasury officials should have the command of vast storehouses for the safe keeping of the various goods collected under the head of taxation. These were classified and stored in separate quarters, each storehouse being surrounded by walls and guarded by vigilant keepers.

The irrigation system of Egypt is but little changed since the olden time.

Most of the localities from which the Egyptians derived their metals and choicest materials in hard stone, were difficult of access, and would have been useless had roads not been made, and works of this kind carried out, so as to make life somewhat less insupportable there.

In order to reach the diorite and grey granite quarries of the Hammamat Valley, the Pharaohs caused a series of rock-cut cisterns to be constructed along the line of route. Some few insignificant springs, skilfully conducted into these reservoirs, made it possible to plant workmen's villages in the neighbourhood of the quarries, and also near the emerald mines on the borders of the Red Sea. Hundreds of hired labourers, slaves, and condemned criminals here led a wretched existence under the rule of some eight or ten overseers, and the brutal surveillance of a company of Libyan or negro mercenary troops. The least political disturbance in Egypt, an unsuccessful campaign, or any untoward incident of a troubled reign, sufficed to break up the precarious stability of these remote establishments. The Bedawîn at once attacked the colony; the workmen deserted; the guards, weary of exile, hastened back to the valley of the Nile, and all was at a standstill.

The choicest materials, as diorite, basalt, black granite, porphyry, and red and yellow breccia, which are only found in the desert, were rarely used for architectural purposes. In order to procure them, it was necessary to organise regular expeditions of soldiers and workmen; therefore they were reserved for sarcophagi and important works of art. Those quarries which supplied building materials for temples and funerary monuments, such as limestone, sandstone, alabaster, and red granite, were all found in the Nile valley, and were, therefore, easy of access. When the vein which it was intended to work traversed the lower strata of the rock, the miners excavated chambers and passages, which were often prolonged to a considerable distance. Square pillars, left standing at intervals, supported the superincumbent mass, while tablets sculptured in the most conspicuous places commemorated the kings and engineers who began or continued the work. Several exhausted or abandoned quarries have been transformed into votive chapels; as, for instance, the Speos Artemidos, which was consecrated by Hatshepsut, Thothmes III. and Seti I. to the local goddess Pakhet.[][9]]

The most important limestone quarries are at Tûrah and Massarah, nearly opposite Memphis. This stone lends itself admirably to the most delicate touches of the chisel, hardens when exposed to the air, and acquires a creamy tone most restful to the eye. Hence it was much in request by architects and sculptors. The most extensive sandstone formations are at Silsilis (fig. 49). Here the cliffs were quarried from above, and under the open sky.

[CHAPTER II.]

RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE.

In the civil and military architecture of Ancient Egypt brick played the principal part; but in the religious architecture of the nation it occupied a very secondary position. The Pharaohs were ambitious of building eternal dwellings for their deities, and stone was the only material which seemed sufficiently durable to withstand the ravages of time and man.

[1].--MATERIALS AND PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION.

It is an error to suppose that the Egyptians employed only large blocks for building purposes. The size of their materials varied very considerably according to the uses for which they were destined. Architraves, drums of columns, lintel-stones, and door-jambs were sometimes of great size. The longest architraves known--those, namely, which bridge the nave of the hypostyle hall of Karnak--have a mean length of 30 feet. They each contain 40 cubic yards, and weigh about 65 tons. Ordinarily, however, the blocks are not much larger than those now used in Europe. They measure, that is to say, about 2-1/2 to 4 feet in height, from 3 to 8 feet in length, and from 2 to 6 feet in thickness.

Some temples are built of only one kind of stone; but more frequently materials of different kinds are put together in unequal proportions. Thus the main part of the temples of Abydos consists of very fine limestone; but in the temple of Seti I., the columns, architraves, jambs, and lintels,--all parts, in short, where it might be feared that the limestone would not offer sufficient resistance,--the architect has had recourse to sandstone; while in that of Rameses II., sandstone, granite, and alabaster were used. At Karnak, Luxor, Tanis, and Memphis, similar combinations may be seen. At the Ramesseum, and in some of the Nubian temples, the columns stand on massive supports of crude brick. The stones were dressed more or less carefully, according to the positions they were to occupy. When the walls were of medium thickness, as in most partition walls, they are well wrought on all sides. When the wall was thick, the core blocks were roughed out as nearly cubic as might be, and piled together without much care, the hollows being filled up with smaller flakes, pebbles, or mortar. Casing stones were carefully wrought on the faces, and the joints dressed for two-thirds or three-quarters of the length, the rest being merely picked with a point ([Note 6][)]. The largest blocks were reserved for the lower parts of the building; and this precaution was the more necessary because the architects of Pharaonic times sank the foundations of their temples no deeper than those of their houses. At Karnak, they are not carried lower than from 7 to 10 feet; at Luxor, on the side anciently washed by the river, three courses of masonry, each measuring about 2-1/2 feet in depth, form a great platform on which the walls rest; while at the Ramesseum, the brickwork bed on which the colonnade stands does not seem to be more than 10 feet deep. These are but slight depths for the foundations of such great buildings, but the experience of ages proves that they are sufficient. The hard and compact humus of which the soil of the Nile valley is composed, contracts every year after the subsidence of the inundation, and thus becomes almost incompressible. As the building progressed, the weight of the superincumbent masonry gradually became greater, till the maximum of pressure was attained, and a solid basis secured. Wherever I have bared the foundations of the walls, I can testify that they have not shifted.

The system of construction in force among the ancient Egyptians resembles in many respects that of the Greeks. The stones are often placed together with dry joints, and without the employment of any binding contrivance, the masons relying on the mere weight of the materials to keep them in place. Sometimes they are held together by metal cramps, or sometimes--as in the temple of Seti I., at Abydos--by dovetails of sycamore wood bearing the cartouche of the founder. Most commonly, they are united by a mortar-joint, more or less thick. All the mortars of which I have collected samples are thus far of three kinds: the first is white, and easily reduced to an impalpable powder, being of lime only; the others are grey, and rough to the touch, being mixtures of lime and sand; while some are of a reddish colour, owing to the pounded brick powder with which they are mixed. A judicious use of these various methods enabled the Egyptians to rival the Greeks in their treatment of regular courses, equal blocks, and upright joints in alternate bond. If they did not always work equally well, their shortcomings must be charged to the imperfect mechanical means at their disposal. The enclosure walls, partitions, and secondary façades were upright; and they raised the materials by means of a rude kind of crane planted on the top. The pylon walls and the principal façades (and sometimes even the secondary façades) were sloped at an angle which varied according to the taste of the architect. In order to build these, they formed inclined planes, the slopes of which were lengthened as the structure rose in height.

The ground-level of the courts and halls was flagged with rectangular paving stones, well enough fitted, except in the intercolumniations, where the architects, hopeless of harmonising the lines of the pavement with the curved bases of the columns, have filled in the space with small pieces, set without order or method (fig. 55). Contrary to their practice when house building, they have scarcely ever employed the vault or arch in temple architecture. We nowhere meet with it, except at Deir el Baharî, and in the seven parallel sanctuaries of Abydos.

The supports are of two types,--the pillar and the column. Some are cut from single blocks. Thus, the monolithic pillars of the temple of the sphinx ([Note 8][)], the oldest hitherto found, measure 16 feet in height by 4-1/2 feet in width.

The quadrangular pillar, with parallel or slightly inclined sides, and generally without either base or capital, frequently occurs in tombs of the ancient empire. It reappears later at Medinet Habû, in the temple of Thothmes III., and again at Karnak, in what is known as the processional hall.

The column does not rest immediately upon the soil. It is always furnished with a base like that of the polygonal pillar, sometimes square with the ground, and sometimes slightly rounded. This base is either plain, or ornamented only with a line of hieroglyphs. The principal forms fall into three types: (1) the column with campaniform, or lotus-flower capital; (2) the column with lotus-bud capital; (3) the column with Hathor-head capital.

I. Columns with Campaniform Capitals.--The shaft is generally plain, or merely engraved with inscriptions or bas-reliefs.

The column with campaniform capital is mostly employed in the middle avenue of hypostyle halls, as at Karnak, the Ramesseum, and Luxor (fig. 63); but it was not restricted to this position, for we also find it in porticoes, as at Medinet Habû, Edfû, and Philae.

II. Columns with Lotus-bud Capitals.--Originally these may perhaps have represented a bunch of lotus plants, the buds being bound together at the neck to form the capital. The columns of Beni Hasan consist of four rounded stems (fig. 68).

III. Columns with Hathor-head Capitals.--We find examples of the Hathor-headed column dating from ancient times, as at Deir el Baharî; but this order is best known in buildings of the Ptolemaic period, as at Contra Latopolis, Philae, and Denderah.

Shafts of columns were regulated by no fixed rules of proportion or arrangement.

[2]. THE TEMPLE.

Most of the famous sanctuaries--Denderah, Edfû, Abydos--were founded before Men a by the Servants of Hor.[][14]] Becoming dilapidated or ruined in the course of ages, they have been restored, rebuilt, remodelled, one after the other, till nothing remains of the primitive design to show us what the first Egyptian architecture was like. The funerary temples built by the kings of the Fourth Dynasty have left some traces.[][15]] That of the second pyramid of Gizeh was so far preserved at the beginning of the last century, that Maillet saw four large pillars standing. It is now almost entirely destroyed; but this loss has been more than compensated by the discovery, in 1853, of a temple situate about fifty yards to the southward of the sphinx (fig. 74). The façade is still hidden by the sand, and the inside is but partly uncovered. The core masonry is of fine Tûrah limestone. The casing, pillars, architraves, and roof were constructed with immense blocks of alabaster or red granite ([Note 9][)].

Some few scattered ruins in Nubia, the Fayûm, and Sinai, do not suffice to prove whether the temples of the Twelfth Dynasty merited the praises lavished on them in contemporary inscriptions or not. Those of the Theban kings, of the Ptolemies, and of the Caesars which are yet standing are in some cases nearly perfect, while almost all are easy of restoration to those who conscientiously study them upon the spot. At first sight, they seem to present an infinite variety as to arrangement; but on a closer view they are found to conform to a single type. We will begin with the sanctuary. This is a low, small, obscure, rectangular chamber, inaccessible to all save Pharaoh and the priests. As a rule it contained neither statue nor emblem, but only the sacred bark, or a tabernacle of painted wood placed upon a pedestal. A niche in the wall, or an isolated shrine formed of a single block of stone, received on certain days the statue, or inanimate symbol of the local god, or the living animal, or the image of the animal, sacred to that god. A temple must necessarily contain this one chamber; and if it contained but this one chamber, it would be no less a temple than the most complex buildings. Very rarely, however, especially in large towns, was the service of the gods thus limited to the strictly necessary. Around the sanctuary, or "divine house," was grouped a series of chambers in which sacrificial and ceremonial objects were stored, as flowers, perfumes, stuffs, and precious vessels. In advance of this block of buildings were next built one or more halls supported on columns; and in advance of these came a courtyard, where the priests and devotees assembled. This courtyard was surrounded by a colonnade to which the public had access, and was entered through a gateway flanked by two towers, in front of which were placed statues, or obelisks; the whole being surrounded by an enclosure wall of brickwork, and approached through an avenue of sphinxes. Every Pharaoh was free to erect a hall still more sumptuous in front of those which his predecessors had built; and what he did, others might do after him. Thus, successive series of chambers and courts, of pylons and porticoes, were added reign after reign to the original nucleus; and--vanity or piety prompting the work--the temple continued to increase in every direction, till space or means had failed.

The most simple temples were sometimes the most beautiful. This was the case as regards the sanctuaries erected by Amenhotep III. in the island of Elephantine, which were figured by the members of the French expedition at the end of the last century, and destroyed by the Turkish governor of Asûan in 1822. The best preserved, namely, the south temple (fig. 75), consisted of but a single chamber of sandstone, 14 feet high, 31 feet wide, and 39 feet long. The walls, which were straight, and crowned with the usual cornice, rested on a platform of masonry some 8 feet above the ground. This platform was surrounded by a parapet wall, breast high. All around the temple ran a colonnade, the sides each consisting of seven square pillars, without capital or base, and the two façades, front and back, being supported by two columns with the lotus-bud capital.

We cannot say as much for the temple which the Pharaohs of the Twentieth Dynasty erected to the south of Karnak, in honour of the god Khonsû (fig. 78); but if the style is not irreproachable, the plan is nevertheless so clear, that one is tempted to accept it as the type of an Egyptian temple, in preference to others more elegant or majestic. On analysis, it resolves itself into two parts separated by a thick wall (A, A). In the centre of the lesser division is the Holy of Holies (B), open at both ends and isolated from the rest of the building by a surrounding passage (C) 10 feet in width. To the right and left of this sanctuary are small dark chambers (D, D), and behind it is a hall of four columns (E), from which open seven other chambers (F, F). Such was the house of the god, having no communication with the adjoining parts, except by two doors (G) in the southern wall (A, A).

Thus designed, the building sufficed for all the needs of worship. If enlargement was needed, the sanctuary and surrounding chambers were generally left untouched, and only the ceremonial parts of the building, as the hypostyle halls, the courts, or pylons, were attacked.

The idea of the rock-cut temple must have occurred to the Egyptians at an early period.

Between the hemi-speos and the isolated temple, the Egyptians created yet another variety, namely, the built temple backed by, but not carried into, the cliff. The temple of the sphinx at Gizeh, and the temple of Seti I. at Abydos, may be cited as two good examples. I have already described the former; the area of the latter (fig. 93) was cleared in a narrow and shallow belt of sand, which here divides the plain from the desert. It was sunk up to the roof, the tops of the walls but just showing above the level of the ground. The staircase which led up to the terraced roof led also to the top of the hill. The front, which stood completely out, seemed in nowise extraordinary. It was approached by two pylons, two courts, and a shallow portico supported on square pillars. The unusual part of the building only began beyond this point. First, there were two hypostyle halls instead of one. These are separated by a wall with seven doorways. There is no nave, and the sanctuary opens direct from the second hall. This, as usual, consists of an oblong chamber with a door at each end; but the rooms by which it is usually surrounded are here placed side by side in a line, two to the right and four to the left; further, they are covered by "corbelled" vaults, and are lighted only from the doors. Behind the sanctuary are further novelties. Another hypostyle hall (K) abuts on the end wall, and its dependencies are unequally distributed to right and left. As if this were not enough, the architect also constructed, to the left of the main building, a court, five chambers of columns, various passages and dark chambers--in short, an entire wing branching off at right angles to the axis of the temple proper, with no counterbalancing structures on the other side. These irregularities become intelligible when the site is examined. The cliff is shallow at this part, and the smaller hypostyle hall is backed by only a thin partition of rock. If the usual plan had been followed, it would have been necessary to cut the cliff entirely away, and the structure would have forfeited its special characteristic--that of a temple backed by a cliff--as desired by the founder. The architect, therefore, distributed in width those portions of the edifice which he could not carry out in length; and he even threw out a wing. Some years later, when Rameses II. constructed a monument to his own memory, about a hundred yards to the northward of the older building, he was careful not to follow in his father's footsteps. Built on the top of an elevation, his temple had sufficient space for development, and the conventional plan was followed in all its strictness.

Most temples, even the smallest, should be surrounded by a square enclosure or temenos.[][20]] At Medinet Habu, this enclosure wall is of sandstone-- low, and embattled. The innovation is due to a whim of Rameses III., who, in giving to his monument the outward appearance of a fortress, sought to commemorate his Syrian victories. Elsewhere, the doorways are of stone, and the walls are built in irregular courses of crude bricks. The great enclosure wall was not, as frequently stated, intended to isolate the temple and screen the priestly ceremonies from eyes profane. It marked the limits of the divine dwelling, and served, when needful, to resist the attacks of enemies whose cupidity might be excited by the accumulated riches of the sanctuary. As at Karnak, avenues of sphinxes and series of pylons led up to the various gates, and formed triumphal approaches. The rest of the ground was in part occupied by stables, cellarage, granaries, and private houses. Just as in Europe during the Middle Ages the population crowded most densely round about the churches and abbeys, so in Egypt they swarmed around the temples, profiting by that security which the terror of his name and the solidity of his ramparts ensured to the local deity. A clear space was at first reserved round the pylons and the walls; but in course of time the houses encroached upon this ground, and were even built up against the boundary wall. Destroyed and rebuilt century after century upon the self-same spot, the débris of these surrounding dwellings so raised the level of the soil, that the temples ended for the most part by being gradually buried in a hollow formed by the artificial elevation of the surrounding city. Herodotus noticed this at Bubastis, and on examination it is seen to have been the same in many other localities. At Ombos, at Edfû, at Denderah, the whole city nestled inside the precincts of the divine dwelling.

[3].--DECORATION.

Ancient tradition affirmed that the earliest Egyptian temples contained neither sculptured images, inscriptions, nor symbols; and in point of fact, the Temple of the Sphinx is bare. But this is a unique example. The fragments of architraves and masonry bearing the name of Khafra, which were used for building material in the northern pyramid of Lisht, show that this primitive simplicity had already been abandoned by the time of the Fourth Dynasty. During the Theban period, all smooth surfaces, all pylons, wall-faces, and shafts of columns, were covered with figure-groups and inscriptions. Under the Ptolemies and the Caesars, figures and hieroglyphs became so crowded that the stone on which they are sculptured seems to be lost under the masses of ornament with which it is charged. We recognise at a glance that these scenes are not placed at random. They follow in sequence, are interlinked, and form as it were a great mystic book in which the official relations between gods and men, as well as between men and gods, are clearly set forth for such as are skilled to read them. The temple was built in the likeness of the world, as the world was known to the Egyptians. The earth, as they believed, was a flat and shallow plane, longer than its width. The sky, according to some, extended overhead like an immense iron ceiling, and according to others, like a huge shallow vault. As it could not remain suspended in space without some support, they imagined it to be held in place by four immense props or pillars. The floor of the temple naturally represented the earth. The columns, and if needful the four corners of the chambers, stood for the pillars. The roof, vaulted at Abydos, flat elsewhere, corresponded exactly with the Egyptian idea of the sky. Each of these parts was, therefore, decorated in consonance with its meaning. Those next to the ground were clothed with vegetation. The bases of the columns were surrounded by leaves, and the lower parts of the walls were adorned with long stems of lotus or papyrus (fig. 96), in the midst of which animals were occasionally depicted. Bouquets of water-plants emerging from the water (fig. 97), enlivened the bottom of the wall-space in certain chambers.

Figs. 96 to 101.--DECORATIVE DESIGNS, FROM DENDERAH.

Elsewhere, we find full-blown flowers interspersed with buds (fig. 98), or tied together with cords (fig. 99); or those emblematic plants which symbolise the union of Upper and Lower Egypt under the rule of a single Pharaoh (fig. 100); or birds with human hands and arms, perched in an attitude of adoration on the sign which represents a solemn festival; or kneeling prisoners tied to the stake in couples, each couple consisting of an Asiatic and a negro (fig. 101).

These scenes illustrate the official relations which subsisted between Egypt and the gods. The people had no right of direct intercourse with the deities. They needed a mediator, who, partaking of both human and divine nature, was qualified to communicate with both. The king alone, Son of the Sun, was of sufficiently high descent to contemplate the god in his temple, to serve him, and to speak with him face to face. Sacrifices could be offered only by him, or through him, and in his name. Even the customary offerings to the dead were supposed to pass through his hands, and the family availed themselves of his name in the formula sûten ta hotep to forward them to the other world. The king is seen, therefore, in all parts of the temple, standing, seated, kneeling, slaying the victim, presenting the parts, pouring out the wine, the milk, and the oil, and burning the incense. All humankind acts through him, and through him performs its duty towards the gods. When the ceremonies to be performed required the assistance of many persons, then alone did mortal subordinates (consisting, as much as possible, of his own family) appear by his side. The queen, standing behind him like Isis behind Osiris, uplifts her hand to protect him, shakes the sistrum, beats the tambourine to dispel evil spirits, or holds the libation vase or bouquet. The eldest son carries the net or lassoes the bull, and recites the prayer while his father successively presents to the god each object prescribed by the ritual. A priest may occasionally act as substitute for the prince, but other men perform only the most menial offices. They are slaughterers or servants, or they bear the boat or canopy of the god. The god, for his part, is not always alone. He has his wife and his son by his side; next after them the gods of the neighbouring homes, and, in a general way, all the gods of Egypt. From the moment that the temple is regarded as representing the world, it must, like the world, contain all gods, both great and small. They are most frequently ranged behind the principal god, seated or standing; and with him they share in the homage paid by the king. Sometimes, however, they take an active part in the ceremonies. The spirits of On and Khonû[][21]] kneel before the sun, and proclaim his praise. Hor, Set, or Thoth conducts Pharaoh into the presence of his father Amen Ra, or performs the functions elsewhere assigned to the prince or the priest. They help him to overthrow the victim or to snare birds for the sacrifice; and in order to wash away his impurities, they pour upon his head the waters of youth and life. The position and functions of these co-operating gods were strictly defined in the theology. The sun, travelling from east to west, divided the universe into two worlds, the world of the north and the world of the south. The temple, like the universe, was double, and an imaginary line passing through the axis of the sanctuary divided it into two temples --the temple of the south on the right hand, and the temple of the north on the left. The gods and their various manifestations were divided between these two temples, according as they belonged to the northern or southern hemisphere. This fiction of duality was carried yet further. Each chamber was divided, in imitation of the temple, into two halves, the right half belonging to the south, and the left half to the north. The royal homage, to be complete, must be rendered in the temples of the south and of the north, and to the gods of the south and of the north, and with the products of the south and of the north. Each sculptured tableau must, therefore, be repeated at least twice in each temple--on a right wall and on a left wall.

In Pharaonic times, the tableaux were not over-crowded. The wall-surface intended to be covered was marked off below by a line carried just above the ground level decoration, and was bounded above by the usual cornice, or by a frieze. This frieze might be composed of uraei, or of bunches of lotus; or of royal cartouches (fig. 106) supported on either side by divine symbols; or of emblems borrowed from the local cult (by heads of Hathor, for instance, in a temple dedicated to Hathor); or of a horizontal line of dedicatory inscription engraved in large and deeply-cut hieroglyphs. The wall space thus framed in contained sometimes a single scene and sometimes two scenes, one above the other. The wall must be very lofty, if this number is exceeded. Figures and inscriptions were widely spaced, and the scenes succeeded one another with scarcely a break. The spectator had to discover for himself where they began or ended. The head of the king was always studied from the life, and the faces of the gods reproduced the royal portrait as closely as possible. As Pharaoh was the son of the gods, the surest way to obtain portraits of the gods was to model their faces after the face of the king. The secondary figures were no less carefully wrought; but when these were very numerous, they were arranged on two or three levels, the total height of which never exceeded that of the principal personages. The offerings, the sceptres, the jewels, the vestments, the head-dresses, and all the accessories were treated with a genuine feeling for elegance and truth. The colours, moreover, were so combined as to produce in each tableau the effect of one general and prevailing tone; so that in many temples there were chambers which can be justly distinguished as the Blue Hall, the Red Hall, or the Golden Hall. So much for the classical period of decoration.

As we come down to later times, these tableaux are multiplied, and under the Greeks and Romans they become so numerous that the smallest wall contained not less than four (fig. 107), five, six, or even eight registers. The principal figures are, as it were, compressed, so as to occupy less room, and all the intermediate space is crowded with thousands of tiny hieroglyphs. The gods and kings are no longer portraits of the reigning sovereign, but mere conventional types without vigour or life.

Observing the variety of subjects treated on the walls of any one temple, one might at first be tempted to think that the decoration does not form a connected whole, and that, although many series of scenes must undoubtedly contain the development of an historic idea or a religious dogma, yet that others are merely strung together without any necessary link. At Luxor, and again at the Ramesseum, each face of the pylon is a battle- field on which may be studied, almost day for day, the campaign of Rameses II. against the Kheta, which took place in the fifth year of his reign. There we see the Egyptian camp attacked by night; the king's bodyguard surprised during the march; the defeat of the enemy; their flight; the garrison of Kadesh sallying forth to the relief of the vanquished; and the disasters which befell the prince of the Kheta and his generals. Elsewhere, it is not the war which is represented, but the human sacrifices which anciently celebrated the close of each campaign. The king is seen in the act of seizing his prostrate prisoners by the hair of their heads, and uplifting his mace as if about to shatter their heads at a single blow. At Karnak, along the whole length of the outer wall, Seti I. pursues the Bedawîn of Sinai. At Medinet Habû Rameses III. destroys the fleet of the peoples of the great sea, or receives the cut-off hands of the Libyans, which his soldiers bring to him as trophies. In the next scene, all is peace; and we behold Pharaoh pouring out a libation of perfumed water to his father Amen. It would seem as if no link could be established between these subjects, and yet the one is the necessary consequence of the others. If the god had not granted victory to the king, the king in his turn would not have performed these ceremonies in the temple. The sculptor has recorded the events in their order:--first the victory, then the sacrifice. The favour of the god precedes the thank-offering of the king. Thus, on closer examination, we find this multitude of episodes forming the several links of one continuous chain, while every scene, including such as seem at first sight to be wholly unexplained, represents one stage in the development of a single action which begins at the door, is carried through the various halls, and penetrates to the farthest recesses of the sanctuary. The king enters the temple. In the courts, he is everywhere confronted by reminiscences of his victories; and here the god comes forth to greet him, hidden in his shrine and surrounded by priests. The rites prescribed for these occasions are graven on the walls of the hypostyle hall in which they were performed. These being over, king and god together take their way to the sanctuary. At the door which leads from the public hall to the mysterious part of the temple, the escort halts. The king crosses the threshold alone, and is welcomed by the gods. He then performs in due order all the sacred ceremonies enjoined by usage. His merits increase by virtue of his prayers; his senses become exalted; he rises to the level of the divine type. Finally he enters the sanctuary, where the god reveals himself unwitnessed, and speaks to him face to face. The sculptures faithfully reproduce the order of this mystic presentation:--the welcoming reception on the part of the god; the acts and offerings of the king; the vestments which he puts on and off in succession; the various crowns which he places on his head. The prayers which he recites and the favours which are conferred upon him are also recorded upon the walls in order of time and place. The king, and the few who accompany him, have their backs towards the entrance and their faces towards the door of the sanctuary. The gods, on the contrary, or at least such as do not make part of the procession, face the entrance, and have their backs turned towards the sanctuary. If during the ceremony the royal memory failed, the king needed but to raise his eyes to the wall, whereon his duties were mapped out for him.

Nor was this all.

Obelisks were almost always square, with the faces slightly convex, and a slight slope from top to bottom.

The sanctuary and the surrounding chambers contained the objects used in the ceremonial of worship. The bases of altars varied in shape, some being square and massive, others polygonal or cylindrical.

[CHAPTER III.]

TOMBS.

The Egyptians regarded man as composed of various different entities, each having its separate life and functions. First, there was the body; then the Ka or double, which was a less solid duplicate of the corporeal form--a coloured but ethereal projection of the individual, reproducing him feature for feature. The double of a child was as a child; the double of a woman was as a woman; the double of a man was as a man. After the double (Ka) came the Soul (Bi or Ba), which was popularly represented as a human-headed bird; after the Soul came the "Khû," or "the Luminous," a spark from the divine fire. None of these elements were in their own natures imperishable. Left to themselves, they would hasten to dissolution, and the man would thus die a second time; that is to say, he would be annihilated. The piety of the survivors found means, however, to avert this catastrophe. By the process of embalmment, they could for ages suspend the decomposition of the body; while by means of prayer and offerings, they saved the Double, the Soul, and the "Luminous" from the second death, and secured to them all that was necessary for the prolongation of their existence. The Double never left the place where the mummy reposed: but the Soul and the "Khû" went forth to follow the gods. They, however, kept perpetually returning, like travellers who come home after an absence. The tomb was therefore a dwelling-house, the "Eternal House" of the dead, compared with which the houses of the living were but wayside inns; and these Eternal Houses were built after a plan which exactly corresponded to the Egyptian idea of the after-life. The Eternal House must always include the private rooms of the Soul, which were closed on the day of burial, and which no living being could enter without being guilty of sacrilege. It must also contain the reception rooms of the Double, where priests and friends brought their wishes or their offerings; the two being connected by a passage of more or less length. The arrangement of these three parts[][26]] varied according to the period, the place, the nature of the ground, and the caprice of each person. The rooms accessible to the living were frequently built above ground, and formed a separate edifice. Sometimes they were excavated in the mountain side, as well as the tomb itself. Sometimes, again, the vault where the mummy lay hidden, and the passages leading to that vault, were in one place, while the place of prayer and offering stood far off in the plain. But whatever variety there may be found as to detail and arrangement, the principle is always the same. The tomb is a dwelling, and it is constructed in such wise as may best promote the well-being, and ensure the preservation, of the dead.

[1].--Mastabas.

The most ancient monumental tombs are found in the necropolis of Memphis, between Abû Roash and Dahshûr, and in that of Medûm;[][27]] they belong to the mastaba type ([Note 12][)]. The mastaba (fig. 113) is a quadrangular building, which from a distance might be taken for a truncated pyramid. Many mastabas are from 30 to 40-feet in height, 150 feet in length, and 80 feet in width; while others do not exceed 10 feet in height or 15 feet in length.

The later kind is of mud mixed with straw, black, compact, carefully moulded, and of a fair size (15.0 X 7.1 X 5.5 inches). The style of the internal construction differs according to the material employed by the architect. In nine cases out of ten, the stone mastabas are but outwardly regular in construction. The core is of roughly quarried rubble, mixed with rubbish and limestone fragments hastily bedded in layers of mud, or piled up without any kind of mortar. The brick mastabas are nearly always of homogeneous construction. The facing bricks are carefully mortared, and the joints inside are filled up with sand. That the mastaba should be canonically oriented, the four faces set to the four cardinal points, and the longer axis laid from north and south, was indispensable; but, practically, the masons took no special care about finding the true north, and the orientation of these structures is seldom exact. At Gizeh, the mastabas are distributed according to a symmetrical plan, and ranged in regular streets. At Sakkarah, at Abûsîr, and at Dahshûr, they are scattered irregularly over the surface of the plateau, crowded in some places, and wide apart in others. The Mussulman cemetery at Siût perpetuates the like arrangement, and enables us to this day to realise the aspect of the Memphite necropolis towards the close of the ancient empire.

A flat, unpaved platform, formed by the top course of the core ( [Note 13][)], covers the top of the mass of the mastaba. This platform is scattered over with terracotta vases, nearly buried in the loose rubbish. These lie thickly over the hollow interior, but are more sparsely deposited elsewhere. The walls are bare. The doors face to the eastward side. They occasionally face towards the north or south side, but never towards the west. In theory, there should be two doors, one for the dead, the other for the living. In practice, the entrance for the dead was a mere niche, high and narrow, cut in the eastward face, near the north-east corner. At the back of this niche are marked vertical lines, framing in a closed space.

The chapel was usually small, and lost in the mass of the building (fig. 119), but no precise rule determined its size. In the tomb of Ti there is first a portico (A), then a square ante-chamber with pillars (B), then a passage (C) with a small room (D) on the right, leading to the last chamber (E) (fig. 120). There was room enough in this tomb for many persons, and, in point of fact, the wife of Ti reposed by the side of her husband.

The chapel was the reception room of the Double. It was there that the relations, friends, and priests celebrated the funerary sacrifices on the days prescribed by law; that is to say, "at the feasts of the commencement of the seasons; at the feast of Thoth on the first day of the year; at the feast of Ûaga; at the great feast of Sothis; on the day of the procession of the god Min; at the feast of shew-bread; at the feasts of the months and the half months, and the days of the week."

The general appearance of the recess is that of a somewhat narrow doorway. As a rule it was empty, but occasionally it contained a portrait statue of the dead standing with one foot forward as though about to cross the gloomy threshold of his tomb, descend the few steps before him, advance into his reception room or chapel, and pass out into the sunlight (fig. 126). As a matter of fact, the stela symbolised the door leading to the private apartments of the dead, a door closed and sealed to the living. It was inscribed on door-posts and lintels, and its inscription was no mere epitaph for the information of future generations; all the details which it gave as to the name, rank, functions, and family of the deceased were intended to secure the continuity of his individuality and civil status in the life beyond death. A further and essential object of its inscriptions was to provide him with food and drink by means of prayers or magic formulae constraining one of the gods of the dead--Osiris or Anubis--to act as intermediary between him and his survivors and to set apart for his use some portion of the provisions offered for his sake in sacrifice to one or other of these deities. By this agency the Kas or Doubles of these provisions were supposed to be sent on into the next world to gladden and satisfy the human Ka indicated to the divine intermediary. Offerings of real provisions were not indispensable to this end; any chance visitor in times to come who should simply repeat the formula of the stela aloud would thereby secure the immediate enjoyment of all the good things enumerated to the unknown dead whom he evoked.

The living having taken their departure, the Double was supposed to come out of his house and feed. In principle, this ceremony was bound to be renewed year by year, till the end of time; but the Egyptians ere long discovered that this could not be. After two or three generations, the dead of former days were neglected for the benefit of those more recently departed. Even when a pious foundation was established, with a revenue payable for the expenses of the funerary repasts and of the priests whose duty it was to prepare them, the evil hour of oblivion was put off for only a little longer. Sooner or later, there came a time when the Double was reduced to seek his food among the town refuse, and amid the ignoble and corrupt filth which lay rejected on the ground. Then, in order that the offerings consecrated on the day of burial might for ever preserve their virtues, the survivors conceived the idea of drawing and describing them on the walls of the chapel (fig. 127). The painted or sculptured reproduction of persons and things ensured the reality of those persons and things for the benefit of the one on whose account they were executed. Thus the Double saw himself depicted upon the walls in the act of eating and drinking, and he ate and drank. This notion once accepted, the theologians and artists carried it out to the fullest extent. Not content with offering mere pictured provisions, they added thereto the semblance of the domains which produced them, together with the counterfeit presentment of the herds, workmen, and slaves belonging to the same. Was a supply of meat required to last for eternity? It was enough, no doubt, to represent the several parts of an ox or a gazelle--the shoulder, the leg, the ribs, the breast, the heart, the liver, the head, properly prepared for the spit; but it was equally easy to retrace the whole history of the animal--its birth, its life in the pasture-lands, its slaughter, the cutting up of the carcass, and the presentation of the joints.

The details are of infinite variety. The inscriptions run to a less or greater length according to the caprice of the scribe; the false door loses its architectural character, and is frequently replaced by a mere stela engraved with the name and rank of the master; yet, whether large or small, whether richly decorated or not decorated at all, the chapel is always the dining-room--or, rather, the larder--to which the dead man has access when he feels hungry.

On the other side of the wall was constructed a hiding-place in the form of either a high and narrow cell, or a passage without outlet. To this hiding-place archaeologists have given the Arab name of "serdab." Most mastabas contain but one; others contain three or four (fig. 130). These serdabs communicated neither with each other nor with the chapel; and are, as it were, buried in the masonry (fig. 131). If connected at all with the outer world, it is by means of an aperture in the wall about as high up as a man's head (fig. 132), and so small that the hand can with difficulty pass through it.

Up to the time of the Sixth Dynasty, the walls of the vault are left bare. Once only did Mariette find a vault containing half-effaced inscriptions from The Book of the Dead. In 1881, I however discovered some tombs at Sakkarah, in which the vault is decorated in preference to the chapel. These tombs are built with large bricks, a niche and a stela sufficing for the reception of sacrificial offerings. In place of the shaft, they contain a small rectangular court, in the western corner of which was placed the sarcophagus.

[2].--THE PYRAMIDS.

[For the following translation of this section of Professor Maspero's book I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. W. M. Flinders Petrie, whose work on The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh, published with the assistance of a grant from the Royal Society in 1883, constitutes our standard authority on the construction of these Pyramids.--A.B.E.]

The royal tombs have the form of pyramids with a square base, and are the equivalent in stone or brick of the tumulus of heaped earth which was piled over the body of the warrior chief in prehistoric times ([Note 14][)]. The same ideas prevailed as to the souls of kings as about those of private men; the plan of the pyramid consists, therefore, of three parts, like the mastaba,--the chapel, the passage, and the sepulchral vault.

The chapel is always separate. At Sakkarah no trace of it has been found; it was probably, as later on at Thebes, in a quarter nearer to the town. At Medûm, Gizeh, Abûsîr, and Dahshûr, these temples stood at the east or north fronts of the pyramids. They were true temples, with chambers, courts, and passages. The fragments of bas-reliefs hitherto found show scenes of sacrifice, and prove that the decoration was the same as in the public halls of the mastabas. The pyramid, properly speaking, contained only the passages and sepulchral vault. The oldest of which the texts show the existence, north of Abydos, is that of Sneferû; the latest belong to the princes of the Twelfth Dynasty. The construction of these monuments was, therefore, a continuous work, lasting for thirteen or fourteen centuries, under government direction. Granite, alabaster, and basalt for the sarcophagus and some details were the only materials of which the use and the quantity was not regulated in advance, and which had to be brought from a distance. To obtain them, each king sent one of the great men of his court on a mission to the quarries of Upper Egypt; and the quickness with which the blocks were brought back was a strong claim upon the sovereign's favour. The other material was not so costly. If mainly brick, the bricks were moulded on the spot with earth taken from the foot of the hill. If of stone, the nearest parts of the plateau provided the common marly limestone in abundance ([Note 15][)]. The fine limestone of Tûrah was usually reserved for the chambers and the casing, and this might be had without even sending specially for it to the opposite side of the Nile; for at Memphis there were stores always full, upon which they continually drew for public buildings, and, therefore, also for the royal tombs. The blocks being taken from these stores, and borne by boats to close below the hill, were raised to their required places along gently sloping causeways. The internal arrangement of the pyramids, the lengths of the passages and their heights, were very variable; the pyramid of Khûfû (Cheops) rose to 475 feet above the ground, the smallest was not 30 feet high. The difficulty of imagining now what motives determined the Pharaohs to choose such different proportions has led some to think that the mass built was in direct proportion to the time occupied in building; that is to say, to the length of each reign. Thus it was supposed that the king would begin by hastily erecting a pyramid large enough to contain the essential parts of a tomb; and then, year by year, would add fresh layers around the first core, until the time when his death for ever arrested the growth of the monument. But the facts do not justify this hypothesis. The smallest of the pyramids of Sakkarah is that of Ûnas, who reigned thirty years; while the two imposing pyramids of Gizeh were raised by Khûfû and Khafra (Chephren), who governed Egypt, the one for twenty-four, and the other for twenty-three years. Merenra, who died very young, had a pyramid as large as that of Pepi II., whose reign lasted more than ninety years ([Note 16][)]. The plan of each pyramid was laid down, once for all, by the architect, according to the instructions which he had received, and the resources placed at his disposal. He then followed it out to the end of the work, without increasing or reducing the scale ([Note 17][)].

The pyramids were supposed to have their four faces to the four cardinal points, like the mastabas; but, either from bad management or neglect, the greater part are not oriented exactly, and many vary distinctly from the true north ([Note 18][)]. Without speaking of the ruins of Abû Roash or Zowyet el Aryan, which have not been studied closely enough, they naturally form six groups, distributed from north to south on the border of the Libyan plateau, from Gizeh to the Fayûm, by Abûsîr, Sakkarah, Dahshûr, and Lisht. The Gizeh group contains nine, including those of Khûfû, Khafra, and Menkara, which were anciently reckoned among the wonders of the world. The ground on which the pyramid of Khûfû stands was very irregular at the time of construction. A small rocky height which rose above the surface was roughly cut (fig. 136) and enclosed in the masonry, the rest being smoothed and covered with large slabs, some of which still remain ([Note 19][)]. The pyramid itself was 481 feet high and 755 feet wide, dimensions which the injuries of time have reduced to 454 feet and 750 feet respectively. It preserved, until the Arab conquest, a casing of stones of different colours ([Note 20][)], so skilfully joined as to appear like one block from base to summit. The casing work was begun from the top, and the cap placed on first, the steps being covered one after the other, until they reached the bottom ([Note 21][)]. In the inside all was arranged so as to hide the exact place of the sarcophagus, and to baffle any spoilers whom chance or perseverance had led aright. The first point was to discover the entrance under the casing, which masked it. It was nearly in the middle of the north face (fig. 136), but at the level of the eighteenth course, at about forty- five feet from the ground. When the block which closed it was displaced, an inclined passage, 41.2 inches wide and 47.6 inches high, was revealed, the lower part of which was cut in the rock. This descended for 317 feet, passed through an unfinished chamber, and ended sixty feet farther in a blind passage. This would be a first disappointment to the spoilers. If, however, they were not discouraged, but examined the passage with care, they would find in the roof, sixty-two feet distant from the door, a block of granite ([Note 22][)] among the surrounding limestone.

The pyramids of Khafra and Menkara were built on a different plan inside to that of Khûfû. Khafra's had two entrances, both to the north, one from the platform before the pyramid, the other fifty feet above the ground. Menkara's still preserves the remains of its casing of red granite ([Note 31][)]. The entrance passage descends at an angle of twenty-six degrees, and soon runs into the rock.

The same variety of arrangement prevails in the groups of Abûsîr, and in one part of the Sakkarah group. The great pyramid of Sakkarah is not oriented with exactness. The north face is turned 4° 21' E. of the true north. It is not a perfect square, but is elongated from east to west, the sides being 395 and 351 feet. It is 196 feet high, and is formed of six great steps with inclined faces, each retreating about seven feet; the step nearest the ground is thirty-seven and a half feet high, and the top one is twenty-nine feet high (fig. 137).

The pyramids of Gizeh belonged to the Pharaohs of the Fourth Dynasty, and those of Abûsir to the Pharaohs of the Fifth. The five pyramids of Sakkarah, of which the plan is uniform, belonged to Ûnas and to the first four kings of the Sixth Dynasty, Teti, Pepi I., Merenra, and Pepi II., and are contemporary with the mastabas with painted vaults which I have mentioned above (p. 129). It is, therefore, no matter of surprise to find them inscribed and decorated. The ceilings are covered with stars, to represent the night-sky. The rest of the decoration is very simple. In the pyramid of Ûnas, which is the most ornamented, the decoration occupies only the end wall of the sepulchral chamber; the part against the sarcophagus was lined with alabaster, and engraved to represent great monumental doors, through which the deceased was supposed to enter his storerooms of provisions. The figures of men and of animals, the scenes of daily life, the details of the sacrifice, are not here represented, and, moreover, would not be in keeping; they belong to those places where the Double lived his public life, and where visitors actually performed the rites of offering; the passages and the vault in which the soul alone was free to wander needed no ornamentation except that which related to the life of the soul. The texts are of two kinds. One kind--of which there are the fewest--refer to the nourishment of the Double, and are literal transcriptions of the formulae by which the priests ensured the transmission of each object to the other world; this was a last resource for him, in case the real sacrifices should be discontinued, or the magic scenes upon the chapel walls be destroyed. The greater part of the inscriptions were of a different kind. They referred to the soul, and were intended to preserve it from the dangers which awaited it, in heaven and on earth. They revealed to it the sovereign incantations which protected it against the bites of serpents and venomous animals, the passwords which enabled it to enter into the company of the good gods, and the exorcisms which counteracted the influence of the evil gods. The destiny of the Double was to continue to lead the shadow of its terrestrial life, and fulfil it in the chapel; the destiny of the Soul was to follow the sun across the sky, and it, therefore, needed the instructions which it read on the walls of the vault. It was by their virtue that the absorption of the dead into Osiris became complete, and that they enjoyed hereafter all the immunity of the divine state. Above, in the chapel, they were men, and acted as men; here they were gods, and acted as gods.

The enormous rectangular mass which the Arabs call Mastabat el Faraûn, "the seat of Pharaoh" (fig. 141), stands beside the pyramid of Pepi II. Some have thought it to be an unfinished pyramid, some a tomb surmounted by an obelisk; in reality it is a pyramid which was left unfinished by its builder, King Ati of the Sixth Dynasty. Recent excavations have, on the other hand, shown that the brick pyramids of Dahshûr probably belonged to the Twelfth Dynasty. The stone pyramids of that group, which may be older, furnish a curious variation from the usual type. One of these stone pyramids has the lower half inclined at 54° 41', while the upper part changes sharply to 42° 59'; it might be called a mastaba ([Note 35][)] crowned by a gigantic attic. At Lisht, where the two pyramids now standing are of the same period (one of them was erected by Ûsertesen I.), the structure is again changed. The sloping passage ends in a vertical shaft, at the bottom of which open chambers now filled by the infiltration of the Nile. The pyramids of Illahûn and Hawara, which contained the remains of Ûsertesen II. and Amenemhat III., are of the same type as those at Lisht.

The custom of building pyramids did not end with the Twelfth Dynasty; there are later pyramids at Manfalût, at Hekalli to the south of Abydos, and at Mohammeriyeh to the south of Esneh. Until the Roman period, the semi-barbarous sovereigns of Ethiopia held it as a point of honour to give the pyramidal form to their tombs. The oldest, those of Nûrri, where the Pharaohs of Napata sleep, recall by their style the pyramids of Sakkarah; the latest, those of Meroë, present fresh characteristics. They are higher than they are wide, are built of small blocks, and are sometimes decorated at the angles with rounded borderings. The east face has a false window, surmounted by a cornice, and is flanked by a chapel, which is preceded by a pylon. These pyramids are not all dumb. As in ordinary tombs, the walls contain scenes borrowed from the "Ritual of Burial," or showing the vicissitudes of the life beyond the grave.

[3].--THE TOMBS OF THE THEBAN EMPIRE.

Excavated Tombs.

Two subsequent systems replaced the mastaba throughout Egypt. The first preserved the chapel constructed above ground, and combined the pyramid with the mastaba;

The necropolis quarter of Abydos, in which were interred the earlier generations of the Theban Empire, furnishes the most ancient examples of the first system. The tombs are built of large, black, unbaked bricks, made without any mixture of straw or grit. The lower part is a mastaba with a square or oblong rectangular base, the greatest length of the latter being sometimes forty or fifty feet. The walls are perpendicular, and are seldom high enough for a man to stand upright inside the tomb. On this kind of pedestal was erected a pointed pyramid of from 12 to 30 feet in height, covered externally with a smooth coat of clay painted white. The defective nature of the rock below forbade the excavation of the sepulchral chamber; there was no resource, therefore, except to hide it in the brickwork. An oven- shaped chamber with "corbel" vault was constructed in the centre (fig. 144); but more frequently the sepulchral chamber is found to be half above ground in the mastaba and half sunk in the foundations, the vaulted space above being left only to relieve the weight (fig. 145).

The earliest examples of the second kind are those found at Gizeh among the mastabas of the Fourth Dynasty, and these are neither large nor much ornamented. They begin to be carefully wrought about the time of the Sixth Dynasty, and in certain distant places, as at Bersheh, Sheîkh Saîd, Kasr es Saîd, Asûan, and Negadeh.

In these rock-cut tombs we find all the various parts of the mastaba. The designer selected a prominent vein of limestone, high enough in the cliff side to risk nothing from the gradual rising of the soil, and yet low enough for the funeral procession to reach it without difficulty. The feudal lords of Minieh slept at Beni Hasan; those of Khmûnû at Bersheh; those of Siût and Elephantine at Siût and in the cliff opposite Asûan (fig. 150). Sometimes, as at Siût, Bersheh, and Thebes, the tombs are excavated at various levels; sometimes, as at Beni Hasan, they follow the line of the stratum, and are ranged in nearly horizontal terraces.[][31]] A flight of steps, rudely constructed in rough-hewn stones, leads up from the plain to the entrance of the tomb. At Beni Hasan and Thebes, these steps are either destroyed or buried in sand; but recent excavations have brought to light a well- preserved example leading up to a tomb at Asûan.[][32]]

The funeral procession, having slowly scaled the cliff-side, halted for a moment at the entrance to the chapel. The plan was not necessarily uniform throughout any one group of tombs. Several of the Beni Hasan tombs have porticoes, the pillars, bases, and entablatures being all cut in the rock; those of Ameni and Khnûmhotep have porticoes supported on two polygonal columns (fig. 151). At Asûan (fig. 152), the doorway forms a high and narrow recess cut in the rock wall, but is divided, at about one- third of its height, by a rectangular lintel, thus making a smaller doorway in the doorway itself. At Siût, the tomb of Hapizefa was entered by a true porch about twenty-four feet in height, with a "vaulted" roof elegantly sculptured and painted.

To form a serdab in the solid rock was almost impossible; while on the other hand, movable statues, if left in a room accessible to all comers, would be exposed to theft or mutilation.

When space permitted, the vault was excavated immediately below the chapel. The shaft was sometimes sunk in a corner of one of the chambers, and sometimes outside, in front of the door of the tomb. In the great cemeteries, as for instance at Thebes and Memphis, the superposition of these three parts--the chapel, the shaft, and the vault--was not always possible. If the shaft were carried to its accustomed depth, there was sometimes the risk of breaking into tombs excavated at a lower level. This danger was met either by driving a long passage into the rock, and then sinking the shaft at the farther end, or by substituting a slightly sloping or horizontal disposition of the parts for the old vertical arrangement of the mastaba model. The passage in this case opens from the centre of the end wall, its average length being from 20 to 130 feet. The sepulchral vault is always small and plain, as well as the passage. Under the Theban dynasties, as under the Memphite kings, the Soul dispensed with decorations; but whenever the walls of the vault are decorated, the figures and inscriptions are found to relate chiefly to the life of the Soul, and very slightly to the life of the Double. In the tomb of Horhotep, which is of the time of the Ûsertesens, and in similar rock-cut sepulchres, the walls (except on the side of the door) are divided into two registers. The upper row belongs to the Double, and contains, besides the table of offerings, pictured representations of the same objects which are seen in certain mastabas of the Sixth Dynasty; namely, stuffs, jewels, arms, and perfumes, all needful to Horhotep for the purpose of imparting eternal youth to his limbs. The lower register belonged to both the Soul and the Double, and is inscribed with extracts from a variety of liturgical writings, such as The Book of the Dead, the Ritual of Embalmment, and the Funeral Ritual, all of which were possessed of magic properties which protected the Soul and supported the Double. The stone sarcophagus, and even the coffin, are also covered with closely-written inscriptions. Precisely as the stela epitomised the whole chapel, so did the sarcophagus and coffin epitomise the sepulchral chamber, thus forming, as it were, a vault within a vault. Texts, tableaux, all thereon depicted, treat of the life of the Soul, and of its salvation in the world to come.

At Thebes, as at Memphis, the royal tombs are those which it is most necessary to study, in order to estimate the high degree of perfection to which the decoration of passages and sepulchral chambers was now carried. The most ancient were situated either in the plain or on the southern slopes of the western mountain; and of these, no remains are extant. The mummies of Amenhotep I., and Thothmes III., of Sekenenra, and Aahhotep have survived the dwellings of solid stone designed for their protection. Towards the middle of the Eighteenth Dynasty, however, all the best places were taken up, and some unoccupied site in which to establish a new royal cemetery had to be sought. At first they went to a considerable distance, namely, to the end of the valley (known as the Western Valley), which opens from near Drah Abû'l Neggeh. Amenhotep III., Aï, and perhaps others, were there buried. Somewhat later, they preferred to draw nearer to the city of the living. Behind the cliff which forms the northern boundary of the plain of Thebes, there lay a kind of rocky hollow closed in on every side, and accessible from the outer world by only a few perilous paths. It divides into two branches, which cross almost at right angles. One branch turns to the south-east, while the other, which again divides into secondary branches, turns to the south-west. Westward rises a mountain which recalls upon a gigantic scale the outline of the great step-pyramid of Sakkarah (fig. 137). The Egyptian engineers of the time observed that this hollow was separated from the ravine of Amenhotep III. by a mere barrier some 500 cubits in thickness. In this there was nothing to dismay such practised miners. They therefore cut a trench some fifty or sixty cubits deep through the solid rock, at the end of which a narrow passage opens like a gateway into the hidden valley beyond. Was it in the time of Horemheb, or during the reign of Rameses I., that this gigantic work was accomplished? Rameses I. is, at all events, the earliest king whose tomb has as yet been found in this spot. His son, Seti I., then his grandson, Rameses II., came hither to rest beside him. The Ramesside Pharaohs followed one after the other. Herhor may perhaps have been the last of the series. These crowded catacombs caused the place to be called "The Valley of the Tombs of the Kings,"--a name which it retains to this day.

These tombs are not complete. Each had its chapel; but those chapels stood far away in the plain, at Gûrneh, at the Ramesseum, at Medinet Habû; and they have already been described. The Theban rock, like the Memphite pyramid, contained only the passages and the sepulchral chamber. During the daytime, the pure Soul was in no serious danger; but in the evening, when the eternal waters which flow along the vaulted heavens fall in vast cascades adown the west and are engulfed in the bowels of the earth, the Soul follows the bark of the Sun and its escort of luminary gods into a lower world bristling with ambuscades and perils. For twelve hours, the divine squadron defiles through long and gloomy corridors, where numerous genii, some hostile, some friendly, now struggle to bar the way, and now aid it in surmounting the difficulties of the journey. Great doors, each guarded by a gigantic serpent, were stationed at intervals, and led to an immense hall full of flame and fire, peopled by hideous monsters and executioners whose office it was to torture the damned. Then came more dark and narrow passages, more blind gropings in the gloom, more strife with malevolent genii, and again the joyful welcoming of the propitious gods. At midnight began the upward journey towards the eastern regions of the world; and in the morning, having reached the confines of the Land of Darkness, the sun emerged from the east to light another day. The tombs of the kings were constructed upon the model of the world of night. They had their passages, their doors, their vaulted halls, which plunged down into the depths of the mountain. Their positions in the valley were determined by no consideration of dynasty or succession.

Each king attacked the rock at any point where he might hope to find a suitable bed of stone; and this was done with so little regard for his predecessors, that the workmen were sometimes obliged to change the direction of the excavation in order not to invade a neighbouring catacomb.

The most complete type of this class of catacomb is that left to us by Seti I.; figures and hieroglyphs alike are models of pure design and elegant execution. The tomb of Rameses III. already points to decadence. It is for the most part roughly painted. Yellow is freely laid on, and the raw tones of the reds and blues are suggestive of the early daubs of our childhood. Mediocrity ere long reigned supreme, the outlines becoming more feeble, the colour more and more glaring, till the latest tombs are but caricatures of those of Seti I. and Rameses III. The decoration is always the same, and is based on the same principles as the decoration of the pyramids. At Thebes as at Memphis, the intention was to secure to the Double the free enjoyment of his new abode, and to usher the Soul into the company of the gods of the solar cycle and the Osirian cycle, as well as to guide it through the labyrinth of the infernal regions. But the Theban priests exercised their ingenuity to bring before the eyes of the deceased all that which the Memphites consigned to his memory by means of writing, thus enabling him to see what he had formerly been obliged to read upon the walls of his tomb. Where the texts of the pyramid of Ûnas relate how Ûnas, being identified with the sun, navigates the celestial waters or enters the Fields of Aalû, the pictured walls of the tomb of Seti I. show Seti sailing in the solar bark, while a side chamber in the tomb of Rameses III. shows Rameses III. in the Fields of Aalû (fig. 159).

As every part of the tomb had its special decoration, so also it had its special furniture. Of the chapel furniture few traces have been preserved. The table of offerings, which was of stone, is generally all that remains. The objects placed in the serdab, in the passages, and in the sepulchral chamber, have suffered less from the ravages of time and the hand of man. During the Ancient Empire, the funerary portrait statues were always immured in the serdab. The sepulchral vault contained, besides the sarcophagus, head-rests of limestone or alabaster; geese carved in stone; sometimes (though rarely) a scribe's palette; generally some terra-cotta vases of various shapes: and lastly a store of food-cereals, and the bones of the victims sacrificed on the day of burial. Under the Theban Dynasties, the household goods of the dead were richer and more numerous. The Ka statues of his servants and family, which in former times were placed in the serdab with those of the master, were now consigned to the vault, and made on a smaller scale. On the other hand, many objects which used to be merely depicted on the walls were now represented by models, or by actual specimens. Thus we find miniature funeral boats, with crew, mummy, mourners, and friends complete; imitation bread-offerings of baked clay, erroneously called "funerary cones," stamped with the name of the deceased; bunches of grapes in glazed ware; and limestone moulds wherewith the deceased was supposed to make pottery models of oxen, birds, and fish, which should answer the purpose of fish, flesh, and fowl. Toilet and kitchen utensils, arms, and instruments of music abound. These are mostly broken--piously slain, in order that their souls should go hence to wait upon the soul of the dead man in the next world. Little statuettes in stone, wood, and enamel--blue, green, and white--are placed by hundreds, and even by thousands, with these piles of furniture, arms, and provisions. Properly speaking, they are reduced serdab-statues, destined, like their larger predecessors, to serve as bodies for the Double, and (by a later conception) for the Soul. They were at first represented clothed like the individual whose name they bore. As time went on, their importance dwindled, and their duties were limited to merely answering for their master when called by Thoth to the corvée, and acting as his substitutes when he was summoned by the gods to work in the Fields of Aalû. Thenceforth they were called "Respondents" (Ûshabtiû), and were represented with agricultural implements in their hands. No longer clothed as the man was clothed when living, they were made in the semblance of a mummified corpse, with only the face and hands unbandaged. The so-called "canopic vases," with lids fashioned like heads of hawks, cynocephali, jackals, and men, were reserved from the time of the Eleventh Dynasty for the viscera, which were extracted from the body by the embalmers. As for the mummy, it continued, as time went on, to be more and more enwrapped in cartonnage, and more liberally provided with papyri and amulets; each amulet forming an essential part of its magic armour, and serving to protect its limbs and soul from destruction.

Theoretically, every Egyptian was entitled to an eternal dwelling constructed after the plan which I have here described with its successive modifications; but the poorer folk were fain to do without those things which were the necessities of the wealthier dead. They were buried wherever it was cheapest--in old tombs which had been ransacked and abandoned; in the natural clefts of the rock; or in common pits. At Thebes, in the time of the Ramessides, great trenches dug in the sand awaited their remains. The funeral rites once performed, the grave-diggers cast a thin covering of sand over the day's mummies, sometimes in lots of two or three, and sometimes in piles which they did not even take the trouble to lay in regular layers. Some were protected only by their bandages; others were wrapped about with palm-branches, lashed in the fashion of a game-basket. Those most cared for lie in boxes of rough-hewn wood, neither painted nor inscribed. Many are huddled into old coffins which have not even been altered to suit the size of the new occupant, or into a composite contrivance made of the fragments of three or four broken mummy-cases. As to funerary furniture, it was out of the question for such poor souls as these. A pair of sandals of painted cardboard or plaited reeds; a staff for walking along the heavenly highways; a ring of enamelled ware; a bracelet or necklace of little blue beads; a tiny image of Ptah, of Osiris, of Anubis, of Hathor, or of Bast; a few mystic eyes or scarabs; and, above all, a twist or two of cord round the arm, the neck, the leg, or the body, intended to preserve the corpse from magical influences,--are the only possessions of the pauper dead.

[CHAPTER IV.]

PAINTING AND SCULPTURE.

The statues and bas-reliefs which decorated the temples and tombs of Ancient Egypt were for the most part painted. Coloured stones, such as granite, basalt, diorite, serpentine, and alabaster, sometimes escaped this law of polychrome; but in the case of sandstone, limestone, or wood it was rigorously enforced. If sometimes we meet with uncoloured monuments in these materials, we may be sure that the paint has been accidentally rubbed off, or that the work is unfinished. The sculptor and the painter were therefore inseparably allied. The first had no sooner finished his share of the task than the other took it up; and the same artist was often as skilful a master of the brush as of the chisel.

[1].--DRAWING AND COMPOSITION.

Of the system upon which drawing was taught by the Egyptian masters, we know nothing. They had learned from experience to determine the general proportions of the body, and the invariable relations of the various parts one with another; but they never troubled themselves to tabulate those proportions, or to reduce them to a system. Nothing in what remains to us of their works justifies the belief that they ever possessed a canon based upon the length of the human finger or foot. Theirs was a teaching of routine, and not of theory. Models executed by the master were copied over and over again by his pupils, till they could reproduce them with absolute exactness. That they also studied from the life is shown by the facility with which they seized a likeness, or rendered the characteristics and movements of different kinds of animals. They made their first attempts upon slabs of limestone, on drawing boards covered with a coat of red or white stucco, or on the backs of old manuscripts of no value.

The few designs which have come down to us are drawn on pieces of limestone, and are for the most part in sufficiently bad preservation. The British Museum possesses two or three subjects in red outline, which may perhaps have been used as copies by the decorators of some Theban tomb about the time of the Twentieth Dynasty. A fragment in the Museum of Gizeh contains studies of ducks or geese in black ink; and at Turin may be seen a sketch of a half-nude female figure bending backwards, as about to turn a somersault. The lines are flowing, the movement is graceful, the modelling delicate. The draughtsman was not hampered then as now, by the rigidity of the instrument between his fingers. The reed brush attacked the surface perpendicularly; broadened, diminished, or prolonged the line at will; and stopped or turned with the utmost readiness. So supple a medium was admirably adapted to the rapid rendering of the humorous or ludicrous episodes of daily life. The Egyptians, naturally laughter-loving and satirical, were caricaturists from an early period. One of the Turin papyri chronicles the courtship of a shaven priest and a songstress of Amen in a series of spirited vignettes; while on the back of the same sheet are sketched various serio-comic scenes, in which animals parody the pursuits of civilised man. An ass, a lion, a crocodile, and an ape are represented in the act of giving a vocal and instrumental concert; a lion and a gazelle play at draughts; the Pharaoh of all the rats, in a chariot drawn by dogs, gallops to the assault of a fortress garrisoned by cats; a cat of fashion, with a flower on her head, has come to blows with a goose, and the hapless fowl, powerless in so unequal a contest, topples over with terror. Cats, by the way, were the favourite animals of Egyptian caricaturists. An ostrakon in the New York Museum depicts a cat of rank en grande toilette, seated in an easy chair, and a miserable Tom, with piteous mien and tail between his legs, serving her with refreshments (fig. 161). Our catalogue of comic sketches is brief; but the abundance of pen-drawings with which certain religious works were illustrated compensates for our poverty in secular subjects.

Their conventional system differed materially from our own. Man or beast, the subject was never anything but a profile relieved against a flat background. Their object, therefore, was to select forms which presented a characteristic outline capable of being reproduced in pure line upon a plane surface. As regarded animal life, the problem was in no wise complicated. The profile of the back and body, the head and neck, carried in undulating lines parallel with the ground, were outlined at one sweep of the pencil. The legs also are well detached from the body. The animals themselves are lifelike, each with the gait and action and flexion of the limbs peculiar to its species. The slow and measured tread of the ox; the short step, the meditative ear, the ironical mouth of the ass; the abrupt little trot of the goat, the spring of the hunting greyhound, are all rendered with invariable success of outline and expression. Turning from domestic animals to wild beasts, the perfection of treatment is the same. The calm strength of the lion in repose, the stealthy and sleepy tread of the leopard, the grimace of the ape, the slender grace of the gazelle and the antelope, have never been better expressed than in Egypt. But it was not so easy to project man--the whole man--upon a plane surface without some departure from nature. A man cannot be satisfactorily reproduced by means of mere lines, and a profile outline necessarily excludes too much of his person. The form of the forehead and the nose, the curvature of the lips, the cut of the ear, disappear when the head is drawn full face; but, on the other hand, it is necessary that the bust should be presented full face, in order to give the full development of the shoulders, and that the two arms may be visible to right and left of the body. The contours of the trunk are best modelled in a three-quarters view, whereas the legs show to most advantage when seen sidewise. The Egyptians did not hesitate to combine these contradictory points of view in one single figure. The head is almost always given in profile, but is provided with a full-face eye and placed upon a full-face bust. The full-face bust adorns a trunk seen from a three- quarters point of view, and this trunk is supported upon legs depicted in profile. Very seldom do we meet with figures treated according to our own rules of perspective. Most of the minor personages represented in the tomb of Khnûmhotep seem, however, to have made an effort to emancipate themselves from the law of malformation. Their bodies are given in profile, as well as their heads and legs; but they thrust forward first one shoulder and then the other, in order to show both arms (fig. 164), and the effect is not happy. Yet, if we examine the treatment of the farm servant who is cramming a goose, and, above all, the figure of the standing man who throws his weight upon the neck of a gazelle to make it kneel down (fig. 165), we shall see that the action of the arms and hips is correctly rendered, that the form of the back is quite right, and that the prominence of the chest--thrown forward in proportion as the shoulders and arms are thrown back--is drawn without any exaggeration.

We admit, then, that the Egyptians could draw. Were they, as it has been ofttimes asserted, ignorant of the art of composition? We will take a scene at hazard from a Theban tomb--that scene which represents the funerary repast offered to Prince Horemheb by the members of his family (fig. 167).

Again, when a number of persons engaged in the simultaneous performance of any given act were represented on the same level, they were isolated as much as possible, so that each man's profile might not cover that of his neighbour. When this was not done, they were arranged to overlap each other, and this, despite the fact that all stood on the one level; so that they have actually but two dimensions and no thickness. A herdsman walking in the midst of his oxen plants his feet upon precisely the same ground- line as the beast which interposes between his body and the spectator. The most distant soldier of a company which advances in good marching order to the sound of the trumpet, has his head and feet on exactly the same level; as the head and feet of the foremost among his comrades (fig. 169).

It was not only in their treatment of men and animals that the Egyptians allowed themselves this latitude. Houses, trees, land and water, were as freely misrepresented.

When employed upon a very large scale, their methods of composition shock the eye less than when applied to small subjects. We instinctively feel that even the ablest artist must sometimes have played fast and loose with the laws of perspective, if tasked to cover the enormous surfaces of Egyptian pylons. Hence the unities of the subject are never strictly observed in these enormous bas-reliefs. The main object being to perpetuate the memory of a victorious Pharaoh, that Pharaoh necessarily plays the leading part; but instead of selecting from among his striking deeds some one leading episode pre-eminently calculated to illustrate his greatness, the Egyptian artist delighted to present the successive incidents of his campaigns at a single coup d'oeil.

[2].--TECHNICAL PROCESSES.

The preparation of the surface about to be decorated demanded much time and care. Seeing how imperfect were the methods of construction, and how impossible it was for the architect to ensure a perfectly level surface for the facing stones of his temple-walls and pylons, the decorator had perforce to accommodate himself to a surface slightly rounded in some places and slightly hollowed in others. Even the blocks of which it was formed were scarcely homogeneous in texture. The limestone strata in which the Theban catacombs were excavated were almost always interspersed with flint nodules, fossils, and petrified shells. These faults were variously remedied according as the decoration was to be sculptured or painted. If painted, the wall was first roughly levelled, and then overlaid with a coat of black clay and chopped straw, similar to the mixture used for brick- making. If sculptured, then the artist had to arrange his subject so as to avoid the inequalities of the stone as much as possible. When these occurred in the midst of the figure subjects, and if they did not offer too stubborn a resistance to the chisel, they were simply worked over; otherwise the piece was cut out and a new piece fitted in, or the hole was filled up with white cement. This mending process was no trifling matter. We could point to tomb-chambers where every wall is thus inlaid to the extent of one quarter of its surface. The preliminary work being done, the whole was covered with a thin coat of fine plaster mixed with white of egg, which hid the mud-wash or the piecing, and prepared a level and polished surface for the pencil of the artist. In chambers, or parts of chambers, which have been left unfinished, and even in the quarries, we constantly find sketches of intended bas-reliefs, outlined in red or black ink. The copy was generally executed upon a small scale, then squared off, and transferred to the wall by the pupils and assistants of the master.

The sculptors of ancient Egypt were not so well equipped as those of our own day. A kneeling scribe in limestone at the Gizeh Museum has been carved with the chisel, the grooves left by the tool being visible on his skin. A statue in grey serpentine, in the same collection, bears traces of the use of two different tools, the body being spotted all over with point-marks, and the unfinished head being blocked out splinter by splinter with a small hammer. Similar observations, and the study of the monuments, show that the drill (fig. 181), the toothed-chisel, and the gouge were also employed.

The Egyptians treated bas-relief in three ways: either as a simple engraving executed by means of incised lines; or by cutting away the surface of the stone round the figure, and so causing it to stand out in relief upon the wall; or by sinking the design below the wall-surface and cutting it in relief at the bottom of the hollow.

A sandstone or limestone statue would have been deemed imperfect if left to show the colour of the stone in which it was cut, and was painted from head to foot. In bas-relief, the background was left untouched and only the figures were coloured. The Egyptians had more pigments at their disposal than is commonly supposed. The more ancient painters' palettes--and we have some which date from the Fifth Dynasty--have compartments for yellow, red, blue, brown, white, black, and green.[][40]] Others, of the time of the Eighteenth Dynasty, provide for three varieties of yellow, three of brown, two of red, two of blue, and two of green; making in all some fourteen or sixteen different tints. Black was obtained by calcining the bones of animals. The other substances employed in painting were indigenous to the country. The white is made of gypsum, mixed with albumen or honey; the yellows are ochre, or sulphuret of arsenic, the orpiment of our modern artists; the reds are ochre, cinnabar, or vermilion; the blues are pulverised lapis- lazuli, or silicate of copper. If the substance was rare or costly, a substitute drawn from the products of native industry was found. Lapis- lazuli, for instance, was replaced by blue frit made with an admixture of silicate of copper, and this was reduced to an impalpable powder. The painters kept their colours in tiny bags, and, as required, mixed them with water containing a little gum tragacanth. They laid them on by means of a reed, or a more or less fine hair brush. When well prepared, these pigments are remarkably solid, and have changed but little during the lapse of ages. The reds have darkened, the greens have faded, the blues have turned somewhat green or grey; but this is only on the surface. If that surface is scraped off, the colour underneath is brilliant and unchanged. Before the Theban period, no precautions were taken to protect the painter's work from the action of air and light. About the time of the Twentieth Dynasty, however, it became customary to coat painted surfaces with a transparent varnish which was soluble in water, and which was probably made from the gum of some kind of acacia. It was not always used in the same manner. Some painters varnished the whole surface, while others merely glazed the ornaments and accessories, without touching the flesh-tints or the clothing. This varnish has cracked from the effects of age, or has become so dark as to spoil the work it was intended to preserve. Doubtless, the Egyptians discovered the bad effects produced by it, as we no longer meet with it after the close of the Twentieth Dynasty.

Egyptian painters laid on broad, flat, uniform washes of colour; they did not paint in our sense of the term; they illuminated. Just as in drawing they reduced everything to lines, and almost wholly suppressed the internal modelling, so in adding colour they still further simplified their subject by merging all varieties of tone, and all play of light and shadow, in one uniform tint. Egyptian painting is never quite true, and never quite false. Without pretending to the faithful imitation of nature, it approaches nature as nearly as it may; sometimes understating, sometimes exaggerating, sometimes substituting ideal or conventional renderings for strict realities. Water, for instance, is always represented by a flat tint of blue, or by blue covered with zigzag lines in black. The buff and bluish hues of the vulture are translated into bright red and vivid blue. The flesh-tints of men are of a dark reddish brown, and the flesh-tints of women are pale yellow. The colours conventionally assigned to each animate and inanimate object were taught in the schools, and their use handed on unchanged from generation to generation. Now and then it happened that a painter more daring than his contemporaries ventured to break with tradition. In the Sixth Dynasty tombs at Deir el Gebrawî, there are instances where the flesh tint of the women is that conventionally devoted to the depiction of men. At Sakkarah, under the Fifth Dynasty, and at Abû Simbel, under the Nineteenth Dynasty, we find men with skins as yellow as those of the women; while in the tombs of Thebes and Abydos, about the time of Thothmes IV. and Horemheb, there occur figures with flesh-tints of rose- colour.[][41]]

It must not, however, be supposed that the effect produced by this artificial system was grating or discordant. Even in works of small size, such as illuminated MSS. of The Book of the Dead, or the decoration of mummy-cases and funerary coffers, there is both sweetness and harmony of colour. The most brilliant hues are boldly placed side by side, yet with full knowledge of the relations subsisting between these hues, and of the phenomena which must necessarily result from such relations. They neither jar together, nor war with each other, nor extinguish each other. On the contrary, each maintains its own value, and all, by mere juxtaposition, give rise to the half-tones which harmonise them.

Turning from small things to large ones, from the page of papyrus, or the panel of sycamore wood, to the walls of tombs and temples, we find the skilful employment of flat tints equally soothing and agreeable to the eye. Each wall is treated as a whole, the harmony of colour being carried out from bottom to top throughout the various superimposed stages into which the surface was divided. Sometimes the colours are distributed according to a scale of rhythm, or symmetry, balancing and counterbalancing each other. Sometimes one special tint predominates, thus determining the general tone and subordinating every other hue. The vividness of the final effect is always calculated according to the quality and quantity of light by which the picture is destined to be seen. In very dark halls the force of colour is carried as far as it will go, because it would not otherwise have been visible by the flickering light of lamps and torches. On outer wall- surfaces and on pylon-fronts, it was as vivid as in the darkest depths of excavated catacombs; and this because, no matter how extreme it might be, the sun would subdue its splendour. But in half-lighted places, such as the porticoes of temples and the ante-chambers of tombs, colour is so dealt with as to be soft and discreet. In a word, painting was in Egypt the mere humble servant of architecture and sculpture. We must not dream of comparing it with our own, or even with that of the Greeks; but if we take it simply for what it is, accepting it in the secondary place assigned to it, we cannot fail to recognise its unusual merits. Egyptian painting excelled in the sense of monumental decoration, and if we ever revert to the fashion of colouring the façades of our houses and our public edifices, we shall lose nothing by studying Egyptian methods or reproducing Egyptian processes.

[3].--WORKS OF SCULPTURE.

To this day, the most ancient statue known is a colossus--namely, the Great Sphinx of Gizeh. It was already in existence in the time of Khûfû (Cheops), and perhaps we should not be far wrong if we ventured to ascribe it to the generations before Mena, called in the priestly chronicles "the Servants of Horus."

The lesser folk of the art-world excelled in the manipulation of brush and chisel, and that their skill was of a high order is testified by the thousands of tableaux they have left behind them.

The variety of attitude and gesture which we so much admire in the Egyptian bas-relief is lacking to the statues. A mourner weeping, a woman bruising corn for bread, a baker rolling dough, are subjects as rare in the round as they are common in bas-relief. In sculpture, the figure is generally represented either standing with the feet side by side and quite still, or with one leg advanced in the act of walking; or seated upon a chair or a cube; or kneeling; or, still more frequently, sitting on the ground cross-legged, as the fellahin are wont to sit to this day. This intentional monotony of style would be inexplicable if we were ignorant of the purpose for which such statues were intended. They represent the dead man for whom the tomb was made, his family, his servants, his slaves, and his kinsfolk. The master is always shown sitting or standing, and he could not consistently be seen in any other attitude. The tomb is, in fact, the house in which he rests after the labours of life, as once he used to rest in his earthly home; and the scenes depicted upon the walls represent the work which he was officially credited with performing. Here he superintends the preliminary operations necessary to raise the food by which he is to be nourished in the form of funerary offerings; namely, seed-sowing, harvesting, stock-breeding, fishing, hunting, and the like. In short, "he superintends all the labour which is done for the eternal dwelling." When thus engaged, he is always standing upright, his head uplifted, his hands pendent, or holding the staff and baton of command. Elsewhere, the diverse offerings are brought to him one by one, and then he sits in a chair of state. These are his two attitudes, whether as a bas-relief subject or a statue. Standing, he receives the homage of his vassals; sitting, he partakes of the family repast. The people of his household comport themselves before him as becomes their business and station. His wife either stands beside him, sits on the same chair or on a second chair by his side, or squats beside his feet as during his lifetime. His son, if a child at the time when the statue was ordered, is represented in the garb of infancy; or with the bearing and equipment proper to his position, if a man. The slaves bruise the corn, the cellarers tar the wine jars, the hired mourners weep and tear their hair. His little social world followed the Egyptian to his tomb, the duties of his attendants being prescribed for them after death, just as they had been prescribed for them during life. And the kind of influence which the religious conception of the soul exercised over the art of the sculptor did not end here. From the moment that the statue is regarded as the support of the Double, it becomes a condition of primary importance that the statue shall reproduce, at least in the abstract, the proportions and distinctive peculiarities of the corporeal body; and this in order that the Double shall more easily adapt himself to his new body of stone or wood.[][43]] The head is therefore always a faithful portrait; but the body, on the contrary, is, as it were, a medium kind of body, representing the original at his highest development, and consequently able to exert the fulness of his physical powers when admitted to the society of the gods. Hence men are always sculptured in the prime of life, and women with the delicate proportions of early womanhood. This conventional idea was never departed from, unless in cases of very marked deformity. The statue of a dwarf reproduced all the ugly peculiarities of the dwarf's own body; and it was important that it should so reproduce them. If a statue of the ordinary type had been placed in the tomb of the dead man, his "Ka," accustomed during life to the deformity of his limbs, would not be able to adapt itself to an upright and shapely figure, and would therefore be deprived of the conditions necessary to his future well- being. The artist was free to vary the details and arrange the accessories according to his fancy; but without missing the point of his work, he could not change the attitude, or depart from the general style of the conventional portrait statue. This persistent monotony of pose and subject produces a depressing effect upon the spectator,--an effect which is augmented by the obtrusive character given to the supports. These statues are mostly backed by a kind of rectangular pediment, which is either squared off just at the base of the skull, or carried up in a point and lost in the head-dress, or rounded at the top and showing above the head of the figure. The arms are seldom separated from the body, but are generally in one piece with the sides and hips. The whole length of the leg which is placed in advance of the other is very often connected with the pediment by a band of stone. It has been conjectured that this course was imposed upon the sculptor by reason of the imperfection of his tools, and the consequent danger of fracturing the statue when cutting away the superfluous material- -an explanation which may be correct as regards the earliest schools, but which does not hold good for the time of the Fourth Dynasty. We could point to more than one piece of sculpture of that period, even in granite, in which all the limbs are free, having been cut away by means of either the chisel or the drill. If pediment supports were persisted in to the end, their use must have been due, not to helplessness, but to routine, or to an exaggerated respect for ancient method.

Most museums are poor in statues of the Memphite school; France and Egypt possess, however, some twenty specimens which suffice to ensure it an honourable place in the history of art. At the Louvre we have the "Cross- legged Scribe,"[][44]] and the statues of Skemka and Pahûrnefer; at Gizeh there are the "Sheikh el Beled"[][45]] and his wife, Khafra[][46]], Ranefer, the Prince and General Rahotep, and his wife, Nefert, a "Kneeling Scribe," and a "Cross-legged Scribe." The original of the "Cross-legged Scribe" of the Louvre was not a handsome man (fig. 185), but the vigour and fidelity of his portrait amply compensate for the absence of ideal beauty. His legs are crossed and laid flat to the ground in one of those attitudes common among Orientals, yet all but impossible to Europeans. The bust is upright, and well balanced upon the hips. The head is uplifted.

The Cross-legged Scribe of Gizeh (fig. 186) was discovered by M. de Morgan at Sakkarah in the beginning of 1893. This statue exhibits a no less surprising vigour and certainty of intention and execution on the part of the sculptor than does its fellow of the Louvre, while representing a younger man of full, firm, and supple figure.

Khafra is a king (fig. 187). He sits squarely upon his chair of state, his hands upon his knees, his chest thrown forward, his head erect, his gaze confident. Had the emblems of his rank been destroyed, and the inscription effaced which tells his name, his bearing alone would have revealed the Pharaoh. Every trait is characteristic of the man who from childhood upwards has known himself to be invested with sovereign authority. Ranefer belonged to one of the great feudal families of his time.

General Rahotep[][47]] (fig. 189), despite his title and his high military rank, looks as if he were of inferior birth. Stalwart and square-cut, he has somewhat of the rustic in his physiognomy.

Turning to the "Sheikh el Beled" (figs. 188, 191), we descend several degrees in the social scale. Raemka was a "superintendent of works," which probably means that he was an overseer of corvée labour at the time of building the great pyramids. He belonged to the middle class; and his whole person expresses vulgar contentment and self-satisfaction. We seem to see him in the act of watching his workmen, his staff of acacia wood in his hand. The feet of the statue had perished, but have been restored. The body is stout and heavy, and the neck thick. The head (fig. 191), despite its vulgarity, does not lack energy.

The thighs could have existed only in a rudimentary form, and Nemhotep, standing as best he can upon his misshapen feet, seems to be off his balance, and ready to fall forward upon his face. It would be difficult to find another work of art in which the characteristics of dwarfdom are more cleverly reproduced.

The sculpture of the first Theban empire is in close connection with that of Memphis. Methods, materials, design, composition, all are borrowed from the elder school; the only new departure being in the proportions assigned to the human figure. From the time of the Eleventh Dynasty, the legs become longer and slighter, the hips smaller, the body and the neck more slender. Works of this period are not to be compared with the best productions of the earlier centuries. The wall-paintings of Siût, of Bersheh, of Beni Hasan, and of Asûan, are not equal to those in the mastabas of Sakkarah and Gizeh; nor are the most carefully-executed contemporary statues worthy to take a place beside the "Sheikh el Beled" or the "Cross-legged Scribe." Portrait statues of private persons, especially those found at Thebes, are, so far as I have seen, decidedly bad, the execution being rude and the expression vulgar. The royal statues of this period, which are nearly all in black or grey granite, have been for the most part usurped by kings of later date. Ûsertesen III., whose head and feet are in the Louvre, was appropriated by Amenhotep III., as the sphinx of the Louvre and the colossi of Gizeh were appropriated by Rameses II. Many museums possess specimens of supposed Ramesside Pharaohs which, upon more careful inspection, we are compelled to ascribe to the Thirteenth or Fourteenth Dynasty. Those of undisputed identity, such as the Sebekhotep III. of the Louvre, the Mermashiû of Tanis, the Sebekemsaf of Gizeh, and the colossi of the Isle of Argo, though very skilfully executed, are wanting in originality and vigour. One would say, indeed, that the sculptors had purposely endeavoured to turn them all out after the one smiling and commonplace pattern.

The first three dynasties of the New Empire[][48]] have bequeathed us more monuments than all the others put together. Painted bas-reliefs, statues of kings and private persons, colossi, sphinxes, may be counted by hundreds between the mouths of the Nile and the fourth cataract. The old sacerdotal cities, Memphis, Thebes, Abydos, are naturally the richest; but so great was the impetus given to art, that even remote provincial towns, such as Abû Simbel, Redesîyeh, and Mesheikh, have their chefs-d'oeuvre, like the great cities. The official portraits of Amenhotep I. at Turin, of Thothmes I. and Thothmes III. at the British Museum, at Karnak, at Turin, and at Gizeh, are conceived in the style of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Dynasties, and are deficient in originality; but the bas-reliefs in temples and tombs show a marked advance upon those of the earlier ages. The modelling is finer; the figures are more numerous and better grouped; the relief is higher; the effects of perspective are more carefully worked out. The wall- subjects of Deir el Baharî, the tableaux in the tombs of Hûi, of Rekhmara, of Anna, of Khamha, and of twenty more at Thebes, are surprisingly rich, brilliant, and varied. Awakening to a sense of the picturesque, artists introduced into their compositions all those details of architecture, of uneven ground, of foreign plants, and the like, which formerly they neglected, or barely indicated. The taste for the colossal, which had fallen somewhat into abeyance since the time of the Great Sphinx, came once again to the surface, and was developed anew. Amenhotep III. was not content with statues of twenty-five or thirty feet in height, such as were in favour among his ancestors. Those which he erected in advance of his memorial chapel on the left bank of the Nile in Western Thebes, one of which is the Vocal Memnon of the classic writers, sit fifty feet high. Each was carved from a single block of sandstone, and they are as elaborately finished as though they were of ordinary size.

It is unfortunate that Egyptian artists never signed their works; for the sculptor of this portrait of Horemheb deserves to be remembered. Like the Eighteenth Dynasty, the Nineteenth Dynasty delighted in colossi.

The Renaissance did not dawn till near the end of the Ethiopian Dynasty, some three hundred years later. The over-praised statue of Queen Ameniritis[][50]] (fig. 202) already manifests some noteworthy qualities. The limbs, somewhat long and fragile, are delicately treated; but the head is heavy, being over-weighted by the wig peculiar to goddesses. Psammetichus I., when his victories had established him upon the throne, busied himself in the restoration of the temples.

This we know from the bas-reliefs. But the Memphite sculptors, deeming the two last ungraceful, excluded them from the domain of art, and rarely, if ever, reproduced them.

It may be that this position was not in fashion among the moneyed classes, which alone could afford to order statues; or it may be that the artists themselves objected to an attitude which caused their sitters to look like square parcels with a human head on the top. The sculptors of the Saïte period did not inherit that repugnance. They have at all events combined the action of the limbs in such wise as may least offend the eye, and the position almost ceases to be ungraceful. The heads also are modelled to such perfection that they make up for many shortcomings. That of Pedishashi (fig. 205) has an expression of youth and intelligent gentleness such as we seldom meet with from an Egyptian hand. Other heads, on the contrary, are remarkable for their almost brutal frankness of treatment.

The new departure was of slow development.

The most forcible work of this hybrid class which has come down to us is the portrait-statue of one Hor (fig. 208), discovered in 1881 at the foot of Kom ed Damas, the site of the tomb of Alexander. The head is good, though in a somewhat dry style. The long, pinched nose, the close-set eyes, the small mouth with drawn-in corners, the square chin,--every feature, in short, contributes to give a hard and obstinate character to the face. The hair is closely cropped, yet not so closely as to prevent it from dividing naturally into thick, short curls. The body, clothed in the chlamys, is awkwardly shapen, and too narrow for the head. One arm hangs pendent; the other is brought round to the front; the feet are lost.

[CHAPTER V.]

THE INDUSTRIAL ARTS.

I have treated briefly of the Noble Arts; it remains to say something of the Industrial Arts. All classes of society in Egypt were, from an early period, imbued with the love of luxury, and with a taste for the beautiful. Living or dead, the Egyptian desired to have jewels and costly amulets upon his person, and to be surrounded by choice furniture and elegant utensils. The objects of his daily use must be distinguished, if not by richness of material, at least by grace of form; and in order to satisfy his requirements, the clay, the stone, the metals, the woods, and other products of distant lands were laid under contribution.

[1].--STONE, CLAY, AND GLASS.

It is impossible to pass through a gallery of Egyptian antiquities without being surprised by the prodigious number of small objects in pietra dura which have survived till the present time. As yet we have found neither the diamond, the ruby, nor the sapphire; but with these exceptions, the domain of the lapidary was almost as extensive as at the present day.

The earthly goods of the gods and of the dead were mostly in solid stone. I have elsewhere described the little funerary obelisks, the altar bases, the statues, and the tables of offerings found in tombs of the ancient empire. These tables were made of alabaster and limestone during the Pyramid period, of granite or red sandstone under the Theban kings, and of basalt or serpentine from the time of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty. But the fashions were not canonical, all stones being found at all periods. Some offering-tables are mere flat discs, or discs very slightly hollowed. Others are rectangular, and are sculptured in relief with a service of loaves, vases, fruits, and quarters of beef and gazelle. In one instance-- the offering-table of Sitû--the libations, instead of running off, fell into a square basin which is marked off in divisions, showing the height of the Nile at the different seasons of the year in the reservoirs of Memphis; namely, twenty-five cubits in summer during the inundation, twenty-three in autumn and early winter, and twenty-two at the close of winter and in spring-time. In these various patterns there was little beauty; yet one offering-table, found at Sakkarah, is a real work of art. It is of alabaster. Two lions, standing side by side, support a sloping, rectangular tablet, whence the libation ran off by a small channel into a vase placed between the tails of the lions. The alabaster geese found at Lisht are not without artistic merit. They are cut length-wise down the middle, and hollowed out, in the fashion of a box. Those which I have seen elsewhere, and, generally speaking, all simulacra of offerings, as loaves, cakes, heads of oxen or gazelles, bunches of black grapes, and the like, in carved and painted limestone, are of doubtful taste and clumsy execution. They are not very common, and I have met with them only in tombs of the Fifth and Twelfth Dynasties. "Canopic" vases, on the contrary, were always carefully wrought. They were generally made in two kinds of stone, limestone and alabaster; but the heads which surmounted them were often of painted wood.

They are unornamented, except perhaps by two lotus-bud handles, or two lions' heads, or perhaps a little female head just at the rise of the neck (fig. 218). The smallest of these vases were not intended for liquids, but for pomades, medicinal ointments, and salves made with honey.

It was not for want of material that the art of modelling and baking clays failed to be as fully developed in Egypt as in Greece, The valley of the Nile is rich in a fine and ductile potter's clay, with which the happiest results might have been achieved, had the native craftsman taken the trouble to prepare it with due care. Metals and hard stone were, however, always preferred for objects of luxury; the potter was fain, therefore, to be content with supplying only the commonest needs of household and daily life. He was wont to take whatever clay happened to be nearest to the place where he was working, and this clay was habitually badly washed, badly kneaded, and fashioned with the finger upon a primitive wheel worked by the hand. The firing was equally careless. Some pieces were barely heated at all, and melted it they came into contact with water, while others were as hard as tiles. All tombs of the ancient empire contain vases of a red or yellow ware, often mixed, like the clay of bricks, with finely-chopped straw or weeds. These are mostly large solid jars with oval bodies, short necks, and wide mouths, but having neither foot nor handles. With them are also found pipkins and pots, in which to store the dead man's provisions; bowls more or less shallow; and flat plates, such as are still used by the fellahin. The poorer folk sometimes buried miniature table and kitchen services with their dead, as being less costly than full-sized vessels. The surface is seldom glazed, seldom smooth and lustrous; but is ordinarily covered with a coat of whitish, unbaked paint, which scales off at a touch. Upon this surface there is neither incised design, nor ornament in relief, nor any kind of inscription, but merely some four or five parallel lines in red, black, or yellow, round the neck.

The pottery of the earliest Theban dynasties which I have collected at El Khozam and Gebeleyn is more carefully wrought than the pottery of the Memphite period. It may be classified under two heads. The first comprises plain, smooth-bodied vases, black below and dark red above. On examining this ware where broken, we see that the colour was mixed with the clay during the kneading, and that the two zones were separately prepared, roughly joined, and then uniformly glazed. The second class comprises vases of various and sometimes eccentric forms, moulded of red or tawny clay.

Glass was known to the Egyptians from the remotest period, and glass- blowing is represented in tombs which date from some thousands of years before our era (fig. 224). The craftsman, seated before the furnace, takes up a small quantity of the fused substance upon the end of his cane and blows it circumspectly, taking care to keep it in contact with the flame, so that it may not harden during the operation. Chemical analysis shows the constituent parts of Egyptian glass to have been nearly identical with our own; but it contains, besides silex, lime, alumina, and soda, a relatively large proportion of extraneous substances, as copper, oxide of iron, and oxide of manganese, which they apparently knew not how to eliminate. Hence Egyptian glass is scarcely ever colourless, but inclines to an uncertain shade of yellow or green. Some ill-made pieces are so utterly decomposed that they flake away, or fall to iridescent dust, at the lightest touch.

The Egyptians also enamelled stone. One half at least of the scarabaei, cylinders, and amulets contained in our museums are of limestone or schist, covered with a coloured glaze. Doubtless the common clay seemed to them inappropriate to this kind of decoration, for they substituted in its place various sorts of earth--some white and sandy; another sort brown and fine, which they obtained by the pulverisation of a particular kind of limestone found in the neighbourhood of Keneh, Luxor, and Asûan; and a third sort, reddish in tone, and mixed with powdered sandstone and brick-dust. These various substances are known by the equally inexact names of Egyptian porcelain and Egyptian faïence. The oldest specimens, which are hardly glazed at all, are coated with an excessively thin slip. This vitreous matter has, however, generally settled into the hollows of the hieroglyphs or figures, where its lustre stands out in strong contrast with the dead surface of the surrounding parts. The colour most frequently in use under the ancient dynasties was green; but yellow, red, brown, violet, and blue were not disdained.[][61]] Blue predominated in the Theban factories from the earliest beginning of the Middle Empire. This blue was brilliant, yet tender, in imitation of turquoise or lapis lazuli. The Gizeh Museum formerly contained three hippopotamuses of this shade, discovered in the tomb of an Entef[][62]] at Drah Abû'l Neggeh[][63]] One was lying down, the two others were standing in the marshes, their bodies being covered by the potter with pen-and-ink sketches of reeds and lotus plants, amid which hover birds and butterflies (fig. 229). This was his naïve way of depicting the animal amid his natural surroundings. The blue is splendid, and we must overleap twenty centuries before we again find so pure a colour among the funerary statuettes of Deir el Baharî.

Glazed pottery was common from the earliest times. Cups with a foot (fig. 232), blue bowls, rounded at the bottom and decorated in black ink with mystic eyes, lotus flowers, fishes (fig. 233), and palm-leaves, date, as a rule, from the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, or Twentieth Dynasties. Lenticular ampullae coated with a greenish glaze, flanked by two crouching monkeys for handles, decorated along the edge with pearl or egg-shaped ornaments, and round the body with elaborate collars (fig. 234), belong almost without exception to the reigns of Apries and Amasis.[][66]] Sistrum handles, saucers, drinking-cups in the form of a half-blown lotus, plates, dishes--in short, all vessels in common use--were required to be not only easy to keep clean, but pleasant to look upon. Did they carry their taste for enamelled ware so far as to cover the walls of their houses with glazed tiles? Upon this point we can pronounce neither affirmatively nor negatively; the few examples of this kind of decoration which we possess being all from royal buildings.

Up to the beginning of the present century, one of the chambers in the step pyramid at Sakkarah yet retained its mural decoration of glazed ware (fig. 235). For three-fourths of the wall-surface it was covered with green tiles, oblong in shape, flat at the back, and slightly convex on the face (fig. 236). A square tenon, pierced through with a hole large enough to receive a wooden rod, served to fix them together in horizontal pyramid of rows.[][67]] The three rows which frame in the doorway are inscribed with the titles of an unclassed Pharaoh belonging to one of the first Memphite dynasties.

The most frequent item in the scheme of decoration was a roundel moulded of a sandy frit coated with blue or grey slip, upon which is a cream-coloured rosette (fig. 237). Some of these rosettes are framed in geometrical designs (fig. 238) or spider-web patterns; some represent open flowers. The central boss is in relief; the petals and tracery are encrusted in the mass.

[2].--WOOD, IVORY, LEATHER, AND TEXTILE FABRICS.

Objects in ivory, bone, and horn are among the rarities of our museums; but we must not for this reason conclude that the Egyptians did not make ample use of those substances. Horn is perishable, and is eagerly devoured by certain insects, which rapidly destroy it. Bone and ivory soon deteriorate and become friable. The elephant was known to the Egyptians from the remotest period. They may, perhaps, have found it inhabiting the Thebaid when first they established themselves in that part of the Nile Valley, for as early as the Fifth Dynasty we find the pictured form of the elephant in use as the hieroglyphic name of the island of Elephantine.

Egypt produces few trees, and of these few the greater number are useless to the sculptor. The two which most abound--namely, the date palm and the dôm palm--are of too coarse a fibre for carving, and are too unequal in texture. Some varieties of the sycamore and acacia are the only trees of which the grain is sufficiently fine and manageable to be wrought with the chisel. Wood was, nevertheless, a favourite material for cheap and rapid work. It was even employed at times for subjects of importance, such as Ka statues; and the Wooden Man of Gizeh shows with what boldness and amplitude of style it could be treated. But the blocks and beams which the Egyptians had at command were seldom large enough for a statue. The Wooden Man himself, though but half life-size, consists of a number of pieces held together by square pegs. Hence, wood-carvers were wont to treat their subjects upon such a scale as admitted of their being cut in one block, and the statues of olden time became statuettes under the Theban dynasties. Art lost nothing by the reduction, and more than one of these little figures is comparable to the finest works of the ancient empire. The best, perhaps, is at the Turin Museum, and dates from the Twentieth Dynasty. It represents a young girl whose only garment is a slender girdle. She is of that indefinite age when the undeveloped form is almost as much like that of a boy as of a girl. The expression of the head is gentle, yet saucy.

This influence becomes even more apparent when we study the knick-knacks of the toilet table, and such small objects as, properly speaking, come under the head of furniture. To pass in review the hundred and one little articles of female ornament or luxury to which the fancy of the designer gave all kinds of ingenious and novel forms, would be no light task. The handles of mirrors, for instance, generally represented a stem of lotus or papyrus surmounted by a full-blown flower, from the midst of which rose a disk of polished metal. For this design is sometimes substituted the figure of a young girl, either nude, or clad in a close-fitting garment, who holds the mirror on her head. The tops of hair-pins were carved in the semblance of a coiled serpent, or of the head of a jackal, a dog, or a hawk. The pin- cushion in which they are placed is a hedgehog or a tortoise, with holes pierced in a formal pattern upon the back. The head-rests, which served for pillows, were decorated with bas-reliefs of subjects derived from the myths of Bes and Sekhet, the grimacing features of the former deity being carved on the ends or on the base.

Not to soil their fingers the Egyptians made use of spoons for essences, pomades, and the variously-coloured preparations with which both men and women stained their cheeks, lips, eyelids, nails, and palms.

Household furniture was no more abundant in ancient Egypt than it is in the Egypt of to-day. In the time of the Twelfth Dynasty an ordinary house contained no bedsteads, but low frameworks like the Nubian angareb; or mats rolled up by day on which the owners lay down at night in their clothes, pillowing their heads on earthenware, stone, or wooden head-rests.

The art of the cabinet-maker was nevertheless carried to a high degree of perfection, from the time of the ancient dynasties. Planks were dressed down with the adze, mortised, glued, joined together by means of pegs cut in hard wood, or acacia thorns (never by metal nails), polished, and finally covered with paintings.

The mummy was, in fact, the cabinet-maker's best customer. In other lands, man took but a few objects with him into the next world; but the defunct Egyptian required nothing short of a complete outfit. The mummy- case alone was an actual monument, in the construction of which a whole squad of workmen was employed (fig. 261).

Upon this surface, the seventeenth chapter of The Book of the Dead was generally written in red and black inks, and in fine cursive hieroglyphs. The body of the chest is made with three horizontal planks for the bottom, and eight vertical planks, placed two and two, for the four sides. The outside is sometimes decorated with long strips of various colours ending in interlaced lotus-leaves, such as are seen on stone sarcophagi. More frequently, it is ornamented on the left side with two wide-open eyes and two monumental doors, and on the right with three doors exactly like those seen in contemporary catacombs. The sarcophagus is in truth the house of the deceased; and, being his house, its four walls were bound to contain an epitome of the prayers and tableaux which covered the walls of his tomb. The necessary formulae and pictured scenes were, therefore, reproduced inside, nearly in the same order in which they appear in the mastabas. Each side is divided in three registers, each register containing a dedication in the name of the deceased, or representations of objects belonging to him, or such texts from the Ritual as need to be repeated for his benefit. Skilfully composed, and painted upon a background made to imitate some precious wood, the whole forms a boldly-designed and harmoniously-coloured picture. The cabinet-maker's share of the work was the lightest, and the long boxes in which the dead of the earliest period were buried made no great demand upon his skill. This, however, was not the case when in later times the sarcophagus came to be fashioned in the likeness of the human body. Of this style we have two leading types. In the most ancient, the mummy serves as the model for his case. His outstretched feet and legs are in one. The form of the knee, the swell of the calf, the contours of the thigh and the trunk, are summarily indicated, and are, as it were, vaguely modelled under the wood. The head, apparently the only living part of this inert body, is wrought out in the round. The dead man is in this wise imprisoned in a kind of statue of himself; and this statue is so well balanced that it can stand on its feet if required, as upon a pedestal. In the other type of sarcophagus, the deceased lies at full length upon his tomb, and his figure, sculptured in the round, serves as the lid of his mummy-case. On his head is seen the ponderous wig of the period. A white linen vest and a long petticoat cover his chest and legs. His feet are shod with elegant sandals. His arms lie straight along his sides, or are folded upon his breast, the hands grasping various emblems, as the Ankh, the girdle-buckle, the Tat;[][69]] or, as in the case of the wife of Sennetmû at Gizeh, a garland of ivy. This mummiform type of sarcophagus is rarely met with under the Memphite dynasties, though that of Menkara, the Mycerinus of the Greeks, affords a memorable example. Under the Eleventh Dynasty, the mummy-case is frequently but a hollowed tree- trunk, roughly sculptured outside, with a head at one end and feet at the other. The face is daubed with bright colours, yellow, red, and green; the wig and headdress are striped with black and blue, and an elaborate collar is depicted on the breast. The rest of the case is either covered with the long, gilded wings of Isis and Nephthys, or with a uniform tint of white or yellow, and sparsely decorated with symbolic figures, or columns of hieroglyphs painted blue and black.

A series of Graeco-Roman examples from the Fayûm exhibit the stages by which portraiture in the flat there replaced the modelled mask, until towards the middle of the second century A.D. it became customary to bandage over the face of the mummy a panel-portrait of the dead, as he was in life (fig. 264).

The remainder of the funerary outfit supplied the cabinet-maker with as much work as the coffin-maker. Boxes of various shapes and sizes were required for the wardrobe of the mummy, for his viscera, and for his funerary statuettes. He must also have tables for his meals; stools, chairs, a bed to lie upon, a boat and sledge to convey him to the tomb, and sometimes even a war-chariot and a carriage in which to take the air.[][71]] The boxes for canopic vases, funerary statuettes, and libation-vases, are divided in several compartments. A couchant jackal is sometimes placed on the top, and serves for a handle by which to take off the lid. Each box was provided with its own little sledge, upon which it was drawn in the funeral procession on the day of burial. Beds are not very uncommon. Many are identical in structure with the Nubian angarebs, and consist merely of some coarse fabric, or of interlaced strips of leather, stretched on a plain wooden frame. Few exceed fifty-six inches in length; the sleeper, therefore, could never lie outstretched, but must perforce assume a doubled-up position. The frame is generally horizontal, but sometimes it slopes slightly downwards from the head to the foot. It was often raised to a considerable height above the level of the floor, and a stool, or a little portable set of steps, was used in mounting it. These details were known to us by the wall-paintings only until I myself discovered two perfect specimens in 1884 and 1885; one at Thebes, in a tomb of the Thirteenth Dynasty, and the other at Ekhmîm, in the Graeco-Roman necropolis. In the former, two accommodating lions have elongated their bodies to form the framework, their heads doing duty for the head of the bed, and their tails being curled up under the feet of the sleeper.

The bed is surmounted by a kind of canopy, under which the mummy lay in state. Rhind had already found a similar canopy, which is now in the Museum of Edinburgh[][72]] (fig. 265). In shape it is a temple, the rounded roof being supported by elegant colonnettes of painted wood. A doorway guarded by serpents is supposed to give access to the miniature edifice. Three winged discs, each larger than the one below it, adorn three superimposed cornices above the door, the whole frontage being surmounted by a row of erect uraei, crowned with the solar disc. The canopy belonging to the Thirteenth Dynasty bed is much more simple, being a mere balustrade in cut and painted wood, in imitation of the water-plant pattern with which temple walls were decorated; the whole is crowned with an ordinary cornice. In the bed of Graeco-Roman date (fig. 266), carved and painted figures of the goddess Ma, sitting with her feather on her knee, are substituted for the customary balustrades.

We learn from the tomb paintings that netted or cane-bottomed chairs were covered with stuffed seats and richly worked cushions. These cushions and stuffed seats have perished, but it is to be concluded that they were covered with tapestry. Tapestry was undoubtedly known to the Egyptians, and a bas-relief subject at Beni Hasan (fig. 271)[][74]] shows the process of weaving. The frame, which is of the simplest structure, resembles that now in use among the weavers of Ekhmîm. It is horizontal, and is formed of two slender cylinders, or rather of two rods, about fifty-four inches apart, each held in place by two large pegs driven into the ground about three feet distant from each other. The warps of the chain were strongly fastened, then rolled round the top cylinder till they were stretched sufficiently tight. Mill sticks placed at certain distances facilitated the insertion of the needles which carried the thread. As in the Gobelins factory, the work was begun from the bottom. The texture was regulated and equalised by means of a coarse comb, and was rolled upon the lower cylinder as it increased in length. Hangings and carpets were woven in this manner; some with figures, others with geometrical designs, zigzags, and chequers (fig. 272).

The canopy of Deir el Baharî was made for the Princess Isiemkheb, daughter of the High Priest Masahirti, wife of the High Priest Menkheperra, and mother of the High Priest Pinotem III.

We have it upon the authority of ancient writers that the Egyptians of olden time embroidered as skilfully as those of the Middle Ages. The surcoats given by Amasis, one to the Lacedaemonians, and the other to the temple of Athena at Lindos, were of linen embroidered with figures of animals in gold thread and purple, each thread consisting of three hundred and sixty-five distinct filaments. To go back to a still earlier period, the monumental tableaux show portraits of the Pharaohs wearing garments with borders, either woven or embroidered, or done in appliqué work. The most simple patterns consist of one or more stripes of brilliant colour parallel with the edge of the material. Elsewhere we see palm patterns, or rows of discs and points, leaf-patterns, meanders, and even, here and there, figures of men, gods, or animals, worked most probably with the needle. None of the textile materials yet found upon royal mummies are thus decorated; we are therefore unable to pronounce upon the quality of this work, or the method employed in its production. Once only, upon the body of one of the Deir el Baharî princesses, did I find a royal cartouche embroidered in pale rose-colour. The Egyptians of the best periods seem to have attached special value to plain stuffs, and especially to white ones. These they wove with marvellous skill, and upon looms in every respect identical with those used in tapestry work. Those portions of the winding sheet of Thothmes III. which enfolded the royal hands and arms, are as fine as the finest India muslin, and as fairly merit the name of "woven air" as the gauzes of the island of Cos. This, of course, is a mere question of manufacture, apart from the domain of art. Embroideries and tapestries were not commonly used in Egypt till about the end of the Persian period, or the beginning of the period of Greek rule. Alexandria became partly peopled by Phoenician, Syrian, and Jewish colonists, who brought with them the methods of manufacture peculiar to their own countries, and founded workshops which soon developed into flourishing establishments. It is to the Alexandrians that Pliny ascribes the invention of weaving with several warps, thus producing the stuff called brocades (polymita); and in the time of the first Caesars, it was a recognised fact that "the needle of Babylon was henceforth surpassed by the comb of the Nile." The Alexandrian tapestries were not made after exclusively geometrical designs, like the products of the old Egyptian looms; but, according to the testimony of the ancients, were enriched with figures of animals, and even of men. Of the masterpieces which adorned the palaces of the Ptolemies no specimens remain. Many fragments which may be attributed to the later Roman time have, however, been found in Egypt, such as the piece with the boy and goose described by Wilkinson, and a piece representing marine divinities bought by myself at Coptos.[][76]] The numerous embroidered winding sheets with woven borders which have recently been discovered near Ekhmîm, and in the Fayûm, are nearly all from Coptic tombs, and are more nearly akin to Byzantine art than to the art of Egypt.

[3].--METALS.

The Egyptians classified metals under two heads--namely, the noble metals, as gold, electrum, and silver; and the base metals, as copper, iron, lead, and, at a later period, tin. The two lists are divided by the mention of certain kinds of precious stones, such as lapis lazuli and malachite.

Iron was reserved for weapons of war, and tools, in use for hard substances, such as sculptors' and masons' chisels, axe and adze heads, knife-blades, and saws. Lead was comparatively useless, but was sometimes used for inlaying temple-doors, coffers, and furniture. Also small statuettes of gods were occasionally made in this metal, especially those of Osiris and Anubis. Copper was too yielding to be available for objects in current use; bronze, therefore, was the favourite metal of the Egyptians. Though often affirmed, it is not true that they succeeded in tempering bronze so that it became as hard as iron or steel; but by varying the constituents and their relative proportions, they were able to give it a variety of very different qualities. Most of the objects hitherto analysed have yielded precisely the same quantities of copper and tin commonly used by the bronze founders of the present day. Those analysed by Vauquelin in 1825 contained 84 per cent. of copper 14 per cent. of tin, and 1 per cent. of iron and other substances. A chisel brought from Egypt by Sir Gardner Wilkinson contained only from 5 to 9 per cent. of tin, 1 per cent. of iron, and 94 of copper. Certain fragments of statuettes and mirrors more recently subjected to analysis have yielded a notable quantity of gold and silver, thus corresponding with the bronzes of Corinth. Other specimens resemble brass, both in their colour and substance. Many of the best Egyptian bronzes offer a surprising resistance to damp, and oxidise with difficulty. While yet hot from the mould, they were rubbed with some kind of resinous varnish which filled up the pores and deposited an unalterable patina upon the surface. Each kind of bronze had its special use. The ordinary bronze was employed for weapons and common amulets; the brazen alloys served for household utensils; the bronzes mixed with gold and silver were destined only for mirrors, costly weapons, and statuettes of value. In none of the tomb-paintings which I have seen is there any representation of bronze-founding or bronze-working; but this omission is easily supplemented by the objects themselves. Tools, arms, rings, and cheap vases were sometimes forged, and sometimes cast whole in moulds of hard clay or stone. Works of art were cast in one or several pieces according to circumstances; the parts were then united, soldered, and retouched with the burin. The method most frequently employed was to prepare a core of mixed clay and charcoal, or sand, which roughly reproduced the modelling of the mould into which it was introduced. The layer of metal between this core and the mould was often so thin that it would have yielded to any moderate pressure, had they not taken the precaution to consolidate it by having the core for a support.

Domestic utensils and small household instruments were mostly made in bronze.

Bronze came into use for statuary purposes from a very early period; but time unfortunately has preserved none of those idols which peopled the temples of the ancient empire. Whatsoever may be said to the contrary, we possess no bronze statuettes of any period anterior to the expulsion of the Hyksos. Some Theban figures date quite certainly from the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties. The chased lion's head found with the jewels of Queen Aahhotep, the Harpocrates of Gizeh inscribed with the names of Kames and Ahmes I., and several statuettes of Amen, said to have been discovered at Medinet Habû and Sheikh Abd el Gûrneh, are of that period. Our most important bronzes belong, however, to the Twenty-second Dynasty, or, later still, to the time of the Saïte Pharaohs. Many are not older than the first Ptolemies. A fragment found in the ruins of Tanis and now in the possession of Count Stroganoff, formed part of a votive statue dedicated by King Pisebkhanû.

The idea of inlaying gold and other precious metals upon the surface of bronze, stone, or wood was already ancient in Egypt in the time of Khûfû. The gold is often amalgamated with pure silver. When amalgamated to the extent of 20 per cent, it changes its name, and is called electrum (asimû). This electrum is of a fine light-yellow colour. It pales as the proportion of silver becomes larger, and at 60 per cent. it is nearly white. The silver came chiefly from Asia, in rings, sheets, and bricks of standard weight. The gold and electrum came partly from Syria in bricks and rings; and partly from the Soudan in nuggets and gold-dust. The processes of refining and alloying are figured on certain monuments of the early dynasties. In a bas-relief at Sakkarah, we see the weighed gold entrusted to the craftsman for working; in another example (at Beni Hasan) the washing and melting down of the ore is represented; and again at Thebes, the goldsmith is depicted seated in front of his crucible, holding the blow-pipe to his lips with the left hand, and grasping his pincers with the right, thus fanning the flame and at the same time making ready to seize the ingot (fig. 283). The Egyptians struck neither coins nor medals.

Bronze and gilded wood were not always good enough for the gods of Egypt. They exacted pure gold, and their worshippers gave them as much of it as possible. Entire statues of the precious metals were dedicated by the kings of the ancient and middle empires; and the Pharaohs of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties, who drew at will upon the treasures of Asia, transcended all that had been done by their predecessors. Even in times of decadence, the feudal lords kept up the traditions of the past, and, like Prince Mentûemhat, replaced the images of gold and silver which had been carried off from Karnak by the generals of Sardanapalus at the time of the Assyrian invasions. The quantity of metal thus consecrated to the service of the gods must have been considerable, If many figures were less than an inch in height, many others measured three cubits, or more. Some were of gold, some of silver; others were part gold and part silver. There were even some which combined gold with sculptured ivory, ebony, and precious stones, thus closely resembling the chryselephantine statues of the Greeks. Aided by the bas-relief subjects of Karnak, Medinet Habû, and Denderah, as well as by the statues in wood and limestone which have come down to our day, we can tell exactly what they were like. However the material might vary, the style was always the same. Nothing is more perishable than works of this description. They are foredoomed to destruction by the mere value of the materials in which they are made. What civil war and foreign invasion had spared, and what had chanced to escape the rapacity of Roman princes and governors, fell a prey to Christian iconoclasm. A few tiny statuettes buried as amulets upon the bodies of mummies, a few domestic divinities buried in the ruins of private houses, a few ex-votos forgotten, perchance, in some dark corner of a fallen sanctuary, have escaped till the present day. The Ptah and Amen of Queen Aahhotep, another golden Amen also at Gizeh, and the silver vulture found in 1885 at Medinet Habû, are the only pieces of this kind which can be attributed with certainty to the great period of Egyptian art. The remainder are of Saïte or Ptolemaic work, and are remarkable only for the perfection with which they are wrought.

The Pharaohs had not our commercial resources, and could not circulate the gold and silver tribute-offerings of conquered nations in the form of coin. When the gods had received their share of the booty, there was no alternative but to melt the rest down into ingots, fashion it into personal ornaments, or convert it into gold and silver plate.

Orientals, men and women alike, are great lovers of jewellery. The Egyptians were no exception to this rule. Not satisfied to adorn themselves when living with a profusion of trinkets, they loaded the arms, the fingers, the neck, the ears, the brow, and the ankles of their dead with more or less costly ornaments.

The figures and hieroglyphs are cut out in solid gold, delicately engraved with the burin, and stand in relief upon a ground-surface filled in with pieces of blue paste and lapis lazuli artistically cut.

In this rapid sketch of the industrial arts there are many lacunae. When referring to examples, I have perforce limited myself to such as are contained in the best-known collections. How many more might not be discovered if one had leisure to visit provincial museums, and trace what the hazard of sales may have dispersed through private collections! The variety of small monuments due to the industry of ancient Egypt is infinite, and a methodical study of those monuments has yet to be made. It is a task which promises many surprises to whomsoever shall undertake it.

[NOTES TO FIRST ENGLISH EDITION.]

For the following notes, to which reference numbers will be found in the text, I am indebted to the kindness of Mr. W.M. Flinders Petrie, author of "The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh" (Field & Tuer), "Tanis" (Egypt Exploration Fund), "Naukratis" (Egypt Exploration Fund), etc., etc.

A.B.E.

[(][1]) More striking than these are the towns of Tell Atrib, Kom Baglieh, Kom Abû Billû, and Tell Nebesheh, the houses of which may be traced without any special excavations.

[(][2]) There is much skill needed in mixing the mud and sand in such proportions as to dry properly; when rightly adjusted there is no cracking in drying, and the grains of sand prevent the mud from being washed away in the rains.

[(][3]) In the Delta, at least, the sizes of bricks from the Twenty-first Dynasty down to Arab times decrease very regularly; under the Twenty-first Dynasty they are about 18 x 9 x 5 inches; early in the Twenty-sixth, 16-1/2 x 8-1/4 x 5; later 15 x 7- 1/2; in early Ptolemaic times, 14 x 7; in Roman times, 12 x 6, in Byzantine times, 10 x 5; and Arab bricks are 8 x 4, and continue so very generally to our times. The thickness is always least certain, as it depends on the amount placed in the mould, but the length and breadth may in most cases be accepted as a very useful chronological scale.

[(][4]) They are found of Ramesside age at Nebesheh and Defenneh; even there they are rare, and these are the only cases I have yet seen in Egypt earlier than about the third century A.D.

[(][5]) This system was sometimes used to raise a fort above the plain, as at Defenneh; or the chambers formed store-rooms, as at the fort at Naukratis.

[(][6]) In the fine early work at Gizeh they sawed the paving blocks of basalt, and then ground only just the edges flat, while all the inside of the joint was picked rough to hold the mortar.

[(][7]) A usual plan in early times was to dress the joint faces of the block in the quarry, leaving its outer face with a rough excess of a few inches; the excess still remains on the granite casing of the pyramid of Menkara, and the result of dressing it away may be seen in the corners of the granite temple at Gizeh.

[(][8]) Otherwise called the Granite Temple of Gizeh, or Temple of Khafra, as its connection with the Sphinx is much disputed, while it is in direct communication with the temple of the pyramid of Khafra, by a causeway in line with the entrance passage.

[(][9]) The casing of the open air court on the top of it was of fine limestone; only a few blocks of this remain. For full plan and measurements see Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh.

[(][10]) One of the air slits, or ventilators, remains complete, opening to the upper court, from the top of the niche chamber.

[(][11]) Below these lines, there is often a scene of offering at the bottom of the Obelisk.

[(][12]) Mastaba is the Arabic name for a bench or platform, and was applied by the natives to such tombs on account of the resemblance in shape.

[(][13]) In the few cases where the top remains perfect at Gizeh, the side ends in a parabolic curve which turns over into the top surface without any cornice or moulding; the tops of walls in the courts of mastabas are similar.

[(][14]) Another view is that they are derived from the cumulative mastabas, such as the so-called step pyramid of Sakkarah.

[(][15]) In the later pyramids; but the Gizeh pyramids are entirely built of Tûrah limestone.

[(][16]) Still more conclusive is the fact that in the greatest of the pyramids the passages are such that it would have been impossible to build it by successive coats of enlargement.

[(][17]) In only one case (that of Menkara) has a pyramid been clearly enlarged, and that was done at one step and not by many stages.

[(][18]) The earliest-- at Gizeh--are very accurate.

[(][19]) These slabs of pavement do not extend beneath the pyramid, but only around it.

[(][20]) Only fragments of the finest limestone casing have been found; the variety of colour was probably due to weathering.

[(][21]) This would be impossible with the exquisitely fine joints of the masonry; a temporary staging of stone built up over part of the finished face would easily allow of raising the stones.

[(][22]) There is no evidence that the facing block which covered the granite plugs was of granite; it was more probably of limestone.

[(][23]) The entrance to the upper passages was never forced from the entrance passage, but was accidentally found by the Arabs, after they had forced a long tunnel in the masonry, being in ignorance of the real entrance, which was probably concealed by a hinging block of stone.

[(][24]) Or rather it rose at an angle of 23-1/2°, like the descent of the entrance passage, thus making angles of 47° and 133° with it.

[(][25]) This gallery has obtained a great reputation for the fineness of its joints, perhaps because they are coarse enough to be easily seen; but some joints of the entrance passage, and the joints in the queen's chamber, are hardly visible with the closest inspection.

[(][26]) The only signs of portcullises are those in the vestibule or antechamber.

[(][27]) No traces of three of the portcullises remain, if they ever existed, and the other never could reach the floor or interrupt the passage, so its use is enigmatical.

[(][28]) There is some evidence that the pyramid was opened in the early days, perhaps before the middle kingdom.

[(][29]) Two rows of beams which rest on the side wall as corbels or cantilevers, only touching at the top, without necessarily any thrust. Such at least is the case in the queen's chamber, and in the pyramid of Pepi, where such a roof is used.

[(][30]) The end walls have sunk throughout a considerable amount, and the side walls have separated; thus all the beams of the upper chambers have been dragged, and every beam of the roof of the chamber is broken through. This is probably the result of earthquakes.

[(][31]) This only covered the lower sixteen courses; the larger part above it was of limestone.

[(][32]) Similar finished faces may be seen as far in as near the middle of the mass. This is not a true pyramid in form, but a cumulative mastaba, the faces of which are at the mastaba angle (75°), and the successive enlargements of which are shown by numerous finished facings now within the masonry. The step form is the result of carrying upwards the mastaba form, at the same time that it was enlarged outwards.

[(][33]) Not in all cases apparently, for the hieroglyphs on the passage of Pepi's pyramid are not injured, as they would be if plugs had been withdrawn.

[(][34]) Pepi's roof is formed by a row of large beams which rested independently on the side walls as corbels or cantilevers (see Note 29).

[(][35]) The mastaba angle is 75°, and the pyramid angle 50° to 55°.

[(][36]) Its present appearance is an accident of its demolition; it was originally, like the "step-pyramid" of Sakkarah, a cumulative mastaba, as is shown by the remains of the lower steps still in the mounds at its base, and by the mediaeval description of it.

FOOTNOTES

[][1]] Many of the rooms at Kahun had vaulted ceilings.

[][2]] Seventeenth to Twentieth Dynasties.

[][3]] At Medinet Habû.

[][4]] The bas-relief sculpture from which the illustration, fig. 42, is taken (outer wall of Hypostyle Hall, Karnak, north end) represents Seti I. returning in triumph from one of his Syrian campaigns. He is met at Zarû by the great officers of his court, who bring bouquets of lotus-blossoms in their hands. Pithom and other frontier forts are depicted in this tableau, and Pithom is apparently not very far from Zarû. Zarû, Zalu, is the Selle of the Roman Itineraries.--A.B.E.

[][5]] See The Store City of Pithom and the Route of the Exodus, by Ed. Naville, with 13 Plates and 2 Maps; published by the Egypt Exploration Fund. First edition 1885, second edition 1885. Trübner & Co., London. --A.B.E.

[][6]] For an account of the explorations at Daphnae (the "Tahpanhes" of the Bible, the Tell Defenneh of the present day) see Mr. Petrie's memoir, entitled Tanis, Part II, (including Nebesheh, Gemayemi, Defenneh, etc.), published by the Egypt Exploration Fund.--A.B.E.

[][7]] The remains of this gigantic work may yet be seen about two hours' distance to the southward of Medûm. See Herodotus, book II.; chap. 99.--A.B.E.

[][8]] See The Fayûm and Lake Moeris. Major R.H. Brown, R.E.

[][9]] Officially, this temple is attributed to Thothmes III., and the dedicatory inscription dates from the first year of his reign; but the work was really that of his aunt and predecessor, Queen Hatshepsût.

[][10]] See also an exact reduction of this design, to scale, in Mr. Petrie's work A Season in Egypt, 1887, Plate XXV.

[][11]] Chenoboscion.-- A.B.E.

[][12]] For an account of the excavations at Bubastis, see Eighth and Tenth Memoirs of the Egypt Exploration Fund, by M.E. Naville.

[][13]] French "Promenoir"; this is perhaps best expressed by "Processional Hall," in accordance with the description of its purpose on p. 67. --A.B.E.

[][14]] Hor- shesû, "followers," or "servants of Horus," are mentioned in the Turin papyrus as the predecessors of Mena, and are referred to in monumental inscriptions as representing the pre-historic people of Egypt. It is to the Hor-shesû that Professors Maspero and Mariette attribute the making of the Great Sphinx.--A.B.E.

[][15]] For a full description of the oldest funerary chapel known, that of King Sneferû, see W.M.F. Petrie's Medum.

[][16]] Conf. Mr. Petrie's plan of this temple in Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh, Plate VI.--A.B.E.

[][17]] That is to say, the wall is vertical on the inside; but is built much thicker at the bottom than at the top, so that on the outside it presents a sloping surface, retiring with the height of the wall.--A.B.E.

[][18]] "Hatshepsût," more commonly known as "Hatasû;" the new reading is, however, more correct. Professor Maspero thinks that it was pronounced "Hatshopsitû."--A.B.E.

[][19]] For full illustrated account of the complete excavation of this temple, see the Deir el Baharî publications of the Egypt Exploration Fund.

[][20]] Temenos, i.e., the enclosure wall of the Temple, within which all was holy ground.--A.B.E.

[][21]] That is, the spirits of the North, represented by On (Heliopolis), and of the South (Khonû).--A.B.E.

[][22]] At Tanis there seems to have been a close succession of obelisks and statues along the main avenue leading to the Temple, without the usual corresponding pylons. These were ranged in pairs; i.e., a pair of obelisks, a pair of statues; a pair of obelisks, a pair of shrines; and then a third pair of obelisks. See Tanis, Part I., by W.M.F. Petrie, published by the Egypt Exploration Fund, 1884.--A.B.E.

[][23]] This fact is recorded in the hieroglyphic inscription upon the obelisks.--A.B.E.

[][24]] This celebrated tablet, preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, has been frequently translated, and is the subject of a valuable treatise by the late Vicomte de Rougé. It was considered authentic till Dr. Erman, in an admirable paper contributed to the Zeitschrift, 1883, showed it to have been a forgery concocted by the priests of Khonsû during the period of the Persian rule in Egypt, or in early Ptolemaic times. (See Maspero's Hist. Ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient, chap, vi., pp. 287, 288. Fourth Edition.)--A.B.E.

[][25]] The Land of Incense, called also in the inscriptions "The Land of Punt," was the country from which the Egyptians imported spices, precious woods, gums, etc. It is supposed to represent the southern coasts of the Red Sea, on either side the Bab el Mandeb. Queen Hatshepsût's famous expedition is represented in a series of coloured bas-relief sculptures on the walls of her great temple at Deir el Baharî, reproduced in Dr. Dümichen's work, The Fleet of an Egyptian Queen, and in Mariette's Deîr el Baharî. For a full account of this temple, its decoration, and the expedition of Hatshepsût, see the Deir el Baharî publications of the Egypt Exploration Fund.

[][26]] These three parts are (l) the chapel, (2) the passage, or shaft, (3) the sepulchral vault. If the latter was below the level of the chapel, as in the time of the Ancient Empire, the communication was by a sloping or vertical shaft.-- A.B.E.

[][27]] For an account of the necropolis of Medûm, see W.M.F. Petrie's Medum.

[][28]] The sarcophagus of Menkara, unfortunately lost at sea when on its way to England, was of this type. See illustration No. 19, Chapter III., in Sir E. Wilson's Egypt of the Past.--A.B.E.

[][29]] This wall scene is from the tomb of Nenka, near Sakkarah. For a coloured facsimile on a large scale, see Professor Maspero's article entitled "Trois Années de Fouilles," in Mémoires de la Mission Archéologique Française du Caire, Pl. 2. 1884.--A.B.E.

[][30]] This section is reproduced, by permission of Mr. W.M.F. Petrie, from Plate VII. of his "Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh." The vertical shaft sunk by Perring is shown going down from the floor of the subterranean unfinished chamber. The lettering along the base of the pyramid, though not bearing upon the work of Professor Maspero, has been preserved for the convenience of readers who may wish to consult Mr. Petrie's work for more minute details and measurements. This lettering refers to that part of Mr. Petrie's argument which disproves the "accretion theory" of previous writers (see "Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh" chap, xviii., p. 165).--A.B.E.

[][31]] For a full account of the Twelfth Dynasty tombs at Beni Hasan and El Bersheh see the first memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of the Egypt Exploration Fund.

[][32]] The steps are shown in fig. 150. They were discovered by General Sir F. Grenfell in 1885. Noting the remains of two parallel walls running up from the water's edge to a part of the cliff which had evidently been escarped and presented a vertical face, General Grenfell caused the sand to be cleared, thus disclosing the entrances to several rock-cut tombs dating from the Sixth and Twelfth Dynasties, as well as two flights of steps on either side of an inclined plane leading from the Nile bank to the door of one of the tombs. The distance between the two walls is ten feet. The steps are eighteen inches deep, and 250 in number. The steps were for the haulers, the mummies and sarcophagi being dragged up the inclined plane. (See p. 209.)-- A.B.E.

[][33]] M. Léfébure has lately produced a superb and elaborate volume on this tomb, with the whole of the texts and the wall decorations faithfully reproduced: Mémoires publiés par les Membres de la Mission du Caire, Vol. II., fasc. I.-- A.B.E.

[][34]] We have in this country two very fine specimens of inscribed sarcophagi; namely, that of Seti I., of beautiful alabaster, in the Soane collection (xixth Dyn.), and that of Queen Ankhnesraneferab (xxvith Dyn.) in the British Museum.-- A.B.E.

[][35]] The late T. Deveria ingeniously conjectured that "Ba-en-pet" (iron of heaven) might mean the ferruginous substance of meteoric stones. See Mélanges d'Archéologie Egyptienne et Assyrienne, vol. i.--A.B.E.

[][36]] The traces of tools upon the masonry show the use of bronze and jewel-points.--A.B.E.

[][37]] Many such trial- pieces were found by Petrie in the ruins of a sculptor's house at Tell el Amarna.

[][38]] A similar collection was found by Mr. F. Ll. Griffith at Tell Gemayemi, in 1886, during his excavations for the Egypt Exploration Fund. See Mr. Petrie's Tanis. Part II., Egypt Exploration Fund.--A.B.E.

[][39]] Mr. Loftie's collection contains, however, an interesting piece of trial-work consisting of the head of a Ptolemaic queen in red granite.--A.B.E.

[][40]] For pigments used at the beginning of the Fourth Dynasty, see Petrie's Medum.

[][41]] The rose- coloured, or rather crimson, flesh-tints are also to be seen at El Kab, and in the famous speos at Beit el Wally, both tempo Nineteenth Dynasty.--A.B.E.

[][42]] The classic Syene, from all time the southernmost portion of Egypt proper. The Sixth Dynasty is called the Elephantine, from the island immediately facing Syene which was the traditional seat of the Dynasty, and on which the temples stood. The tombs of Elephantine were discovered by General Sir F. Grenfell, K.C.B., in 1885, in the neighbouring cliffs of the Libyan Desert: see foot- note p. 149.--A.B.E.

[][43]] For an explanation of the nature of the Double, see Chapter III., pp. 111-112, 121 et seq.

[][44]] Known as the "Scribe accroupi," literally the "Squatting Scribe"; but in English, squatting, as applied to Egyptian art, is taken to mean the attitude of sitting with the knees nearly touching the chin. --A.B.E.

[][45]] "The Sheikh of the Village." This statue was best known in England as the "Wooden Man of Bûlak."--A.B.E.

[][46]] The Greek Chephren.

[][47]] I venture to think that the heads of Rahotep and Nefert, engraved from a brilliant photograph in A Thousand Miles up the Nile, give a truer and more spirited idea of the originals than the present illustrations,--A.B.E.

[][48]] That is, the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth Dynasties. --A.B.E.

[][49]] According to the measurements given by Mr. Petrie, who discovered the remains of the Tanite colossus, it must have stood ninety feet high without, and one hundred and twenty feet high with, its pedestal. See Tanis, Part I., by W.M.F. Petrie, published by the Egypt Exploration Fund, 1885.--A.B.E.

[][50]] Ameniritis, daughter of an Ethiopian king named Kashta, was the sister and successor of her brother Shabaka, and wife of Piankhi II., Twenty-fifth Dynasty. The statue is in alabaster.--A.B.E.

[][51]] A Memphite scribe of the Thirtieth Dynasty.--A.B.E.

[][52]] In Egyptian Ta-ûrt, or "the Great;" also called Apet. This goddess is always represented as a hippopotamus walking. She carries in each hand the emblem of protection, called "Sa." The statuette of the illustration is in green serpentine.--A.B.E.

[][53]] Sebakh, signifying "salt," or "saltpetre," is the general term for that saline dust which accumulates wherever there are mounds of brick or limestone ruins. This dust is much valued as a manure, or "top-dressing," and is so constantly dug out and carried away by the natives, that the mounds of ancient towns and villages are rapidly undergoing destruction in all parts of Egypt.--A.B.E.

[][54]] For an example of Graeco-Egyptian portrait painting, tempo Hadrian, see p. 291.

[][55]] Works on scarabaei are the Palin collection, published in 1828; Mr. Loftie's charming Essay of Scarabs, which is in fact a catalogue of his own specimens, admirably illustrated from drawings by Mr. W.M.F. Petrie; and Mr. Petrie's Historical Scarabs, published 1889.--A.B.E.

[][56]] These twin vases are still made at Asûan. I bought a small specimen there in 1874.-- A.B.E.

[][57]] The sepulchral vases commonly called "canopic" were four in number, and contained the embalmed viscera of the mummy. The lids of these vases were fashioned to represent the heads of the four genii of Amenti, Hapi, Tûatmûtf, Kebhsennef, and Amset; i.e, the Ape-head, the Jackal-head, the Hawk- head, and the human head.--A.B.E.

[][58]] The remains of this shrine, together with many hundreds of beautiful glass hieroglyphs, figures, emblems, etc., for inlaying, besides moulds and other items of the glassworker's stock, were discovered by Mr. F. Ll. Griffith at Tell Gemayemi, about equidistant from the mounds of Tanis and Daphnae (Sân and Defenneh) in March 1886. For a fuller account see Mr. Griffith's report, "The Antiquities of Tell el Yahudîyeh," in Seventh Memoir of the Egypt Exploration Fund. --A.B.E.

[][59]] Some of these beautiful rods were also found at Tell Gemayemi by Mr. F. Ll. Griffith, and in such sound condition that it was possible to cut them in thin slices, for distribution among various museums.--A.B.E.

[][60]] That is, of the kind known as the "false murrhine."--A.B.E.

[][61]] The yellows and browns are frequently altered greens.--A.B.E.

[][62]] One of the Eleventh Dynasty kings.

[][63]] There is a fine specimen at the Louvre, and another in the museum at Leydeu.--A.B.E.

[][64]] For an account of every stage and detail in the glass and glaze manufactures of Tell el Amarna, see W.M.F. Petrie's Tell el Amarna.

[][65]] Klaft, i.e., a headdress of folded linen. The beautiful little head here referred to is in the Gizeh Museum, and is a portrait of the Pharaoh Necho.--A.B.E.

[][66]] Apries, in Egyptian "Uahabra," the biblical "Hophra;" Amasis, Ahmes II.; both of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty.--A.B.E.

[][67]] Some specimens of these tiles may be seen in the Egyptian department at the British Museum.--A.B.E.

[][68]] We have a considerable number of specimens of these borderings, cartouches, and painted tiles representing foreign prisoners, in the British Museum; but the finest examples of the latter are in the Ambras Collection, Vienna. For a highly interesting and scholarly description of the remains found at Tell el Yahûdeh in 1870, see Professor Hayter Lewis's paper in vol. iii. of the Transactions of the Biblical Archaeological Society.--A.B.E.

[][69]] The Tat amulet was the emblem of stability.--A.B.E.

[][70]] That is, the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Dynasties.

[][71]] There is a fine specimen of one of these sledges in the Leyden Museum, and the Florentine Museum contains a celebrated Egyptian war-chariot in fine preservation.-- A.B.E.

[][72]] See the coloured frontispiece to Thebes; its Tombs and their Tenants, by A.H. Rhind. 1862.--A.B.E.

[][73]] Since the publication of this work in the original French, a very splendid specimen of a royal Egyptian chair of state, the property of Jesse Haworth, Esq., was placed on view at the Manchester Jubilee Exhibition. It is made of dark wood, apparently rosewood; the legs being shaped like bull's legs, having silver hoofs, and a solid gold cobra snake twining round each leg. The arm- pieces are of lightwood with cobra snakes carved upon the flat in low relief, each snake covered with hundreds of small silver annulets, to represent the markings of the reptile. This chair, dated by a fragment of a royal cartouche, belonged to Queen Hatshepsût, of the Eighteenth Dynasty. It is now in the British Museum.--A.B.E.

[][74]] In this cut, as well as in the next, the loom is represented as if upright; but it is supposed to be extended on the ground.--A.B.E.

[][75]] For a chromolithographic reproduction of this work as a whole, with drawings of the separate parts, facsimiles of the inscriptions, etc., see The Funeral Tent of an Egyptian Queen, by H. Villiers Stuart.--A.B.E.

[][76]] An unusually fine specimen of carpet, or tapestry work from Ekhmîm, representing Cupids rowing in papyrus skiffs, landscapes, etc., has recently been presented to the British Museum by the Rev. G.J. Chester. The tapestry found at Ekhmîm is, however, mostly of the Christian period, and this specimen probably dates from about A.D. 700 or A.D. 600.--A.B.E.

[][77]] From the inscription upon the obelisk of Hatshepsût which is still erect at Karnak. For a translation in full see Records of the Past, vol. xii., p. 131, et seqq.--A.B.E.

[][78]] Mr. Petrie suggests that this curious central object may be a royal umbrella with flaps of ox-hide and tiger-skin.--A.B.E.

[][79]] That is, lentil- shaped, or a double convex.--A.B.E.

[INDEX.]

• Aahhotep, [157], [323]-[330].
• Aahhotep II., [288]-[289].
• Aalû, fields of, [163]-[164], [167].
• Abacus, [52]-[54], [58], [61], [116].
• Abi, [273].
• Abû Roash, [113], [134].
• Abû Simbel
  • (See [TEMPLES], etc.).
• [Abûsîr], [114], [131], [134], [138], [140].
• [Abydos]
  • (See [FORTRESSES], [TEMPLES], [TOMBS], etc.).
• Acacia, [203], [274].
• Adze, of iron, [283], [304].
• Affi
  • (See [TOMB]).
• Agate, [247].
• Ahmes I., [267], [307], [317], [323], [324], [325], [326], [327], [328], [329].
• [Ahmes II.], [269] and note.
  • (See [AMASIS]).
• Ahmesnefertari, [288]-[289].
• Ahnas el Medineh, [259].
• Aï, [15], [155], [158].
• Aimadûa
  • (See [TOMB]).
• Akhonûti, [16].
• [Alabaster], [6], [42], [47], [65], [128], [141], [166], [169], [180], [252], [253]-[254].
• Albumen, [203].
• Alexander, his tomb, [242].
• Alexander II., colossus of, [241].
• Alexandria, [52], [241], [243], [303].
• Alumina, [260].
• [Amasis], [269] and note, [302]
  • (See [AHMES II.] II.).
• Amber, [247].
• Ambras Collection, in Vienna, [272] (note).
• Amen
  • (See [GODS]).
• Amen Ra
  • (See [GODS]).
• Amenemhat II., [76], [322].
• [Amenemhat III.], [76], [143], [228]
  • (See [MOERIS]).
• [Amenhotep I.], [157], [229], [287].
• Amenhotep II., [53].
• [Amenhotep III.], [67], [69], [76], [77], [80], [103], [147], [158], [179], [226], [229], [230], [266], [275], [312], [318].
  • (See [MEMNON]).
• [Ameni]
  • (See [TOMB]).
• Ameni Entef Amenemhat, [107].
• Ameniritis, [235] and note.
• Amethyst, [246], [250].
• Amphorae, [35], [36], [127], [264].
• Ampullae, [269].
• Amset, genius, [258] (note).
• [Amulets], materials and forms of, [100], [167], [246]-[250], [259], [265], [286].
• Ancient Empire,--
  • art of
    • (See [BAS-RELIEF], [SCULPTURE], and [STATUE]).
  • domestic architecture of, [19].
  • fortress of, [27].
  • tombs of
    • (See [MASTABAS] and [PYRAMIDS]).
• Andro-sphinx, [89], [228]-[229].
• Angareb, or Nubian bed, [281], [292].
• Anhûr
  • (See [GODS]).
• [Ankh], [286], [288].
• Ankhnesraneferab, sarcophagus of, [165] (note).
• Anklets, [321].
• Anna
  • (See [TOMB]).
• Antelopes, [176], [299], [326].
• Antimony, [254], [267]
  • (See [KOHL]).
• Antonines, [244], [245].
• Antoninus Pius, his chapel at Philae, [100].
• Anubis
  • (See [GODS]).
• Anvil, [313].
• [Apapi], the serpent, [164].
• Ape, [171], [176], [199], [254], [269], [322].
• Apepi, King of Avaris, [228].
• [Apet]
  • (See [GODDESSES], [TAÛRT], [THÛERIS]).
• [Apis]
  • (See [GODS]).
• Apries, [269] and note, [311]
  • (See [HOPHRA] and [ÛAHABRA]).
• Aquamarine, the, [246].
• Arabs,--
  • their destructive conquest, [134].
  • their name for table of offerings, [107].
• Archers, [29], [184].
• Architecture,--
  • military, [24]-[34].
  • of private dwellings, [1]-[20].
  • of public works, [34]-[45].
  • temples, [46]-[110].
  • tombs, [111]-[168].
    • (See [MASTABAS], [PYRAMIDS], etc.).
• Architraves, [46], [52], [53], [54], [63], [65], [93].
• Argo, colossi of, [227].
• Arms, [157], [166].
  • battle-axe, [329].
  • boomerangs, [273], [329].
  • bows and arrows, [184], [329].
  • bronze, [305].
  • lance, [232].
  • poignards, [273], [327]-[328].
• Arsenic, sulphuret of, orpiment, [203].
• Ascalon, [31].
• Asia, [91], [312].
• Asia Minor, [248], [280], [320].
• Asimû
  • (See [ELECTRUM]).
• Ass, in drawings, [171], [175].
• Assyria, invasion of Egypt by, [314].
• Astronomical tables, [92]-[94], [164].
• [Asûan], [45], [53], [67], [148]-[150], [209] and note, [226], [228], [256] (note), [259], [265].
  • (See [SYENE] and [TOMBS]).
• Athena, [302].
• Athens, bronze of the Lady Takûshet at, [308].
• Ati, pyramid of, [142].
• Avaris, [228].
• Avenue of Sphinxes, [67].
  • at Karnak, [87], [88]-[89], [230].
• Axe,--
  • battle, [327], [329].
  • iron, [304].
  • stone, [201].
• Axûm, obelisk at, [106].

• [Ba], or Bi, the soul, [111], [112].
  • abode of the, [128].
  • abode of the, its decoration, [142], [156]-[157], [162]-[165].
  • following the sun at night, [159].
  • statuettes to serve as body for, [167].
  • transmigration of, [164].
• Bab el Mandeb, [109] (note).
• Ba-en-pet, [196] and note.
  • (See [IRON]).
• Bakenrenf
  • (See [TOMB]).
• Bakhtan, stela of, [109] and note.
• Bari, or boat of the Sun, [108].
• [Barks], sacred and funerary, [66], [77], [95], [108], [159], [164], [166], [249], [301], [329]-[330].
• Basalt, [42], [127], [169], [196], [236], [237], [252].
• Basilisk, [201]
  • (See [URAEUS].)
• [Bas-relief],--
  • Abû Simbel, [229].
  • Egyptian forms of, [197]-[199].
  • gems, [249].
  • gilded, [313].
  • ivory, [273].
  • models for study of, [197].
  • New Empire, [228]-[229].
  • painting of, [205]-[206].
  • preparation of walls for, [192]-[193].
  • Roman period, [245].
  • sketches for, [193]-[195].
  • speos of Horemheb, [232].
  • Tell el Amarna, [231].
  • Temple of Abydos, [232].
  • Tomb of Seti I., [232].
    • (See [PAINTING], [SCULPTURE], and [WALL-SCENES].)
• Bast
  • (See [GODDESSES]).
• Bastions, [28], [29], [32].
• Battlements, [14], [24], [25], [32], [50].
• Beads, [168], [247], [261], [324].
• Beams, [6], [30].
  • of stone, [140].
• Beard,--
  • false, of statue of Horemheb, [233].
  • of sphinx, [208].
• Bedawîn, [20], [42], [101].
• Beds, [281], [292].
  • funerary, [292]-[294].
• Beer, at funerary feast, [180].
• Beetles
  • (See [SCARABAEI]).
• Begig, obelisk of, [105].
• Beit el Wally
  • (See [TEMPLES] and [HEMI-SPEOS]).
• [Beni Hasan]
  • (See [TOMBS]).
• Beni Sûef, [38].
• Berlin Museum, parure of jewels at, [322].
• Bersheh
  • (See [TOMBS]).
• Bes
  • (See [GODS]).
• Bezel, of rings, [321]-[322], [331].
• Bi
  • (See [BA ]).
• Bird, human-handed, [91].
• Birket el Kûrûn, lake of, [38], [39].
• Blocks, building,--
  • dressing, [47], Notes [6] and [7].
  • in pyramids, [132], Note[15], [139], Note [33].
  • raising, [49].
  • sizes, [49].
  • working, [49], Note [7].
• Boats, toy, [282].
  • transport by, [45], [132].
    • (See [BARKS].)
• Bonding, [48]-[49].
• Bone, work in, [272]-[273].
• [Book] of Knowing that which is in Hades, [172].
• Book of Ritual of Burial, [157].
• Book of Ritual of Embalmment, [157].
• Book of the Dead, [129], [157], [165], [172]-[175], [205], [284]-[285].
• Book of the Opening of the Mouth, [165].
• Bowls, of blue glazed pottery, [268].
• Bracelets, [249], [276], [308], [324]-[325], [331], [332].
• Braces, [298], [327].
• Bread,--
  • making of, depicted in tombs, etc., [124], [127], [224].
  • offerings of, [166].
• Breccia, [42], [236], [254].
• [Bricks],--
  • baked, [4].
  • for pyramids, [132].
  • glazed, [4], [270], Note [4].
  • in civil and military architecture, [46].
  • making of, [3]-[4], Notes [2] and [3].
  • of mud and straw, [3], [114].
  • sun-dried, [3], [21], [113]-[114], [145].
  • without straw, [113], [145].
• Brickwork,--
  • civil and military architecture, [46].
  • dikes, [38].
  • domestic architecture, [3], [5], [6].
  • enclosure walls of temples, [67], [87].
  • foundations, [48].
  • mastabas, [113], [114].
  • panels, [22].
  • pyramid-mastabas, [145]-[146].
  • undulating courses, [22], [27].
• Bridge of Zarû, [35].
• Bridges, rarity of, [35].
• British Museum, [171], [270] (note), [272] (note), [295], [303].
• Brocade (polymita), [303].
• [Bronze], [105], [195], [196], [248], [260], [261], [304] et seq., [328].
• Bronzes, [307]-[312].
• Brush, hair, [203].
  • reed, [170], [171].
• [Bubastis], [1], [52], [58], [88], [266], [308], [310]
  • (See [TELL BASTA]).
• Bubastites
  • (See [DYNASTY XXII].).
• "Bûlak, Wooden Man of, "[214] (note).
  • (See [RAEMKA] and [SHEIKH EL BELED]).
• Bull, [199].
  • (See [GODS], [APIS]).
• Burin, [305], [325].

• [Cabinet-making], [124]. [273]. [282] et seq.
• Caesars
  • (See [ROMAN PERIOD]).
• Calaite, [247].
• Caligula, [245].
• Cameos, [332].
• Canaanites, [31].
• Canal of Zarû, [35].
• Canals, [37], [45].
• Canopic vases, [167], [252]-[253], [258]-[259], [292].
• Canopy, funerary, [293]-[295], [299]-[301].
• Capitals
  • (See [COLUMNS] and [PILLARS]).
• Caricatures, [171]-[172].
• Carnelian, [247], [250], [324], [325], [328].
• Cartonnage, [167].
• Cartouches, [4], [48], [61], [250], [262], [271], [278], [299], [302], [322], [323], [324], [326], [328], [329].
• Caryatid statues, [288].
• Casing stones, [47], [65], Notes [7] and [9], [132], Note [15], [134], Note [20], [138], Note [32].
• Cat, [171], [172], [311].
• Cattle, [13], [25], [155].
• Cedar wood, [329].
• Ceiling decoration, [18]-[19], [92], [94], [141], [163]-[164].
• Cella, [58].
• Cellars, [35], [36].
• Cement, [52], [192], [194].
• Census, [155].
• Ceremonies, religious, performed by king, [95]-[97], [101]-[103].
• Chains, [155], [325]-[326].
  • measuring, [155].
• Chairs, [179], [281], [295]-[296].
• Champollion, [26], [55], [271].
• [Chapel],--
  • furniture of, [166].
  • of mastabas, [116] et pas.
  • of pyramids, [131] et pas., [144].
  • painting and sculpture in, [121] et seq., [141]- 142.
  • reception room of Ka, [118] et seq.
    • (See [ABÛSÎR], [ABYDOS], [AMENHOTEP], [AMENI], [APIS], [DAHSHÛR], [GIZEH], [GÛRNEH], [KHNÛMHOTEP], [MEDINET HABÛ], [MEROË], [RAMESSEUM], [THÛERIS].)
• Chariots, [183], [292].
• [Chenoboscion], [45] (note).
  • (See [KASR ES SAÎD]).
• Cheops
  • (See [KHÛFÛ]).
• Chephren
  • (See [KHAFRA]).
• Chester, the Rev. G.J., [303] (note).
• Chests, [281], [283].
• Chisels, [45], [195], [214], [304].
• Chlamys, [242].
• Chrysoprase, [246].
• Cinnabar, [203].
• Cisterns, [41].
• Claudius, [245].
• Clay, potter's, of Nile valley, [254]-[255].
  • (See [BRICKS], [POTTERY]).
• Clerestory, [71].
• Coffins, [157], [259]
  • (See [MUMMY-CASES] and [SARCOPHAGI]).
• Coins and medals, no Egyptian, [313].
• Collar, Order of the Golden, [155].
• Colonnade, [17], [48], [67]-[68], [75], [79].
• Colossi, [83], [103], [106], [202], [226]-[230], [232], [241].
• [Columns], monolithic, and built in courses, [52].
  • campaniform, [56]-[59].
  • Hathor-headed, [61]-[62].
  • lotus-bud, [59]-[61].
  • types of, [55].
• Concrete, [128].
• Cones, funerary, [166], [257].
• Contra Esneh, [57].
• [Contra Latopolis], [61]
  • (See [EL KAB]).
• Copper, [35], [105], [203], [304], [305], [321].
• Coptic embroidery, [303] and note.
• [Coptos] (Koft), [1], [243], [245], [303].
• Coral, [247].
• "Corbelling," [51], [52].
• Corn, [36]-[37], [97].
• Cornice, [9], [15], [24], [50], [53], [61], [148].
• Cos, [302].
• Courtyard,--
  • of houses, [9], [16].
  • of temples, [67], [144].
• Covering walls, [25], [29], [30], [32].
• Cramps, metal, [48].
• Crane, machine, [49],
• Crio-sphinx, [88], [89].
• Crocodile, [171], [189].
• Cruets, [318], [320].
• Crypts, of temples, [75], [84].
• Crystals, [250].
• Cups,--
  • of glazed pottery, [268].
  • of gold and silver, [316]-[317].
• Curtain wall, [30].
• Curve, favourite ancient Egyptian, [283].
• Cylinders, of enamelled stone, [265].
• Cynocephali, [164], [167], [199], [322].
• Cyprus, supposed glass of, [263].

• [Dahshûr], [113], [114], [131], [134], [142], [323].
• Dakkeh, [2].
• Damanhûr, [332].
• [Dams],--
  • embanked, [38].
  • of stone, [40]-[41].
• Dancers, [177], [178].
• [Daphnae], [36] and note
  • (See [TAHPANHES] and [TELL DEFENNEH]).
• Dapûr, [30], [31].
• [Date] palms, [15], [274].
• Decani, [93].
• Decoration, subjects of, [11], [12], [18]-[20], [21]-[22].
  • geometrical, [19], [256], [258], [295], [298].
    • (See [COLUMNS], [PAINTING], [SCULPTURE].)
• [Deir el Baharî], [51], [53], [61], [83], [85] and note, [109] (note), [180], [229], [264], [266], [287], [299], [302].
• Deir el Gebrawî
  • (See [TOMBS]).
• Deirel Medineh
  • (See [TEMPLES]).
• Delta, the, [4], [31], [37], [209], [235], [241], [243], [310], [311].
• Denderah
  • (See [TEMPLES]).
• Derr, [84].
• Deveria, T., [196] (note).
• Dice, of ivory, [273].
• Die, of column, [57].
• [Dike],--
  • of Kosheish, [38].
  • Wady Garraweh, [40].
  • Wady Genneh, [41].
• Diorite, [42], [169], [196], [224], [254].
• Disc, winged, [294].
• Dolls, [282].
• [Dôm palms], [15], [274], [318].
• [Door], [9], [25], [68], [104], [135], [150], [151], [160], [285].
  • false, for KA, [115], [119]-[121], [125], [130], [141],
• Door-jambs, [26], [46], [47], [116], [119], [151].
• Double, the
  • (See [KA]).
• Dovetails, [48].
• Drah Abû'l Neggeh, [147], [158], [266].
• Draught-box, [273].
• [Drawing], [169]-[170].
  • conventional system of, [175]-[179].
  • teaching of, [169]-[170].
  • want of perspective in, [182]-[191].
    • (See [PAINTING] and [SCULPTURE].)
• Dress, [219], [274]-[276], [327].
  • articles of,--
  • braces, [298], [327].
  • girdle, [178], [274], [278].
  • head-dress, [241], [276], [286].
  • kilt, [201], [275].
  • klaft, [227], [267].
  • petticoat, [276], [286].
  • robe, embroidered, [308].
  • sandals, [168], [286], [298].
  • surcoat, [302].
  • tunic, [225], [279].
  • vest, [275], [286].
  • wig, [236], [275], [286], [308], [310].
• Drill, [195], [247], [250], [282].
• Duality, [96]-[97].
• Ducks, [15], [20], [306].
• Dümichen, [109] (note).
• Dwarf, statue of, [224]-[226].
• Dynasty III. (Memphite),--
  • possible wood panels of, [210].
• Dynasty IV. (Memphite),--
  • decoration, [89]-[90].
  • funerary temples, [64] and note, [66].
  • mastabas of, [117], [118], [124], [125], [126], [128],
  • obelisks, [104].
  • pigments, [202] (note).
  • pyramids, [134]-[137], [140].
  • sarcophagus, [19], [20], [21].
  • scarabaei, [250].
  • statuary, [214].
• Dynasty V. (Memphite),--
  • Abydos, [22].
  • elephants, [273].
  • flesh tints, [204].
  • ivory statuette, [273].
  • mastabas, [117], [119], [120], [122].
  • models of offerings, [252].
  • monuments, [208]-[209].
  • painters' palettes, [202].
  • panels, carved wood, [210].
  • pyramids, [139]-[140].
  • tables of offerings, [107].
• Dynasty VI. (Elephantine),--
  • in Abydos, Asûan, the Delta, Hermopolis, Thebes, [209] and note.
  • bricks, [113].
  • flesh tints, [204].
  • fortress, [2].
  • mastabas, [157].
  • pyramids, [140], [142].
  • scarabaei, [250].
  • tomb-paintings, [21].
  • tombs, [128], [129], [130], [149] (note), [155], [204], [209] (note).
• Dynasty XI. (Theban),--
  • blue glaze, [265]-[266].
  • canopic vases, [167].
  • chairs, [295].
  • fortress, [23].
  • funerary statuettes, [253].
  • mummy-cases, [286].
  • statuary, [226].
  • tombs, [147].
• Dynasty XII. (Theban),--
  • blue glaze, [266].
  • fortress, [23], [28].
  • houses, [7], [8], [12], [281]-[282].
  • jewellery[322], [323]
    • (See [KAHÛN]).
  • Karnak, [76].
  • models of offerings, [252].
  • pyramids[132], [142], [143].
  • statuary, [228], [229].
  • temples, [66].
  • tombs[149] (note), [156]
    • (See [BENI HASAN]).
• Dynasty XIII. (Theban),--
  • funerary couch, [293]-[294].
  • Karnak, [76].
  • statuary, [226]-[227], [229], [273]-[274].
  • statuettes, [233], [273].
• Dynasty XIV. (Xoïte),--
  • Karnak, [76].
  • statuary, [226]-[227].
• Dynasty XVII. (Theban),--
  • draught-box, [273].
  • jewellery, [323] et seq.
  • sarcophagi, [287].
• Dynasty XVIII. (Theban),--
  • in Abydos, [22].
  • blue glaze, [268].
  • Book of the Dead, [173].
  • bronzes, [307].
  • canopic vases, [258].
  • chair, [296]-[297] (note).
  • colossi, [229]-[230].
  • domestic architecture, [14] et seq.
  • gold and silver plate, [316], [318], [319], [320],
  • gold and silver statues, [314]-[315].
  • jewellery, [323] et seq.
  • Karnak, [76]-[77].
  • in Memphis, [88].
  • mummy-cases, [288]-[289].
  • painters' palettes, [202].
  • scarabaei, [250].
  • sculpture, [229]-[231].
  • Speos-sanctuaries, [82], [83], [85].
  • stelae, [45].
  • in Thebes, [88]-[89].
  • tomb-paintings, [12], [14], [15], [16], [17].
  • tombs, [155] et seq.
  • wars, [31].
• Dynasty XIX. (Theban),--
  • blue glaze of, [268].
  • bronzes, [307].
  • colossi, [234].
  • domestic architecture, [19].
  • flesh tints, [205].
  • fortifications, [31], [34].
  • gold and silver plate, [317], [321].
  • gold and silver statues, [314].
  • jewellery, [331].
  • Karnak, [78].
  • mummy-cases, [289].
  • tombs, [158] et pas.
• Dynasty XX. (Theban),--
  • blue glaze, [268].
  • canopic vases, [258].
  • domestic architecture, [19].
  • fortresses, [33]
    • (See [MEDINET HABÛ]).
  • gold and silver plate, [317].
  • jewellery, [332].
  • leather-work, [300], [301].
  • sketches, [171].
  • stela of Bakhtan, [109] (note).
  • temple of Khonsû, [70]-[72].
  • tiles (Tell el Yahûdeh), [270]-[272].
  • tomb-paintings, [20].
  • tomb-robberies, [323].
  • tombs, [158] et pas..
  • varnish, [203]-[204].
  • wood-carving, [235], [274].
• Dynasty XXI. (Priest-kings),--
  • papyri, [174].
  • sculpture, [228].
  • tomb[158] (tomb of Herhor).
• [Dynasty XXII]. (Bubastite),--
  • bronzes, [307].
  • leather-work, [299], [300].
  • Karnak, [79].
• [Dynasty XXV]. (Ethiopian),--
  • art, [235].
  • Karnak, [79].
• Dynasty XXVI. (Saïte),--
  • ampullae, [268], [269].
  • bronzes, [307], [311]-[312].
  • glass, [263].
  • gold statuettes, [315].
  • Renaissance, [235] et seq.
  • sculpture, [236] et seq.
  • table of offerings, [252].
  • tombs, [165].
• Dynasty XXXI. (Persian),--
  • tapestry, [303].

• Earrings, [331], [332].
• Earthquake,--
  • building to resist, [22].
  • of B.C.27, at Karnak, [79].
  • of B.C.22, at Thebes, [244].
• Ebony, [295], [323].
• Edfû
  • (See [TEMPLES]).
• Edinburgh Museum, funerary canopy in, [293]-[294].
• Eggs, [259].
• Egypt Exploration Fund,--
  • at Bersheh, [148] (note).
  • at Bubastis, [52] (note).
  • at Daphnae, [36] (note).
  • at Deir el Baharî, [83], [85].
  • at Pithom, [36] (note).
  • at Tanis, [104] (note).
  • at Tell Gemayemi, [200] (note), [262] (note).
• Ekhmîm, [14], [247], [259], [291], [293], [297], [303] and note.
• El Agandiyeh, [1].
• El Hibeh, [2], [33].
  • at Beni Hasan, [148] (note).
• [El Kab], [2], [20], [26], [27], [54], [69], [88], [228], [265]
  • (See [CONTRA LATOPOLIS]).
• El Khozam, [256].
• [Electrum], [304], [312], [313].
• Elephant, [273].
• Elephantine, [148], [209] (note), [273], [275].
  • (See [TEMPLES]).
• Embroidery, [276], [302], [303], [308].
• Emerald, [41], [246], [250].
• Enamel, [265]-[272].
  • in jewellery, [289], [322], [325], [327].
• Erman, on Stela of Bakhtan, [109] (note).
• Erment, [247].
• Esneh, [92], [144], [245].
• Ethiopia, [106], [318].
• Ethiopian Dynasty
  • (See [DYNASTY XXV].).
• Etruria, imitated scarabs of, [248].
• Eye,--
  • as amulet, [247]-[248].
  • in decoration, [268].
  • on sarcophagi, [285].
  • sacred, [168].
    • (See [ÛTA]).
• Eyes of statues, [261], [310].
• Fan, [323].
• Fayûm, the, [19], [38], [39], [66], [105], [134], [243], [259], [261], [304].
• [Feast],--
  • funerary, [118], [123], [125], [166].
  • funerary of Horemheb, [179]-[180].
• Feasts, [118].
• Felspar, [247], [250], [324], [328], [329].
• Ferry, [34].
• Feshn, [33].
• Figs, [267].
• Fires, [2], [12].
• Fire-sticks, [282].
• Fish,--
  • in decoration, [268], [278], [316].
  • in enamel, [267].
  • offerings of, [228].
• Florence Museum, Egyptian war-chariot in, [292] (note).
• Flowers
  • (See [LOTUS]),
  • in temples, [67].
  • offerings of, [180], [228].
• Fords, [34].
• [Fortresses], [20]-[34].
  • of Abydos, [20]-[26].
  • of El Kab, [20], [27].
  • of Kom el Ahmar, [25], [26].
  • of Kûmmeh, [28]-[29].
  • of Semneh, [28]-[30].
• Foundations, [47], [48].
• Frieze, [97].
• Frog, as amulet, [247].
• Frontier, [28], [31], [36]-[37].
• Furnaces, glass, [259], [260].
• [Furniture], [281]-[284].
  • ancient Egyptian love of beautiful, [246].
  • funerary, [128], [166]-[168], [251] et seq., [292] et seq.
  • funerary, of poor, [167]-[168], [255].

• Galleries,--
  • in houses, [17].
• Garden, of private house, [13], [14], [15].
• Garnet, [246].
  • scarabaei of, [250].
• Gazelle, [123], [128], [153], [171], [176], [180], [252].
• Gebel Abûfeydeh, [44], [45].
• Gebel Barkal
  • (See [TEMPLES]).
• Gebel Sheikh Herideh, [45].
• [Gebel Silsileh]
  • (See [TEMPLES]).
• Gebeleyn, [33], [256].
• Geese, [15], [19], [166], [171], [177], [296], [306].
• Genii, [159], [164], [258] (note).
  • of On, Sop, and Khonû, [96], [324].
• Gerf Husein, [85].
• Girgeh, [14], [38].
• [Gizeh]
  • (See [PYRAMIDS], [TEMPLES], [TOMBS]).
• Gizeh, Museum, [4], [106], [107], [171], [174], [195], [214], [216]-[226], [227], [229], [232]-[233] [237], [239], [241], [242], [244], [262], [265], [267], [268], [271], [273], [274], [275], [278], [286], [298], [301], [306], [307], [308], [309], [315], [316], [323]-[330], [331].
• [Glass], [259]-[265].
  • factories, at El Kab, the Ramesseum, Tell el Amarna, Tell Eshmûneyn, [265].
  • factory at Tell Gemayemi, [262] (note).
• [Glazed stone and ware], [165]-[172]
  • (See [POTTERY]).
• Goat, [176].
• [Gods],--
  • Amen, [33], [97], [101], [104], [105], [109], [171], [231], [232], [249], [268], [289], [307], [315], [327].
  • Amen Ra, [96].
  • Anhûr, [311].
  • Anubis, [168], [304].
  • Apis, [147], [263].
  • Bes, [53], [57], [254], [277], [318].
  • Harpocrates, [307].
  • Hor (Horus), [96], [105].
  • Horus (Hor), [64], [96], [105], [207], [259], [267], [309]-[310], [314]
  • Khonsû, [60], [64], [70], [72], [74], [75], [97], [109] and note, [235].
  • Mentû, [97], [329].
  • Min, [118].
  • Nefertûm, [310], [314].
  • Osiris, [20], [53], [54], [95], [142], [168], [189], [237], [249], [304],
  • Ptah, [168], [315].
  • Ra, [208], [327].
  • Ra Harmakhis, [105].
  • Seb, [324].
  • Set (Typhon), [96], [196].
  • Shû, [311].
  • Thoth, [96], [118], [167], [259], [314].
  • Tûm, [105].
• [Goddesses],--
  • Apet, [237] (note).
  • Bast, [168], [311].
  • Hathor, [53], [54], [55], [61], [62], [69], [70], [82], [83], [97], [168], [237].
  • Isis, [95], [241], [247], [249], [250], [287], [294], [310], [314].
  • Khûit, [259].
  • Ma, [262], [294].
  • Maut, [97], [289].
  • Neith, [250].
  • Nekheb, [92].
  • Nephthys, [237], [249], [250], [287], [294], [310].
  • Pakhet, [42], [82].
  • Sekhet, [250], [277], [311].
  • Sothis, [118].
  • Taûrt, [237] (note).
  • Tefnût, [311].
  • Thûeris, [237].
  • Ûati, [92].
• [Gold], [11], [304], [312]-[321].
• Goldsmith, [313].
• Golenischeff, [228].
• Gouge, [195].
• Granaries, [1], [10], [36].
• Granite, [6], [47], [66], [76], [103], [132], [136], [137], [169], [196], [197], [199], [214], [247], [254], [290].
  • black, [42], [165], [233].
  • grey, [41], [236], [244].
  • red, [42], [52], [65], [77], [107], [127], [165], [232], [236],
• Grapes, models, [166], [267].
• Greeks,--
  • Egyptian fortification in time of, [34].
  • Egyptian patterns among, [320].
  • their imitation scarabs, [248].
  • their influence on astronomical tables, [93]
  • their influence on columns, [56].
  • their influence on jewellery, [332].
  • their influence on sculpture, [241]-[24].
  • their peripteral temples, [69].
  • their similar system of building construction, [48].
  • their theory of mounds, [5].
    • (See [PTOLEMAIC PERIOD].)
• Grenfell, Major-General Sir F., [149] (note), and [209] (note).
• Greyhound, in drawings, [176].
• Griffith, F. Ll., [200] (note), [262] (note).
• Grindstone, [247].
• Gum tragacanth, [203].
• [Gûrneh], [60].
• Gypsum, [203].
• Hadrian, [243], [245] (note).
• Hairpins, [277].
• Hammamat, valley of, [41].
• Hammer, [195], [313].
• Hapi, genius, [258] (note).
• Hapizefa
  • (See [TOMB]).
• Harpocrates
  • (See [GODS]).
• Hatasû
  • (See [HATSHEPSÛT]).
• Hathor
  • (See [GODDESSES]).
• [Hatshepsût] (Hatasû), [42], [77], [85], [104], [105], [109] and note, [296] (note), [313] and note.
• Hawara, [257], [291].
• Hawk, [254], [259], [267], [322], [326].
• Haworth, Mr. Jesse, [296] (note).
• Headrest, [128], [166], [277].
• Hedgehog, [254], [267].
• Hekalli, [144].
• Heliopolis, [26], [32], [103], [104], [309].
• Helwân, dam at baths of, [40].
• Hematite, [247], [250].
• [Hemi-speos],--
  • Beit el Wally, [84], [205] (note), [235].
  • Deir el Baharî, [83], [85].
  • Derr, [84].
  • Gerf Husein, [85].
  • Wady Sabûah, [85].
• Herhor, [158], [261], [288].
• Hermopolis, [209].
• Herodotus, [38], [39]-[40], [88], [195].
• Hesî, [210].
• [Hieroglyphs], [55], [60], [180], [236], [257], [261]-[262] and note, [268], [270], [284], [285], [289], [300], [316], [325].
• Hippopotamus, [189], [236].
• Hittites, [31], [185].
  • (See [KHETA]).
• Honey, [203], [254].
• [Hophra], the biblical, [269].
• Hor Horus
  • (See [GODS]).
• Hor, portrait statue of one, [242].
• Horbeit, [311], [312].
• Horemheb, [50], [52], [53], [82], [155], [158], [179]-[180], [205], [231], [232], [233].
• Horhotep
  • (See [TOMB]).
• Hori Ra, wooden statuette of, [275].
• Hori, scribe, ûshabtiû of, [257].
• Horn, objects in, [272].
• Horse, date of introduction of, [153]-[154].
• Horshesû, [64] and note.[207].
• Horus
  • (See [GODS]).
• Horûta, [257].
• Houses, [1]-[20].
• Hûi
  • (See [TOMB]).
• Hûnefer, his papyrus, [173]-[174].
• Huts, [20], [8].
• Hyksos sphinxes
  • (See [PERIOD]).
• Hypostyle hall, [72], [74], [76], [89], [92], [102], [106].
  • Abû Simbel, [84].
  • Abydos, [60], [85]-[86].
  • Gûrneh, [60].
  • Kalaat Addah, [82].
  • Karnak, [34] (note), [46], [57], [60], [62]-[63], [76], [78], [79], [100].
  • temple of Khonsû, [71].
  • Medinet Habû, [60].
  • Ramesseum, [57], [60].

• Ibis, [259].
• Ibrahim, Prince, [240].
• Illahûn, [39], [143].
• Incense, [95], [126], [273].
• Ink, black, [4], [170], [193], [285].
  • red, [44], [170], [171], [193], [285].
• Inscriptions, absence of in Temple of Sphinx, [66].
  • obelisk, [313] and note.
  • pyramid of Ûnas, [163].
  • sarcophagi, [127], [157], [165].
  • tombs, [141]-[142], [151], [155]-[156].
    • (See [HIEROGLYPHS]).
• [Iron], [195]-[197], [304].
• [Irrigation], [35], [37]-[41].
• Isiemkheb, [180], [299]-[300].
• Isis
  • (See [GODDESSES]).
• Italy, Egyptian patterns in, [320].
• Ivory, [272], [273]-[274], [283].

• Jade, [254].
• Jasper, [247], [250].
• [Jewellery], [249], [321]-[333].
• Jews, [303].
• Jomard, [55].

• Kaâpir
  • (See [TOMB]).
• [Kadesh] (Qodshû), [31], [101], [185], [187].
• [Kahûn], Twelfth Dynasty Town, [1], [6] (note), [7], [282].
• Kalaat Addah
  • (See [TEMPLES]).
• Kalabsheh
  • (See [TEMPLES]).
• Kames, [323], [330].
• [Ka], or Double, [111], [112], [118], [130], [141]-[142], [156]-[157], [162], [163], [165]-[167], [212], [214], [257].
• Ka-name of Pepi I, [270].
• [Karnak]
  • (See [TEMPLES]).
• Kashta, [235] (note).
• [Kasr es Saîd]
  • (See [CHENOBOSCION]).
• Kebhsennef, [258] (note).
• Keneh, [265], [332].
• Khabiûsokari
  • (See [TOMB]).
• [Khafra] (Chephren), [89], [133], [137], [134], [214], [217]-[218], [224], [253].
• Khamha
  • (See [TOMB]).
• Kheper, or Khepra
  • (See [SCARABAEI]).
• [Kheta], [101], [185], [187]-[188].
• Khetî
  • (See [TOMB]).
• Khmûnû, [148].
• [Khnûmhotep]
  • (See [TOMB]).
• Khonsû
  • (See [GODS]).
• Khonû, [96], [324].
• Khû, the, [111], [112].
• Khûenaten (Amenhotep IV.), [15], [155], [230].
• [Khûfû] (Cheops), [133], [134]-[137], [206], [312], [314].
• Khûfû Poskhû, [20], [22].
• Khûit
  • (See [GODDESSES]).
• Klaft, [227], [306].
• Knives, [304], [306].
• Koft, I
  • (See [COPTOS]).
• [Kohl] (antimony, collyrium), [254], [266], [273].
• Kom ed Damas, [242].
• Kom el Ahmar, [2], [25], [26].
• Kom es Sultan, [21], [23], [27].
• [Kom Ombo]
  • (See [OMBOS] and [TEMPLES]).
• Kosheish, [38].
• Kûmmeh, [28].
• Kûrnet Murraee, [263], [294].

• Labyrinth, the, [59].
• Lake Moeris, [38]-[40].
• Lakes, sacred, [77].
• Lamp, [19], [307].
• Lapis-lazuli, [203], [247], [250], [304], [324], [325], [328], [329].
• Lasso, [95].
• Lattice, [11].
• Lead, [304].
• Leather, [292], [298]-[301].
• Léfébure, M, [161].
• Leopard, [176].
• Lewis, Prof. Hayter, [272] (note).
• Leyden Museum, [266] (note), [292] (note).
• [Libations]
  • (See [OFFERINGS]).
• Libyan cliffs and plateau, [39], [113], [207], [209] (note).
• Libyans, [21], [207], [209] (note).
• Limestone, [42], [47], [65], [76], [107], [113], [127], [132], [135], [138], [139], [140], [147], [148], [166], [169], [192], [195], [200], [224], [232], [236], [252], [253], [254], [265], [312].
• Linant, M, [39].
• Lindos, [302].
• Linen, [130], [286], [302], [314].
• Lintels, [9], [26], [46], [47], [150], [151].
• Lion, [171], [176], [199], [293], [295], [322].
• Lisht, [89], [134], [252].
• Loftie, the Rev. W.J., [201] (note).[249] (note).
• Looms, [297], [298].
• [Lotus], [34] (note), [57], [58], [60]-[61], [62], [64], [116], [180], [247], [254], [266], [268], [269]. [271], [273], [277], [278], [279], [281], [299], [316].
• Louvre Museum, [208], [214], [215], [224], [226], [227], [239], [240], [266] (note), [271], [275], [278], [295], [308], [313], [316], [322], [331].
• [Luxor]
  • (See [TEMPLES]).

• Ma
  • (See [GODDESSES]).
• [Magdilû],
  • (See [MIGDOLS]).
• Magnaura, [320].
• Maillet, M., [64].
• Malachite, [247], [304].
• Mallet, [45], [197], [202].
• Manfalût, [144].
• Manna
  • (See [TOMB]).
• Mariette, [64] (note), [129], [210], [227], [271].
• Masahirti, [299].
• Masonry, [48], [49].
• Massarah, [43].
• [Mastabas], [113]-[131], Notes [12]-[14].
  • (See [TOMB] and [TOMBS]).
• Masts, [72], [103].
• Maut
  • (See [GODDESSES]).
• Mechanical appliances,--
  • crane, [49].
  • pivots, [283].
  • rollers, [45].
  • wedges, [45].
• Medamot
  • (See [TEMPLES]).
• Medinet el Fayûm, [39].
• [Medinet Habû]
  • (See [TEMPLES]).
• Medûm, [38] (note), [131], [143], [144], [202] (note).
• [Memnon], [103], [230], [245].
  • (See [AMENHOTEP III].).
• Memphis, [1], [6], [32], [38], [43], [47], [52], [58], [88], [113], [132], [147], [156], [157], [162], [165], [209], [226], [228], [235], [241], [252].
• Mena, [38], [64], [206].
• Mendes, [311].
• [Menkara] (Mycerinus), [128] (note), [134], [137], [286] (Notes [7], [17], [31]).
• Menkaûhor, [224].
• Menkheperra, [299].
• Menshîyeh, [107].
• Mentû
  • (See [GODS]).
• Mentûemhat, [314].
• Merenptah, [235].
• Merenra, [133], [140].
• Meresankhû, [144].
• Mermashiû, [227].
• [Meroë], [144], [244].
• Merom, [31].
• Merrûka, stela of, [120].
• Mesheikh, [69], [229].
• Metals, ancient Egyptian classification of, [304].
• [Migdols], [31]-[33]
  • (See [MAGDILÛ]).
• Milk, offerings of, [95].
• Min (Khem)
  • (See [GODS]).
• Minieh, [148].
• Mining, [35], [41].
• Mirrors, [277], [306], [323], [324].
• Moats of Canaanite cities, [31].
• [Moeris], [38]-[39]
  • (See [AMENEMHAT III].).
• Moeris, Lake, [38]-[40].
• Mohammeriyeh, [144].
• Mokattam, [136].
• Mortar, [48], [114].
• Mosû, [310].
• Mounds, [1], [5]-[6].
• Mummies,--
  • animals and eggs, [259].
  • beds and canopies for, [292]-[295].
  • boats for transport of, [301].
  • burial of, [112], [127]-[128], [153], [154], [167]-[168], [173].
  • "eternal house" of, [112].
  • furniture for, [284], [292] et seq.
    • (See [FURNITURE]).
  • jewellery for, [321].
    • (See [JEWELLERY]).
  • models of, [166].
  • panoply of, [167]
    • (See [AMULETS]).
  • sledges for, [292].
• Mummy,--
  • Aahhotep, [157], [323].
  • Amenhotep I., [157].
  • Menkara, [137].
  • Pinotem III., [332].
  • Sekenenra, [157].
  • Thothmes III., [157].
• [Mummy-cases], [259], [261]-[262], [284]-[292].
• Murrhine, false, [263] (note)
• Musical instruments, [166].
  • lute, [180], [267], [279].
  • sistrum, [95].
  • tambourine, [95].
  • trumpet, [182].
• Mycerinus, [286]
  • (See [MENKARA]).

• Naga, group from, [244].
• Naï, [276].
• [Naos], [61], [108], [312], [326].
  • (See [SHRINE]).
• Napata, [144].
• Naville, M., [36] and note, [52] (note).
• Necho, [267] and note.
• Necklace, [249], [276], [322], [325].
  • (See [ÛSEKH]).
• Nectenebo, [62].
• Neferhotep
  • (See [TOMB]).
• Nefert, [219]-[220].
• Nefertari, [84].
• Nefertûm
  • (See [GODS]).
• Negadeh
  • (See [TOMBS]).
• Negroes, [41], [91].
• Neith
  • (See [GODDESSES]).
• Nekheb
  • (See [GODDESSES]).
• Nemhotep, dwarf, [225].
• Nenka
  • (See [TOMB]).
• Nephthys
  • (See [GODDESSES]).
• Nesikhonsû, [264].
• Net, [95].
• Netemt, [261].
• New York Museum, [172].
• Niche of tombs, origin of, [152]
  • (See [DOOR], [SERDAB], and [STELA]).
• Nile, [34], [38], [39], [45], [48], [252], [254], [273].
• Niles, the (deities), [91], [92], [228].
• Nitocris, daughter of Psammetichus I., [237].
• Nomes, represented, [91]-[92].
• Nubia, [28], [47], [66], [82], [259].
• Nûrri
  • (See [PYRAMIDS]).

• Oasis, the, [20].
• Obelisk, [45], [67], [103]-[106], [313].
  • Axûm, [106].
  • Begig, [105].
  • Fourth Dynasty, [104].
  • Hatshepsût, [104], [106], [313] and note.
  • Heliopolis, [104].
  • Luxor, [104].
  • Tanis, [104].
• Obsidian, [247], [250].
• Ocean, celestial, [93].
• Ochre, [203].
• OEnochoe, glass, [263].
• [Offerings],--
  • corn, [97].
  • milk, [95].
  • oil, [95].
  • wine, [95], [97].
    • (See [FEAST], [LIBATIONS], [TABLES OF OFFERINGS].)
• Oil, [95].
• [Ombos], [26], [36], [58], [88], [92], [245],
  • (See [KOM OMBO] and [TEMPLES]).
• On, genius of, [96].
• Osiris
  • (See [GODS]).
• Ostraka, [36].
• Ostrakon, caricature, [172].
• Oxen, [123], [128], [153], [175], [182].

• Pahûrnefer, [214].
• [Painting], [192]-[193], [202]-[206], [292]-[293].
  • (See [DRAWING], [PERSPECTIVE], [WALL-SCENES]).
• Pakhet
  • (See [GODDESSES]).
• Palestrina, mosaic, [189]-[192].
• Palette,--
  • painter's, [202].
  • scribe's, [128], [166], [170].
• Palm capital, [58].
• Palms, for roofing, [2], [11]
  • (See [DATE] and [DÔM PALMS]).
• Papyri, [64] (note), [160], [167], [170], [171], [172]-[175], [205].
  • (See [BOOK]).
• Papyrus, [57], [190], [327].
• Pavilion,--
  • of private house, [17].
  • of Medinet Habû, [32].
  • of Nectenebo, Philae, [62].
• Pearl, mother-of-, [247].
• Pearls, [247].
• Pectoral, [322], [323], [326], [327].
• Pedishashi, [239], [240].
• Pegs, [283].
• Pen, [175], [215].
• Pepi I., [140], [253], [270].
• Pepi II., [133], [140], [142].
• Perfumes, [67], [128], [157], [180].
• [Period],--
  • Hyksos, [227]-[228], [307].
  • Persian, [174], [303].
  • [Ptolemaic], [56], [58], [61], [66], [69]-[70], [72], [79], [90], [93], [98]. [175], [208], [241]-[243], [249], [290], [303], [315], [332].
  • [Roman], [58], [66], [90], [98], [173], [208], [243]-[245].
  • Theban, second, [19] and note.
• [Peristyle], [67], [74], [83], [84], [106]
  • (See [PROCESSIONAL HALL]).
• [Perspective], [177]-[192].
• Pestle and mortar, [170].
• Petamenoph
  • (See [TOMB]).
• Petrie, W.M.F., [7], [10], [12], [45], [64]-[65], [104], [113], [131], [197], [200], [202], [249], [267], [282], [291], [334] et seq.
• [Pharaoh], [66], [67], [95]-[97], [98], [101]-[103].
• Philae
  • (See [TEMPLES]).
• Phoenicians, [248], [263], [303], [320].
• Piankhi I., [34].
• Piankhi II., [235] (note).
• Pibesa, [237].
• Pigments, [202]-[203].
• [Pillars], [52], [53]-[55], [65], [68], [116], [149], [151].
• Pincushion, [277].
• Pinotem II., [299].
• Pinotem III., [299], [332].
• Pisebkhanû, [228].
• [Pithom], I, [36] and note.
• Plate, [315]-[320]
  • (See [GOLD] and [SILVER]).
• Pliny, [303].
• Pohûnika
  • (See [TOMB]).
• Poignards, [327], [328].
• Point, [47] (note), [6], [195], [197], [201], [247], [250].
• Polymita, [303].
• Ponds, [8], [15], [186].
• Porch, [13]
  • (See [PORTICO]).
• Porphyry, [42], [247].
• Portcullis, in pyramids, [136], Notes [26], [27], [137], [139].
• [Portico], [13], [16], [51], [54], [57], [60], [67], [116], [149], [150], [152], [206].
• Portrait, panel-painting, [291]-[292].
  • (See [BAS-RELIEF], [MUMMY-CASES], and [STATUES]).
• Posno collection, [308].
• [Pottery], [166], [254]-[259].
  • (See [GLAZED WARE] and [VASES]).
• Priests
  • (See [PHARAOH] and others).
• Prisse, M., [193].
• [Processional Hall] (promenoir), [53], [58] and note, [60], [77]
  • (See [PERISTYLE]).
• Pronaos, [70], [74]-[75].
• Psammetichus I., [236].
• Psammetichus, scribe, [237] and note.
• Psar, [322], [331].
• Ptah
  • (See [GODS]).
• Ptahhotep
  • (See [TOMB]).
• Ptahmes, [208].
• Pûnt, Land of, [109] and note.
• Pylons, [13], [16], [49], [50], [67], [77], [78], [79], [80], [85], [87], [100]-[101], [186]-[188], [189] [232].
• [Pyramid] of,--
  • Amenemhat III. (Hawara), [143].
  • Ati, [142].
  • Khafra (Second Pyramid of Gizeh), [133], [134], [137].
  • Khûfû (Great Pyramid of Gizeh), [133], [134]- 137.
  • Menkara (Third Pyramid of Gizeh), [134], [137],
  • Merenra, [133], [140].
  • Pepi I., [140].
  • Pepi II., [133], [140], [142].
  • Sakkarah, Step, or Great, [138]-[139], Note [32].
  • Sneferû (Medûm), [132], [143], [144].
  • Teti, [140].
  • Ûnas, [133], [138], [139]-[140].
  • Ûsertesen I., [143].
  • Ûsertesen II. (Illahûn), [143].
• Pyramidion, [105], [147].
• Pyramid-mastaba tombs, [145]-[148],
• [Pyramids], [131]-[145], and Notes, pp, [334]-[337].
  • Abûsîr, [131], [134], [138], [140].
  • Abydos (Hekalli), [144].
  • Dahshûr, [131], [134], [142].
  • Esneh (Mohammeriyeh), [144].
  • Ethiopia (Meroë, Napata, Nûrri), [144].
  • Fayûm (Hawara and Illahûn), [134], [143].
  • Gizeh, [131], [133]-[137], [140].
  • Lisht, [134], [142].
  • Manfalût, [144].
  • Sakkarah, [133], [134], [137], [138]-[142].

• Qodshû, [31].
  • (See [KADESH]).
• Quarries, [35], [41]-[45], [132].

• Ra
  • (See [GODS]).
• Ra Harmakhis
  • (See [GODS]).
• [Raemka], [220]
  • (See [SHEIKH EL BELED]).
• Rahotep, [214], [219].
• Ram, [88], [89], [199].
• Rameses I., [78], [158].
• [Rameses II]. (Sesostris), [47], [52], [78], [80], [84], [86], [101], [103], [158], [188], [202], [226], [231], [232], [234], [235], [287]-[288], [321], [331].
• Rameses III., [4], [32]-[33], [87], [101], [184], [194], [195], [270], [272], [301], [306], [321].
• Rameses IV., [160].
• Rameses IX., [331].
• [Ramesseum], the, [36], [37], [47], [57], [60], [62], [72], [92], [100], [103], [159], [187], [234], [265].
• Ramessides, the, [1], [23], [109], [153], [168], [235], [266], [290], [320].
• Ramparts, [24], [30], [33], [87].
• Ranefer, [214], [218].
• Rats, [171], [259].
• Red Sea, emerald mines, [41].
• Redesîyeh, [229].
• Reed brush, [171].
• Reeds, [180], [266].
• Rekhmara
  • (See [TOMB]).
• Renaissance, [175], [235]-[240], [290].
• Repoussé work
  • (See [GOLD], [JEWELLERY], [SILVER]).
• Reservoir, [38]-[41], [252]
  • (See [DAMS], [DIKES], [IRRIGATION]).
• Rhind, A.H., [293] and note.
• Rings, [267], [305], [321]-[322], [331].
• Roads, [30], [34], [35], [41].
• Rock-cut temples and tombs
  • (See [SPEOS] and [TOMBS]).
• Roofs, [2], [9], [10], [11], [32], [51], [90].
• Rougé, M. le Vicomte de, [109] (note).

• Sa, amulet, [237] (note).
• Sabûah, Wady
  • (See [TEMPLES]).
• Sacrifices, [95], [97].
  • (See [FEAST] and [OFFERINGS]).
• Sails of leather-work, [301].
• Sais, [26], [266].
• Sakkarah, [113], [114], [115], [116], [117], [118], [119], [126], [129], [130] (note), [133], [134], [137], [138], [140], [144], [158], [189], [197], [204], [217], [221], [226], [252], [259], [269], [270], [310], [313].
  • (See [PYRAMIDS] and [TOMBS]).
• [Sân], [1], [26].
  • (See [TANIS]).
• Sanctuaries
  • (See [SPEOS] and [TEMPLES]).
• [Sanctuary], the essential part of a temple, [66]-[67].
• Sandals, [168], [286], [298].
• Sandstone, [6], [43], [47], [67], [76], [87], [103], [169], [199], [202], [230], [252].
• Sapping, [23], [25].
• [Sarcophagi], [42], [127], [129], [132], [137], [140], [157], [160].
  • (See [MUMMY-CASES]).
• Sarcophagus of,--
  • Aahhotep II., [288]-[289].
  • Ahmes I., [287].
  • Ahmesnefertari, [288]-[289].
  • Amenhotep I., [287].
  • Khûfû, [136].
  • Khûfû Poskhû, [20], [22].
  • Menkara, [128] (note), [137].
  • Rameses II., [287], [288].
  • Seti I., [161], [165] (note).
  • Thothmes II., [287].
    • (See [MUMMY-CASES].)
• Sardanapalus, [314].
• Sardinia, [248].
• Saucepan of Rameses III., [306].
• Saw, [247], [250].
• Scaling, as a mode of attack, [23], [25].
• [Scarabaei], [248]-[250].
  • funerary, [168], [265], [325]-[326].
• Scarabaeoids, [248].
• Schist, [265].
• Schliemann, Dr., [328].
• Schweinfurth, Dr., [40].
• Scissors, of bronze, [306].
• Scorpion, [322], [329].
• Scribe,--
  • cross-legged, [214]-[217].
  • kneeling, [214], [222]-[223], [239].
• [Sculpture],--
  • absence of, in chapel of Pyramid of Medûm, [144].
  • absence of, in Temple of Sphinx, [66].
  • Greek influence on, [240]-[243].
  • Hyksos, school of, [227]-[228].
  • mastabas, [119] et seq., [130].
  • Memphite school of, [209]-[225].
  • methods of, [200]-[202].
  • New Empire school of, [228], [235].
  • provincial schools of, [228].
  • pylons, [186]-[188].
  • pyramids, [137].
  • Renaissance school of, [235]-[240].
  • Theban (first) school of, [226].
  • XIII. and XIV. dynasties, [226]-[227].
    • (See [BAS-RELIEF] and [STATUES].)
• Seals, [321]-[322].
• Seb
  • (See [GODS]).
• Sebâkh diggers, [237] and note.
• Sebekemsaf, [202], [227].
• Sebekhotep III., [227].
• Sekenenra, [157].
• Sekhet
  • (See [GODDESSES]).
• Selle
  • (See ZARÛ).
• Semneh, [20], [28]-[29], [50].
• Sennetmû, mummy-case of wife of, [286].
  • (See [TOMB]).
• Sepa, [208].
• [Serdab], [126]-[127], [129], [139], [152], [166], [167].
• Serpentine, [169], [195], [236], [247], [252].
• Serpents, [141], [159], [164], [259], [329].
  • (See [APAPI]).
• Sesebeh
  • (See [TEMPLES]).
• Sesostris, [5].
  • (See [RAMESES II].).
• Set
  • (See [GODS]).
• Seti I., King, [34] (note), [42], [47], [48], [49], [51], [78], [85], [101], [107], [158], [161], [162], [163], [195], [231], [232], [235], [270].
• Shabaka, [235] (note).
• Sharonah
  • (See [TEMPLES]).
• Sheikh Abd el Gûrneh,--
  • bronzes from, [307].
  • enamels from, [263].
• [Sheikh el Beled], statue of, [214] and note, [220]-[221], [224], [226]
  • (See [RAEMKA]).
• Sheikh Saîd, [148].
• Sheshonk, [33], [235], [270].
• [Shrines], [66], [108]
  • (See [NAOS]).
• Shû
  • (See [GODS]).
• Silsilis, [38], [43]-[45], [232].
• [Silver],--
  • bark of, [329]-[330].
  • chain of, [322].
  • eyes of, [310].
  • hatchets of, [327].
  • nuggets of, [11].
  • poignard hilt of, [328].
  • repoussé work of, [316]-[317].
  • rings of, [321].
  • sources of, [312].
  • statues of, [314]-[315].
  • vases and vessels of, [316] et seq.
  • wire of, [248].
• Sinai, [41], [66], [101].
• Sistrum, [53], [61], [95], [260].
• Sitû, [252].
• Situlae, bronze, [307].
• Siût, [114], [148], [226], [242].
• Skemka, [214].
• Sky, Egyptian idea of, [90].
• Sledges,--
  • for transport of stone, [45].
  • funerary, [292], [294].
• Sneferu, [132], [144], [209].
• Soane collection, [165] (note).
• Soil of Egypt, [2], [4], [48].
• Soleb
  • (See [TEMPLES]).
• Sop, genius, [324].
• Sothis, feast of, [118].
• Soudan, gold from, [313].
• Soul, the,
  • (See [BA ]).
• [Speos], the, [42], [81]-[85].
  • Abû Simbel, [53], [82]-[84].
  • Kalaat Addah, [81], [82].
  • Silsilis, [82], [232].
    • (See [HEMI-SPEOS].)
• [Speos Artemidos]
  • (See [TEMPLES]).
• Sphinx, the, [64] (note), [65], [206]-[208].
• Sphinxes, [325].
  • andro-, [89], [230].
  • avenues of, [67], [88]-[89], [230].
  • crio-, [88], [89].
  • Hyksos, [227]-[228].
  • New Empire, [229].
• Spinners, [124].
• Spoons, [273], [278]-[281], [306].
• Stabling, [13], [35], [87].
• Staircase,--
  • fortress, [24].
  • house, [11], [16].
  • temple, [70], [71], [85].
  • temple pylons, [50].
• [Statue] of,--
  • Alexandrian Isis, [241].
  • portrait of Amenhotep I., [229].
  • baker, [224].
  • cross-legged scribe of Gizeh, [217].
  • cross-legged scribe of the Louvre, [214]-[215].
  • Hor, [242].
  • Horemheb, [232]-[233].
  • Khafra, [214], [217]-[218], [253].
  • kneeling scribe, [214], [223].
  • Mermashiû, [227].
  • Nefert, [219]-[220].
  • Nemhotep (dwarf), [225]-[226].
  • Pahûrnefer, [214].
  • Prince of Siût, [241]-[242].
  • a queen, [232].
  • Rahotep, [219].
  • Sebekemsaf, [202], [227].
  • Sebekhotep III., [227].
  • Sheikh el Beled (Raemka), [214], [220]-[221], [224].
  • Sheikh el Beled's wife, [221]-[222].
  • Skemka, [214].
  • Thothmes I., [229].
  • Thothmes II., [229].
• [Statues],--
  • in houses, [13].
  • in temples, [106], [108]-[110].
  • Ka, [126]-[127], [152], [163], [166], [211]-[214].
• Statuette of,--
  • Amen, gold, [315].
  • a girl, [274]-[275].
  • Hori Ra, wood, [275].
  • Horus, bronze, [309]-[310].
  • Horus, enamelled, [267].
  • kneeling genius, bronze, [309].
  • Mosû, bronze, [310].
  • Naï, wood, [276].
  • officer, wood, [275]-[276].
  • priest, wood, [275], [276].
  • Ptah, gold, [315].
  • Ptahmes, enamelled, [268].
  • Takûshet, bronze, [308]-[309].
• [Statuettes],--
  • alabaster, [253].
  • bronze, [307]-[310].
  • clay, [257].
  • Deir el Baharî, [266].
  • gilt, [314].
  • gold, [314]-[315].
  • ivory, [273]-[274].
  • limestone, [253].
  • period XVIII. and XIX. dynasties, [307].
  • XXII dynasty, [307].
  • XXVI dynasty, [307].
  • wood, Ptolemaic, [307].
    • (See [ÛSHABTIÛ].)
• [Stela], of Bakhtan, [109] and note.
  • of Merrûka, [120].
• Stelae, [24], [104].
  • of mastabas, [115], [120]-[121], [125].
  • pyramid-mastabas, [146].
  • rock-cut tombs, [152], [157].
• Step Pyramid
  • (See [PYRAMIDS]).
• Stone, [46].
  • dikes, [38].
  • grating, [71].
    • (See [ALABASTER], etc.)
• Storage, [16], [35], [36], [87], [132].
• Stroganoff, Count, [308].
• Stuart, Villiers, [300] (note).
• Stucco, [50], [170], [261], [284], [314].
• Sûit, mother of Horemheb, [179].
• Swine,--
  • alleged impurity of, [195]-[196].
  • transmigration into, [164].
• Sycamores, [8], [15].
  • wood of, [205], [274], [284], [290].
• [Syene], [45], [77], [196], [209] (note), [243].
  • (See [ASÛAN]).
• Syenite, [139].
• Syria, [31], [34] (note), [87], [187], [248], [303], [312].

• Ta, amulet, [247], [286].
• Tabernacle, [66].
• [Tables of offerings], [106]-[107], [115], [119], [130], [157], [166], [237], [251]-[252].
• Taharka, [52], [79].
• [Tahpanhes], [36] (note).
  • (See [TELL DEFENNEH] and [DAPHNAE]).
• Tahûti, general, [316].
• Takûshet, [308]-[309].
• Tambourine, [95].
• [Tanis], [1], [47], [103], [104] (note), [197], [200] (note), [227], [228], [234], [235], [307], [311].
  • (See [SÂN] and [TEMPLES]).
• Tanks, of houses, [16].
• Tapestry, [296]-[298], [303] and note.
• Tat, amulet, [286] and note.
• Tau-cross
  • (See [ANKH]).
• Taûd, [250].
• [Taûrt]
  • (See [APET] and [THÛERIS]).
• Taxation, system of, [35].
• Tefnût
  • (See [GODDESSES]).
• Tehneh, [45].
• [Tell Basta], I
  • (See [BUBASTIS]).
• [Tell Defenneh], [36] (note),
  • (See [TAHPANHES] and [DAPHNAE]).
• Tell el Amarna, [13], [155], [197] (note), [231]-[233], [263].
• [Tell el Maskûtah], I
  • (See [PITHOM] and [THÛKÛ]).
• Tell el Yahûdeh, tiles of, [270]-[272].
• Tell es Seba, [311].
• Tell Eshmûneyn, [265].
• Tell Gemayemi, [200], [262] (note).
• Temenos, [87]-[89].
• [Temples], [46]-[110].
  • Abû Simbel, [53], [82]-[84], [319].
  • Abydos, [20], [47], [49], [51], [60], [64], [85]-[86], [90], [194], [232].
  • Beit el Wally, [84], [205] (note), [235].
  • Bubastis, [52] and note, [58], [88].
  • Coptos, [245].
  • Deir el Baharî, [51], [53], [61], [83], [85] and note, [229]
  • Deir el Medineh, [69]-[70].
  • Derr, [84].
  • Denderah, [53], [57], [61], [72], [73], [88], [91], [92], [94], [100], [245].
  • Edfû, [56], [57], [58], [64], [72], [74], [75], [88], [92], [100].
  • El Kab, [56], [69], [88].
  • Elephantine, [67]-[69].
  • Esneh, [92], [245].
  • Gebel Barkal, [53].
  • Gebel Silsileh, [81], [82], [232].
  • Gerf Husein, [85].
  • Gizeh, [64]-[66], [85].
  • Gûrneh, [60], [159].
  • Kalaat Addah, [81], [82].
  • Kalabsheh, [54], [56].
  • Karnak, [1], [34], [35], [46], [47], [50], [52], [53], [54], [55], [57], [58], [59], [60], [62], [63]-[64], [70]-[72], [76]-[79], [87], [88], [89], [92], [100], [101], [103], [104], [106], [107], [194], [229], [230], [232], [235], [313], [314], [315].
  • Luxor, [47], [52], [57], [60], [62], [72], [79], [80], [89], [100], [104], [106], [187], [202], [230], [234].
  • Medamot, [56], [59], [60], [64].
  • Medinet Habû, [32]-[33], [50], [53], [60], [63], [72], [87], [101], [159], [184], [194], [199], [288], [315].
  • Mesheikh, [69].
  • Nubia, [47], [82].
  • Ombos, [26], [58], [88], [92]-[93], [245].
  • Philae, [58]-[59], [62], [80]-[81], [92], [100], [245].
  • Semneh, [50].
  • Sesebeh, [58].
  • Sharonah, [69].
  • Soleb, [58].
  • Tanis, [47], [104] (note).
  • Wady Sabûah, [85], [88].
  • Amenhotep II, [53].
  • Amenhotep III, [53], [67]-[68].
  • Antoninus Pius, [100].
  • Caesars, [66].
  • Dynasty IV, [64].
  • Dynasty XII, [66].
  • Hatshepsût
    • (See [DEIR EL BAHARÎ] and [SPEOS ARTEMIDOS]).
  • Horemheb
    • (See [GEBEL SILSILEH]).
  • Khonsû, at Karnak, [60], [70]-[72], [74], [235].
  • Ptolemies, [66].
  • Rameses III.
    • (See [MEDINET HABÛ]).
  • Seti I, [42].
    • (See [CHAPEL], [HEMI-SPEOS], [SANCTUARY], [SPEOS].)
• Terraces, [16], [36], [74].
• Terra-cotta, vases of, [114], [166].
• Teti, King, pyramid of, [140].
• Textiles,
  • [67], [296]-[298], [302]-[304].
  • Alexandrian, [303].
  • brocaded, [303].
  • Ekhmîm, [303]-[304] and note.
  • Roman, [303].
• Thebaid, the, [243], [273].
• Thebes, [1], [2], [6], [26], [32], [33], [36], [66], [79], [85], [88], [89], [103], [131], [147], [148], [153], [154], [155], [157]-[165], [168], [174], [177], [186], [193], [197], [205], [209], [226], [229], [235], [237], [244], [250], [277], [290], [293], [313].
  • (See [KARNAK], [LUXOR].)
• Thmûis, silver vases of, [316]-[317].
• Thoth
  • (See [GODS]).
• Thothmes I, [76]-[77], [229].
• Thothmes II, [77], [287].
• Thothmes III, [26], [42], [53], [58]-[59], [60], [77], [92], [157], [229], [263], [302], [326].
• Thothmes IV, [205].
• [Thûeris]
  • (See [GODDESSES], [APET], and [TAÛRT]).
• [Thûkû], [36] and note.
  • (See [PITHOM] and [TELL EL MASKHÛTAH]).
• Ti
  • (See [TOMB]).
• Tiberius, at Denderah and Ombos, [245].
• Tibur, Egyptian rooms in Hadrian's villa at, [243].
• Tii, Oueen, vase of, [267].
• Tiles,--
  • for mural decoration, [269]-[272].
  • in pyramid of Sakkarah, [270].
  • of Tell el Yahûdeh, [270]-[272].
• Tipcat, [282].
• Tin, [304].
• Toilet, articles of, [166], [259], [266]-[267], [273], [277], [281], [306].
• [Tomb] of,--
  • Affi, [117].
  • Aï, [16], [17], [155], [158].
  • Aimadûa, [20].
  • Amenhotep III, [158].
  • Ameni, [149], [151].
  • Anna, [12], [229].
  • Bakenrenf, [165].
  • an Entef, [265]-[266].
  • Hapizefa, [150].
  • Hesî, [210].
  • Horemheb, [179]-[180], [183].
  • Horhotep, [156]-[157].
  • Hûi, [229],
  • Kaäpir, [115],
  • Khabiûsokari, [117], [208].
  • Khamha, [229].
  • Khetî, [155].
  • Khnûmhotep, [149], [150], [151], [152], [155], [177], [297].
  • Manna, [154].
  • Merrûka, [120].
  • Neferhotep, [115], [116], [155].
  • Nenka, [130] and note.
  • Petamenoph, [165].
  • Pohûnika, [116].
  • Ptahhotep, [118], [119], [122], [124], [188].
  • Rahotep, [126].
  • Rameses I., [158].
  • Rameses II., [158].
  • Rameses III., [161]-[163], [301].
  • Rameses IV., [160].
  • Red Scribe, [118].
  • Rekhmara, [3], [186], [187], [229].
  • Seti I., [158], [161]-[163], [232].
  • Sennetmû, [258], [294].
  • Shepsesptah, [117].
  • Thenti, [118], [126].
  • Ti, [116], [117], [127], [155].
  • Ûna, [155].
  • Ûrkhûû, [124].
    • (See [PYRAMID].)
• [Tombs], [111]-[168].
  • Egyptian idea of, [111]-[112].
  • mastaba-pyramids, [145]-[148].
  • mastabas, [113]-[131].
  • pyramids, [131]-[145].
  • rock-cut tombs, [146]-[168].
  • Abydos, [22], [145]-[147].
  • Ahnas el Medineh, [259].
  • Asûan, [53], [148], [149], [150], [259].
  • Beni Hasan, [24], [53], [148] and note, [149], [150], [151], [152], [153], [155], [177], [256]-[257].
  • Bersheh, [148] and note.
  • Coptic period, [303]-[304].
  • Deir el Gebrawî, [204].
  • El Amarna, [13], [15], [16], [17].
  • Fayûm, [259], [291]-[292], [303]-[304].
  • Gizeh, [148].
  • Greek period, [175].
  • Kasr es Saîd, [148].
  • Kûrnet Murraee, [294].
  • Negadeh, [148].
  • Sheikh Saîd, [148].
  • Siût, [148], [150].
• Tools, etc.,--
  • adze, [283], [304].
  • anvil, [313].
  • axe, [201], [304].
  • burin, [305], [325].
  • chains, measuring, [155].
  • chisel, [45], [214], [304].
  • drill, [195], [214], [247], [250], [282].
  • gouge, [195].
  • grindstone, [247].
  • hammer, [195], [313].
  • knives, [304], [306].
  • mallet, [45], [197], [202].
  • pegs, [283].
  • point, [47], [195] (note), [197], [201], [202], [247], [250].
  • saw, [247], [250], [304].
  • wedges, [45].
  • wheel, [250]
    • (See [WHEEL, POTTER'S]).
• Tops, [284].
• Torus, [50].
• Towns, [1]-[2], Note [1], [7]-[8], [87]-[88].
  • Coptic, [8].
  • Pharaonic, [1], [7], [8].
  • Ptolemaic, [1].
  • Roman, [8].
  • Saïtic, [1].
  • Twelfth Dynasty, [1], [7].
  • walled, [20], [26].
• Toys, [182], [282].
• Trees, [274].
• Trellis, [182], [189].
• Tûaï, [273].
• Tûatmûtf, genius, [258] (note).
• Tûm
  • (See [GODS]).
• Turin Museum, [160], [171], [229], [231], [232], [235], [262], [274], [275].
• Turquoise, [247], [325], [329].
• Typhon (Set)
  • (See [GODS]).
• Ûaga, feast of, [118].
• [Ûahabra], [269] (note).
  • (See APRIES and [HOPHRA]).
• Ûati
  • (See [GODDESSES]).
• Ûna
  • (See [TOMB]).
• Ûnas, [133], [138], [139], [163].
• [Uraeus] (basilisk), [61], [201], [294].
• [Ûsekh], [326]-[327].
• Ûsertesen I, [76], [143].
• Ûsertesen II., [7], [143], [322].
• Ûsertesen III., [28], [226], [322], [323].
• [Ûshabtiû], [167], [253], [257], [266].
• [Ûta], amulet, [247]-[248].

• Varnish, [203]-[204], [305].
• [Vases],--
  • Ancient Empire, [255], [256].
  • bronze, [305].
  • canopic, [167], [252]-[253], [258], [292].
  • decoration of, [256], [257], [258], [259].
  • libation, [292], [310].
  • silver and gold, [316]-[320].
  • situlae, [307].
  • terra-cotta, [114], [166].
  • toilet, [253]-[254].
    • (See [BRONZE], [GLASS], [GLAZED WARE], [GOLD], [POTTERY], [SILVER].)
• Vaulting, [6] and note, [36], [51], [145], [146], [150], [151].
• Vauquelin, M., [304].
• Venus, [243].
• Vermilion, [203].
• Vienna Museum, [272].
• Vulture, [92], [299], [301], [315], [325].
• Vyse, Col. Howard., [137]

• Wady Gerraweh, [40].
  • Genneh, [41].
  • Sabûah
    • (See [HEMI-SPEOS]).
• Wages, [35].
• [Wall-scenes], [3], [9], [12], [13], [14], [15], [16], [17], [18], [19], [21], [24], [30], [31], [35], [36], [91], [92], [97], [99], [120], [122], [124], [130], [152]-[156], [162], [165], [177], [178], [179], [192], [193], [194], [195], [260], [284], [295], [296], [297], [298], [300], [301], [313], [318], [319], [320].
  • (See [BAS-RELIEF] and [PAINTING]).
• Washhouse, [12].
• Weavers, [124], [297]-[298].
• [Wheel, potter's], [255].
• Wig, [236], [275], [276], [286], [308], [310], [332].
• Wilkinson, Sir Gardner, [295], [303], [305].
• Wilson, Sir E., [128] (note).
• Windows, [9], [11], [50], [65], [70], [144].
• Wine, [35], [36], [97], [180].
• Wood, [25], [50], [66], [169], [205], [210]-[211], [214] and note, [224], [235], [274]-[277].
  • (See [CABINET-MAKING], [MUMMY-CASES], [STATUETTES], [STATUES]).

• Zagazig, [332].
• Zarû (Selle), [34] and note.
• Zodiacal circle of Denderah, [93], [94].
• Zowyet el Aryan, [134].