Elementary Course in Woodwork / Designed for use in high and technical schools, with one hundred and thirty-four illustrations: First Edition

by George Alexander Ross

EXERCISE NUMBER 6.

It has already been mentioned that a bead is used in decoration. An application of the bead as a decoration is given in connection with the use of the rabbet in this exercise, the bead can be applied to door frames where glass panels, etc., are to be used.

Fig. 87.

In [Fig. 87] is shown the working drawing. The features in this exercise to be specially noticed are the method of joining the bead so as to form a continuous bead around the edge, the method of laying out and cutting the shoulder so that the opening in the frame will be kept to size; the mortise and tenon used here is what is called a blind mortise and tenon.

Having noticed these features, proceed to prepare the material, by methods previously given, to dimensions called for in the drawing. The requirements for this exercise are that all measurements be correct, that all joints fit closely, that the angles be right angles, and that the work be finished in a neat workmanlike manner.

The material having been prepared, proceed to lay the work out.

Suppose this exercise to be the top of a glass panel door; the pieces on the sides of a door are called the stiles; the cross-pieces are called the rails, and, according to the position they occupy, are called respectively the top rail, the mid-rail, and the bottom rail. The pieces that stand in the center are known as muntings.

To lay out the work, mark out the mortise on the top of the stile about 1½ inches from the end. It will be noticed that the mortise is not so long as the top rail is wide; the piece that is cut out of the tenon is known as a rebate or rabbet. The reason for cutting out this piece and shortening the mortise is to strengthen the joint by leaving a piece of solid wood so that the mortise will not be open on the end. [Fig. 88] shows the piece marked out for the stile; the arrow heads in the figure are known as witness marks and show between what lines the cutting is to be done.

Fig. 88.

The shoulders on the top rail and on the muntings are to be specially noticed. In laying out the top rail the opening between the munting and the stile is 4 inches. The shoulder on the face side of the top rail reaches to the farthest side of the bead so as to form a close fitting joint, and the shoulder on the back reaches to the bottom of the glass rabbet.

In order to keep the opening as called for in the drawing and to miter the bead so as to make it continuous around the edge, lay out the work in the following manner: Locate a line on the edge of the rail that will represent the side of the opening next to the stile, leaving enough for the tenon; then lay off the width of the opening; draw a line which will represent the end of the mortise for the munting; mark the length of the munting mortise. On the inside of each end of the mortise lay off the width of the bead which is stuck on the munting.

Return to the first line which represents the opening, and add to the outside of that the width of the bead and rabbet; then from those lines mark across the face from the line which will represent the bead, and across the back from the line which represents the depth of the glass rabbet.

Fig. 89.

Prepare the shoulder lines for the saw as directed in previous work. The lines to be drawn on the edge of the rail are shown in [Fig. 89].

The shoulders on the munting are prepared in the same way as the rail. In marking the sides of the mortise and tenon use the mortise gauge ([see Fig. 73]).

Cut the mortise and the tenon as directed in previous work, using a narrow chisel to remove the chips from the mortise. The bead is to be joined so that it will appear continuous; the method of joining is called mitering. A miter is made by cutting, at an angle of 45 degrees, the pieces to be joined.

The practical man will try many methods of cutting material in order to save time. For instance, if he is to make frames where the corners are to be mitered, he will make a miter box. This box (which is not a box at all) is three pieces fastened together to form a bottom and two sides, all of which must be true before being nailed together; then by cutting across the sides in both directions with the saw at an angle of 45 degrees and square to the bottom, the so-called miter box is made, an illustration of which is shown in [Fig. 90]. Iron miter boxes are now in general use; of these [Fig. 91] is a good representation.

Fig. 90.

In the mitering of the bead, a templet, which can be made by the student, is of great service.

Fig. 91.

A templet is a mould or pattern used as an auxiliary. The templet for this work is made in the following manner. Take a piece and rabbet out one corner as shown in [Fig. 92]; then cut the ends as shown in [Fig. 93], which are at 45 degrees. With this templet placed on the work as shown in [Fig. 94], with a chisel cut off the bead, which protrudes beyond the templet.

Fig. 92.

Fig. 93.

Fig. 94.

Fig. 95.

At the mortises remove part of the bead as shown in [Fig. 95]; then place the templet in position, and cut to the angle.

Care should be taken to see that the mortises are cut square to the edges on the ends, so that they will not squeeze the tenon when putting the work together.

After all cutting and fitting is done glue the work ([see note on glue at the end of the book]), and clamp the pieces together with handscrews. Handscrews are of the form as shown in [Fig. 96].

Fig. 96.

In order further to strengthen this kind of joint, small iron pins may be driven into the back through the tenon, but they must not come through the work. The pins may be made by cutting wire brads off to the required length and driving them in and setting them below the surface with a nail set. After the glue is set finish off the work with a smooth plane.

EXERCISE NUMBER 7.
DOVETAILING.

One of the most important methods employed by the joiner is that termed dovetailing, which is of three kinds, namely, common, lap, and miter. Common dovetailing ([see Fig. 97]) shows the form of the pins or projecting parts, as well as the excavations made to receive them. Lap dovetailing is similar to this, but in that system the ends of the dovetails of the [side A, Fig. 98], are shortened, and the recesses which are to receive them in B are not cut through when joined together; only the ledge is visible on the return side.

Fig. 97.

Fig. 98.

Fig. 99.

Fig. 100.

Miter dovetailing (sometimes also called secret dovetailing) conceals the dovetails, and shows only the miter at the edges. The manner in which this joint is made will be understood from [Fig. 99], in which the two parts A and B are given, each part being lettered to correspond with the position it is to occupy when the sides are joined. Concealed dovetailing is particularly useful where the faces of the boards are intended to form a salient angle; that is, one which is on the outside of any piece of work; but when the faces form a re-entrant angle, that is, a joint to be seen from the inside, common dovetailing will answer best; for, first, it is stronger, because the dovetails pass entirely instead of only partly through; secondly, it is cheaper, for the dovetails which go through the whole wood take up much less time in working than where a miter has to be left; and further, if well executed, the dovetails are, by the very nature of the work, concealed internally.

[Fig. 100] shows a variation of the common dovetail, used in attaching the fronts of drawers to the sides, and for similar purposes.

Fig. 101.

In [Fig. 101] is given the working drawing of the common dovetail, and [Fig. 102, A-B] shows the details of each piece.

The stock can be prepared in one piece (having it long enough so that if a poor joining is made, the dovetails can be cut off and new ones cut on this piece). After planing, cut in two, square one end of each piece (the ends to be joined). To lay out the work, it is advisable to lay out the piece with the pins or tenons first. From the squared end measure in the thickness of the side; then mark on both sides, using the knife to draw the lines.

Fig. 102.

On the face side (which is the side that would be toward the inside of a box) lay off the lines shown for the pins in the detail marked A, [Fig. 102]. These lines can be drawn from the working edge with a gauge, or, if the ends are perfectly square, the square can be used (the lines being parallel with the edge). From these lines will be drawn the oblique lines across the end with the bevel set at a taper of 1 inch to 4 inches. The bevel can be set by the steel framing square, by the methods already given.

After drawing the lines saw down the required depth on the outside of the line, and remove the pieces between the pins or tenons by first boring a hole through the piece to be removed, then cutting from both sides with the chisel.

Fig. 103.

Fig. 104.

(The boring is done with the brace, [Fig. 103], and the bit, [Fig. 104]. Bits are of different forms; [Fig. 105] shows a number of different styles).

It will be necessary only to draw the lines across the end of the piece marked [B, Fig. 102], as the marking of this piece for the recesses will be made by holding in position the piece already cut, and scribing or marking the pins or tenons, then squaring the lines across the end.

Great care must be taken in sawing the mortises if a perfect fit is desired. This can be done only by sawing on the inside of the line, cutting the lines in two. The pieces should go together by light driving, and should be perfectly square on the inside. If the joint is satisfactory take apart and glue together. After the glue is dry the joint can be smoothed and the ends of the pieces cut off and squared to the proper dimensions given in [Fig. 101].

Fig. 105.

EXERCISE NUMBER 8.
DOOR FRAME FOR GLASS PANEL.

The preceding exercises are only a few of the methods employed by the workmen in joining pieces together. The experience gained in their execution will be of great help in the work that follows.

[Fig. 106] shows the working drawing for a small frame door for a glass panel; the details and sections of the pieces required are shown in [Fig. 107].

It must be taken into consideration that this door is actually to fit into an opening of a given size, and a little forethought will be necessary to work the material so that when all cutting and fitting is done the correct size will be the result of the labor expended.

Study the drawing and make out a bill of lumber, noting what work must be done in order to proceed intelligently with the work.

The outside size of the door is 9 inches by 12 inches, and the width of the stiles is 2 inches. The width of the top rail is 1½ inches, and the width of the bottom rail is 2 inches, so that (allowing a little on the length of the rails so that the tenons would project through the stiles about ⅛ inch, and the stiles would project beyond the rails about ½ inch, leaving what is known to workmen as horns) the bill of lumber would be:

Bill of Lumber		2 pieces	13 in ×	2 in ×	1 in.
		1 piece	9¼ in ×	2 in ×	1 in.
		1 piece	9¼ in ×	1½ in ×	1 in.

Fig. 106.

It must also be taken into consideration that the door must be planed on the edges and the ends when it is all put together; it will be necessary to allow for this work when the material is being planed; having the stiles and rails a little over size in width will provide for this.

The laying out of this exercise is important, for there are several things to be considered; we must first find out the depth of the rabbet and the width of the molding before we proceed to lay out the work.

It will be seen from section drawing [A, Fig. 107], that the molding from the edges of the piece to the quirk is ⁵/₁₆ inch, (this is the depth that the molding plane cuts); the rabbet is also the same depth; the opening between the stiles is 5 inches; to this must be added the depth of the molding and rabbet on both sides, which makes the distance between the shoulders of the rails 5⅝ inches.

A simple rule to follow in laying out work, where pieces are in pairs or right and left, is to place the pieces together with their faces out and their edges up.

Placing the rails in this position, lay out the rails. At the end draw a line across the edges. (It must be remembered that when the pieces were sawed out, they were left a little longer than the width of the door, so that the position of the first line is to be determined by the amount of extra stock left). From this line measure off the width of the door and mark across the other end. From these lines measure in the width of the stiles, which is 2 inches; this gives the width of the opening.

Fig. 107.

We saw from [A, Fig. 107], that the depth of the molding and the rabbet was ⁵/₁₆ inch; so from the 2 inch line we measure back on each end ⁵/₁₆ inch; this gives the lines from which the shoulder lines are to be drawn across the faces and the backs of the pieces. Prepare shoulders for back-saw as directed in other work.

Now, taking the stiles, and placing them together by the rule given, lay out the lines for the extreme length of the door, and from one end measure in the width of the top rail (1½ inches). From the other end measure in the width of the bottom rail (2 inches). From these lines measure back the length of the mortises. It will be understood that by measuring is meant that lines are to be drawn.

Lines are also needed on the back edges of the stiles for the mortises, as the mortise is cut all the way through. To obtain those lines apply the method given in exercise No. 3; never mark lines across the outside of the work unless it is absolutely necessary, and then with pencil only, so that they may be cleaned off when the work is being finished.

The marking of the sides of the mortises and the tenons is done with the mortise gauge set to the dimensions given in the drawing, the gauge to be applied to the face side. Cut out mortises and tenons as in former work, using the ¼ inch mortising chisel which is found in the tool room.

(All gauging for mortises and tenons having been done from the face side, and all cutting having been done to the lines, it necessarily follows that the face side of the door will be flush. This is absolutely necessary for the molding and the rabbet to match.) Take the combination plow and set it to cut the rabbet, applying the fence to the face side and cutting the rabbets out of the corners opposite to where the plow is placed. See that the shoe is set to stop the plane cutting when the desired depth is reached.

Fig. 108.

[Fig. 108] shows how this may be done. After cutting the rabbet, stick the molding (which in this case is called a Gothic or Scotia molding). Prepare the stiles as shown in [Fig. 107, B].

The joining of the molding is to be what is known as coping. This is done in the following manner: The molding is left projecting beyond the inside end of the mortises, as shown in [Fig. 107, B]. The molding on the rails is to be cut at an angle of 45 degrees. This is done by taking the templet used in Exercise No. 6 and placing it on the rail as shown in [Fig. 107, C], and cutting the molding with a chisel down to the tenons. This will give the line by which the coping is to be cut. The cutting is done by using the gouge, [Fig. 109], one that is ground on the inside preferred; cut the coping deep enough to receive the molding which projects beyond the mortise, [Fig. 107, B]. The line which will show at the joining of the molding on the face of the exercise will look like a miter joint. This joint has the advantage of always being close, for no amount of shrinking or swelling will open it.

Fig. 109.

After all cutting is done, put together and see if all joints fit; having tenons cut as shown in [Fig. 107, C]. This allows room for wedges.

The wedges are cut with a back-saw out of a piece of board of the same thickness as the tenons. [Fig. 110] shows how this is to be done.

If the joints are all satisfactory open them enough to allow the glue brush to go between the shoulders and the stiles; put a little glue on both sides of the tenons and drive together, putting clamps or large handscrews on to bring the joints up close; dip the points of the wedges in glue and drive them between the ends of the mortise and the edges of the tenon; remove the clamps and let the glue set before smoothing the sides of the work. The door, when the wedges are driven and clamps removed, will look as shown in [Fig. 111].

Fig. 110.

Fig. 111.

The ends of the tenons and horns are sawed off and the edges planed. The gouge, ([Fig. 109]), has a blade that is curved in its section the whole length; gouges are of different sweeps. The bevel which is ground on the cutting edge may be on the concave or the convex side; and according to this grinding the tools are known as inside and outside gouges. The sharpening is done with a slip-stone.

After the glue is hard enough, smooth the surface with the smooth plane, and then take sand paper and finish the work. Put the sand paper on a block, being careful not to round the surfaces when using it.

EXERCISE NUMBER 9.
BENCH HOOK.

(This exercise may be omitted at the option of instructor.)

It will not be necessary to give many directions for this exercise, as the student by this time should have learned the sequence of operations in preparing material. The special points to be noticed in the working out of this exercise are that the sides are cut out with the rip-saw; the ends cut with the back-saw; the sides to be finished with the plane, using the rabbet plane to plane the corners at the stops at the ends, and the jack-plane for the rest of the surfaces. Surfaces are to be finished with sand paper and shellaced.

In [Fig. 112] will be seen the working drawing. The thickness of stock required is 1¾ inches. The angle at which to set the bevel for the ends is ½ inch in 4 inches. All the other dimensions are found on the drawing.

After the piece is cut out and finished with sand paper, give it a coat of shellac varnish and let it dry from 8 to 10 hours. Then with No. 00 sand paper smooth the shellac (but do not cut through). After which give another coat. To obtain a glossy surface the pores of the wood must be filled with the varnish; by repeating the operation with the sand paper and giving another coat of shellac, a very good surface will be obtained.

Fig. 112.

Care must be taken in putting on the shellac varnish not to put it on too thick, as it sets or dries quickly and an uneven coat of varnish is unsightly. Spread it quickly; see that plenty of shellac is on the brush; do not go over it after it has once been spread evenly, as it will roll up in small lumps which will have to be left to dry before anything can be done to it, and then it will take a great amount of labor to smooth it.

This is one method of finishing with shellac varnish.

To prepare shellac varnish [see note].

EXERCISE NUMBER 10.
BOX WITH SLIDING TOP.

There are so many ways in which a box may be made that it would be out of place here to enumerate them all. The joints used here are known as butt joints.

[Fig. 113] is the working drawing; the details of the work are shown in [Fig. 114].

The first step to be taken in making this exercise is to make out a bill of lumber. By the drawing we find the length of the box to be 12 inches, the width to be 7 inches, and the height to be 5 inches, allowing ⅛ inch on each end of the sides for finishing. The side pieces would be 12¼ inches. The thickness of the sides is ½ inch and the ends are let into the sides ¼ inch as shown in [Fig. 114, A]; this would make the length of the ends 6½ inches finished; one end being ½ inch narrower than the other to let the top slide over it in the groove on the sides. The width of one end would be 5 inches, and of the other 4½ inches. The bottom is to be let into the sides and ends in a groove which is ¼ inch deep. This would make the bottom 11½ inches long, 6½ inches wide, and ½ inch thick. The top slides in the groove shown in the section at [B, Fig. 114], which is ¼ inch deep, and the end of the top goes into the groove in the end of the box, which is ¼ inch deep. This would make the length of the top 11¾ inches, the width 6½ inches, and the thickness ½ inch. The bill of lumber would be as follows:

Bill of	Sides,	2 pieces	12¼ in ×	½ in.
Lumber	Top,	1 piece	11¾ in ×	6½ in ×	½ in.	Finished
Cherry	End,	1 piece	6½ in ×	5 in ×	½ in.	Size.
or Birch	End,	1 piece	6½ in ×	4½ in ×	½ in.
	Bottom,	1 piece	11½ in ×	6½ in ×	½ in.

Fig. 113.

Fig. 114.

The material used in this exercise will be planed nearly to the thickness by the planing machine, enough being left to smooth the work. Select and lay out on a board the pieces required (allowing enough for the work on the edges). Saw out the pieces; then plane the edges by the methods given, omitting the planing of the face side and the back, but select and mark the sides for the working faces.

The extremities of the end pieces are to be planed perfectly square to insure a close fit against the sides. The method of planing the ends is to plane half way through from the edge, then plane from the other edge, being careful not to let the plane go all the way across, as the corner will be liable to break off.

It will not be necessary to plane the ends of the sides until the box is glued together, when they can be finished off even with the end.

To lay out and prepare the sides, place the pieces together, faces out and edges up, draw a line across the edges at the ends for the full length of the box, then measure back the thickness of the ends. From these lines mark across the faces of each piece. It will be noticed that one end of each side can be sawed across, but the other end where the top enters the grooves will have to be cut partly with a saw and the rest of the way with a chisel. Prepare the ends the same as the shoulders of the tenon, being careful not to cut the groove all the way across where the top enters.

Gauge the depth to which the ends go into the sides, and after sawing across remove the pieces from the corners with a chisel. It will be necessary only to have the end pieces the correct length, as there will be no lines to be drawn on them.

Take the plow plane and put a ¼ inch iron into it, and set it for the grooves that are cut out of the sides and the ends.

The grooves are all the same distance in from the edges and are all the same depth. To protect the bench while using the plow, get a piece of board and on it fasten pieces to hold the work while running the groove. This is done by sawing out three or four pieces as shown in [Fig. 115], and fastening them to the board as shown in [Fig. 116].

Fig. 115.

Fig. 116.

Fig. 117.

The tongue on the edges of the top and the bottom can be made with the plow by fastening the pieces in the vise and rabbeting out the corners as shown in [C, Fig. 114].

After all cutting and fitting has been done smooth the inside of each piece with the plane; then take the steel scraper ([shown in Fig. 117]), and scrape the surfaces; then finish with sand paper; glue the corners; put the bottom in place and fasten together with hand screws and let dry. There are no nails used in the construction of this exercise.

Finish the outside of the box in the same way that the inside was done.

After finishing the outside and the top, use filler or stain to color the wood. The filler is a mixture of fine whiting and linseed oil with a little turpentine to act as a dryer, colored with any of the pigments desired. A little experience is necessary in using the colors to obtain the desired shade.

The filler comes already prepared, of a cream color, and must be colored as required. Apply the filler with a brush, and let it stand on the wood for a short time; then rub it off with cotton waste or a rag; then set the work aside until the surfaces are perfectly hard; then give a coat of shellac varnish and let it dry. Repeat the operation two or three times, using sand paper to smooth each coat of varnish.

After the varnish is thoroughly hard, take powdered pumice and oil or water, using a soft rag, and rub the surfaces until they are smooth; then take rotten stone and oil and rub until it has a fairly bright gloss. Rub with a soft dry cloth, then finish with the palm of the hand until a bright glossy surface is obtained.

For polishing [see note].