CHAPTER I.
Island of Porto Santo—Madeira—The Desertas Islands—Town of Funchal—The Physalia, or Portuguese man of war—Description of that animal—An experiment—Effects of the Physalia’s sting—Method of preserving the animal—Land in sight—Approach to the Cape Verd Islands—Islands of Mayo and St. Jago—Anchor at Porto Praya—The town—Famine—Novel method of Fishing—Tropical trees and other plants—Valley of St. Trinidad—The monkey bread-tree—Springs of water—Severe drought—Negro Huts—Plantations—The gigantic boabab-tree—Residence of Don F. Melo—The Orchilla weed—Date palms—Leave the island.
On the 15th of May 1832, the island of Porto Santo, in latitude 35° 5′ north, longitude 16° 5′ west, was seen bearing south-west, half-south, at the distance of forty miles from the ship “Brothers,” Captain Towns, bound to New South Wales, eleven days having elapsed since leaving Plymouth, from whence we had taken our departure. The appearance of the island, when we had reached to within seven or eight miles of it, was generally barren, varied by an occasional verdant patch scattered over the rugged rocks, which terminated in steep cliffs to the water’s edge.
On the following morning at daylight, the dark towering land of Madeira[1] was visible, rising like a huge black mass from the blue water. By eight A.M. we were in the passage between the south-east side of Madeira and the group of islands known as the Desertas, sailing, with a light and agreeable breeze, from the eastward, which enabled us to have an excellent view both of the former islands and Madeira; and as our progress seemed to be quicker than would have been expected from our gentle zephyrs, we were probably also aided by a current.[2]
The passage between the Desertas and Madeira is considered to be about eleven miles across. The Desertas stretch nearly north-north-west and south-south-east, and may be five leagues in extent; they have an abrupt, barren appearance, with steep, rugged, perpendicular rocks descending to the sea; on the largest island there was some appearance of cultivation, and the tufa, or red volcanic ash, imparts that colour to several parts of the island; there is a high pyramidal rock, resembling a needle or pillar, situated about the north-west part of the group, which at a distance is like a ship under sail.
By eight A.M. the heat of the sun had dissipated the gloomy mist which had previously been pending over and concealing the beautiful features of the island of Madeira, and caused it to burst forth in all its luxuriance and beauty; the northern part of the island had a very sombre, barren aspect, when compared with the fertility of the southern; the plantations, glowing in varied tints, interspersed with neat white villas and small villages, gave much animation and picturesque beauty to the scene.
Early in the morning is the time best calculated to view the island clearly, as the sun, gradually emerging from the dense masses of clouds which have previously enveloped the towering mountains, gilds their summits, and, gradually spreading its rays over the fertile declivities, enlivens and renders distinct the splendid prospect afforded to the voyager. As the sun, however, acquires a stronger power, its proximity to a wide expanse of waters soon causes a mist to arise by which the clearness of the view from the sea is much obstructed.
As we approached, the town of Funchal opened to our view, the white habitations rising like an amphitheatre, and the hills around, covered by the variegated tints of a luxuriant vegetation: the whole appearance of the island was such, as to be well calculated to excite the most agreeable sensations of delight at any time, but more especially after the eye has enjoyed for a time only the prospect of sea and sky.
As it was not our intention to touch at this island, in the course of the day we had passed and left it far in the distance. We spoke off the island one of Don Pedro’s blockading squadron; it was a brig mounting eighteen guns, filled with such a motley crew as one may expect to see in a piratical craft. The spokesman informed us that Don Pedro was with Admiral Sartorius, in a large ship off the north side of the island: we then parted; they wishing us “un bon voyage,” and we, in return, hoped they might obtain abundance of prize money, but which we hardly supposed would ever be realized.
There are various objects well calculated to excite interest to a naturalist during a long voyage, and to furnish both amusement and instruction. The splendid Physalia, or “Portuguese man of war,”[3] is often seen floating by the ship; the inflated, or bladder portion of this molluscous animal, glowing in delicate crimson tints, floats upon the waves, whilst the long tentaculæ of a deep purple colour extend beneath, as snares to capture its prey. It is oftentimes amusing to see persons eager to secure the gaudy prize; but they find, by painful experience, that, like many other beautiful objects of the creation, they possess hidden torments; for no sooner have they grasped the tinted and curious animal, than, encircling its long filiform appendages over the hands and fingers of its capturer, it inflicts such pungent pain by means of an acrid fluid discharged from them, as to cause him to drop the prize, and attend to the smarting occasioned by it.
This beautiful molluscous animal inhabits the tropical seas, and is also seen in high latitudes during the summer months[4] of the year. When first removed from the water, it excites the admiration of the spectators by the elegant and vivid colours with which it is adorned. These tints, however, are as evanescent as they are brilliant; and soon after this animal is taken from its native element, the crest sinks; the bright crimson, green, and purple tints lose their brilliancy, and the beauty which had previously excited so much admiration fades, and at last totally vanishes. There are a number of species of the genus;[5] but the one most commonly seen is the Physalia pelagica of Lamarck, (Holothuria physalis of Linn.) They are known to our seamen as the “Portuguese men of war,” and galére or frégate among the French, from having some resemblance to a small vessel resting tranquilly on the surface of the water during a calm, at which time they are more readily discerned than during strong breezes: they have also been confounded by many persons unacquainted with natural history with the Nautilus.
The figure of this species is somewhat ovate; the upper portion resembles an inflated bladder, rounded at one extremity, and with a beak-like termination at the other. On the summit or back is a crest or ridge, slightly elevated, sulcated, and fringed at the edges: the whole of this part of the animal is of a light blue, with occasional streaks of delicate sea-green, and tinged with brilliant crimson: this portion of the animal is filled with air, and, although I have heard it frequently asserted that the animal has the voluntary power of collapsing the bladder on the approach of tempestuous, or inflating it on a return of fine weather, yet I do not credit the remark, considering it is more probably a seaman’s tale than the result of a naturalist’s observation. On examination, no apparatus is found by which such an effect could be produced; and if it actually possesses such a power, why is it not exercised in every moment of peril?—for, when we approach the animal to capture it, or when it is taken from the water, no such change occurs; the bladder still remains inflated, and can be preserved thus distended either in a dried state or by placing it in alcohol. During strong breezes, I have seen them floating on the waves; but, from the ship passing at that time rapidly through the water, they are then more rarely observed. I have also seen them thrown in tempestuous weather on the beach at New South Wales, the bladder portion of the animal still remaining inflated. From these, and other reasons which might be adduced, the assertion cannot be considered as the result of actual observation. Situated at the under portion of the animal is a mass of tentaculæ, some short and thick, others long, filiform, and extending to several yards in length: these seem to consist of a chain of globules, filled with an extremely acrid fluid: in colour, they are of a beautiful purple, with an admixture of crimson; and they are covered by a glutinous substance, having a peculiar odour. The inflated membrane is probably intended to keep the animal buoyant on the water, by which it is readily enabled to extend its long tentaculæ in search of prey, or it may be designed as a locomotive agent, aiding the animal in its progress over the “vast bosom of the ocean,”—thus serving the purpose of a sail. It is said that the appearance of the Physalia near to the sea-coast is the indication of an approaching tempest.[6]
Having captured a very fine specimen of this animal on a former voyage in latitude 9° 0′ south, and longitude 12° 59′ west, and being aware of the pungent property residing in the tentaculæ, I was desirous of trying its effects on myself, for the purpose of ascertaining from personal experience the constitutional irritative effects resulting from it. On taking hold of the animal it raised its tentaculæ, and stung me on the second and ring fingers. The sensation was similar at first to that produced by the nettle; but before a few minutes had elapsed, a violent aching pain succeeded, affecting more severely the joints of the fingers, the stinging sensation at the same time continuing at the part first touched by the acrid fluid. On cold water being applied, with the intention of removing or lessening the pain, it was found rather to increase than diminish the effects. The irritation resulting from the poisonous fluid emitted by the animal extended upwards, increasing in extent and severity, (apparently acting along the course of the nerves,) and in the space of a quarter of an hour, the effect in the fore-arm (more particularly felt at the inner part) was very violent, and at the elbow-joint still more so. It may be worthy of remark, that when the joints became affected the pain always increased. It became at last almost unbearable, and was much heightened on the affected arm being moved; the pulse of that arm was also much accelerated, and an unnatural heat was felt over its whole surface. The pain extended to the shoulder-joint; and on the pectoral muscle becoming attacked by the same painful sensation, an oppression of breathing was occasioned, which we find similarly produced by rheumatism, when it attacks that muscle; and it proved very distressing during the time it remained. The continuance of the pain was very severe for nearly half an hour, after which it gradually abated, but the after effects were felt during the remainder of the day in a slight degree of numbness and increased temperature of the arm.
About two hours after I had been stung, I perceived that a vesicle had arisen on the spot; and when children have been stung, I observed that numerous small vesicles arose, similar to those produced by the nettle. The intensity of the effects produced depends on the size and consequent power of the animal; and after it has been for some time removed from the water, it is found that the stinging property has diminished. This irritative property, unattended, however, by any of the constitutional effects, remains for a long time in the tentaculæ, even after they have been removed from the animal; for on touching a handkerchief some weeks after it had been used in wiping off some portions of the tentaculæ, the stinging property was found to have remained, although it had lost that virulent quality, which produced on a recent application such violent constitutional irritation.
This irritative secretion does not, however, exist solely in this species of mollusca; several of the medusæ have similar properties, which may perhaps be considered as both offensive and defensive; and it has been, and no doubt correctly, supposed to be given to these animals as a means of procuring their food, the benumbing principle existing in the tentaculæ rendering their prey when touched unable to escape. For what purpose this acrid property is found existing in the vegetable kingdom, it is difficult to decide, and all that has yet been said on the subject may be considered as merely hypothetical. For instance, at the island of Singapore there is a remarkable species of the order Fuci, usually found growing in isolated patches upon coral banks. Finlayson thus mentions it: “It is pinnated, plumose, elegant, about a foot and a half in length, and of a whitish colour. It is endued with a property of stinging like nettles; the sensation produced is more acute and more penetrating, more instantaneous, but somewhat more permanent. The hand is scarcely brought into contact with it, before the wound is inflicted. A small corrugated granular bag, filled with a transparent fluid, would seem to be the organ by which it produces this effect. These are no sooner touched than they discharge the fluid they contain. The plant soon loses this power after being removed from the water.” This plant seems, therefore, to possess an offensive or defensive property analogous to that of the Physalia, but for what purpose it would be difficult to form an opinion.
The usual method adopted for the preservation of this curious and beautiful mollusca is by placing it in spirits; the form is thus well preserved; but its vivid tints, the subject of so much admiration, are totally lost. As it is with the beautiful but evanescent colour of flowers, no method has been discovered by which their natural brilliancy can be preserved, and it is impossible to retain that peculiar brightness given only by life and health. I have preserved the animal by detaching the tentacute from the bladder; (on account of their being too soft and perishable to enable them to be dried, en masse, with any chance of success; their form only being preserved well in spirits;) then permitting the air to escape from the bladder, dried, pressed, and afterwards gummed on paper, it produces a good lateral view of the form of this mollusca; the colours being afterwards artificially renewed by the pencil, and the tentaculæ underneath drawn and coloured, the tout ensemble conveys an idea of the brilliant appearance of the animal, as far as can be produced by art. I have also kept the animal with the bladder inflated, dried it in that state, and, by afterwards colouring it, the appearance produced is very excellent; but, it is only by repeated trials that the best and most accurate methods of preserving objects of natural history can be discovered—the greatest difficulty existing, being that of preserving them accurately in their natural appearance.
We had the N. E. trade in lat. 28° N. and long. 18° 11′ W. and at three P.M. of the 25th made the “Northern Saddle Hill,” (N. W. hill,) on the island of Sal, (Cape Verd group,) bearing S. E. about six leagues distant.
The announcement of “land in sight,” and the delightful sensations produced by it, can only be appreciated by those who have for some length of time been tossed about on the “deep, deep sea,” for many a weary day, with nothing but sea and sky to gaze upon. All hasten on deck as soon as the land is stated to be visible; at first its rather indistinct form, as it rises from the horizon, does not excite so much interest; but, on a nearer approach, the variously tinted strata of the lofty mountains become visible, and plantations, trees, shrubs, and neat habitations cheer the eye; and, on landing, a profusion of the floral beauties of the vegetable kingdom, with butterflies vieing with them in splendour of tints, or several species of the coleoptera tribe decked in golden armour, meet the eye. But the approach to the Cape Verd islands does not possess these beauties in any profusion—barren volcanic mountains, contrasted occasionally only by a few others of a verdant character are seen instead; even these become an agreeable prospect, being a change from the monotony of a ship, but a departure from them, after a few days’ sojourn, is attended with but little if any regret.
On the 26th, at daylight, we sailed with a pleasant breeze between the island of Mayo and that of St. Jago; the former distant about ten, the latter about eighteen miles; the western side of Mayo had a very sterile appearance; there was not a tree or speck of verdure to be seen. The lofty mountain of St. Antonio, on the island of St. Jago, was visible; its declivities verdant, but the peaked summit was for the most part hidden by clouds. As we coasted along the latter island, the feature of the coast was very barren, although it was occasionally relieved by a small verdant valley, diversified by some miserable huts and a few stunted cocoa-nut trees. In the afternoon we anchored at Porto Praya,[7] about a quarter of a mile distant from the shore.
After dinner we paid a visit to the shore; the landing-place is very inconvenient, and often dangerous, from the surf, which at this time was fortunately not high. After landing we had to walk over a soft sandy road, varied only by large stones coming in contact with our feet, and assuring us of their presence by the pain they occasioned. Several miserable date palms and dusty plants of Aloe perfoliata (a few of the latter being in flower) grew by the road side. Then by a winding and steep ascent, covered by loose stones, we arrived at the town, which is built upon a table land of moderate elevation, and on this side of the approach there is a battery mounting twenty-one guns. From the descriptions I had previously perused, the town appears to have been much improved since they had been written, but still it has nothing of interest to recommend it; but the view of the bay and shipping from the elevated site is very pretty. The Plaza (in which the American consul resides, and where there is a small church, which as yet cannot boast of a steeple,) contains the best houses and stores, where almost any supplies of foreign manufacture can be purchased, but at exorbitant prices.
At the period of our visit, this, together with the whole of the islands of the group were suffering from a severe and long drought; this one, from its fertility, and the irrigation that is capable of being produced, as well as from imports, is in a better condition than the others. At the island of Fuego, more particularly, the inhabitants were said to be dying daily in great numbers, from famine. The island of St. Jago alone is stated to have a population of 27,000 inhabitants.
I observed several boats engaged in fishing near the ship, previous to our landing, and their mode of capturing the finny tribe appeared to me novel; they sprinkled something over the water, like crumbs of bread, that attracted the fish (which were five or six inches long) to the surface in shoals; the fishermen then swept amongst them a stick to which a number of short lines and hooks were attached, and by aid of this they usually brought up several fish at a time. After the fish were caught, some women, who were in the boat, were engaged in cleansing and salting them.
Tired of the dull village, we descended from the elevated site to a garden in which the well was situated whence the supply of water of excellent quality is procured for shipping. At this spot the plantain, date, papaw, and cocoa-nut trees, attracted the attention of those of our party who had never before seen these magnificent tropical trees. The sides of the paths were adorned with the gay and handsome flowers of the Poinciana pulcherrima, and the more elevated lilac tree (Melia azedarack) profusely covered with its long panicles of fragrant flowers. As we rambled further into the scrubby parts beyond this cultivated spot, cotton shrubs, (Gossypium herbaceum,) the thorny Zizyphus and mimosas were abundant. The Jatropha curcas was used for hedges, and a handsome asclepias (procera?) called bombadero by the Portuguese, was abundant about this waste land, both in fruit and flower: the flowers are succeeded by a large somewhat oval fruit, containing a quantity of pretty feathered seeds; the whole plant (like all the family to which this belongs) abounds in a viscid milky juice; the capsule of the pod is elegantly veined, reminding the anatomist of the veins displayed on the exterior of the heart.
On the following morning a small party was formed for an excursion to the valley of St. Trinidad, to gain some idea, if possible, of the fertile portions of this apparently very sterile island. This valley, it may be said, commences soon after descending the table land on which the town is situated. We diverged from the direct road, for the purpose of visiting a plantation about a mile and a half distant from the town. The road was stony, and there was nothing in the aspect of the country around to relieve the eye; a few stunted Mimosæ, (occasionally varied by a few of the same species of large dimensions and great age,) some stunted Zizyphi, and a few trailing plants of Convolvulus soldanella, which, by its dark green leaves and purplish flowers, contrasted in a beautiful manner with the sterile brown soil of the scorched plains. The plantation we visited was not yet in order; it contained some flourishing coffee plants, with cocoa, plantain, cashew-nut, and other tropical trees; but the principal object of my visit was to view a specimen of the Adansonia digitata, or monkey bread tree, and its very peculiar appearance and growth imparted much gratification; it was about eighteen or twenty feet high, and twenty-one feet in circumference. This tree was in full foliage, and its bright green digitated leaves imparted much animation to it. The tree is surrounded to some depth by a spongy sap. As subsequently at the valley I saw a much larger specimen of this gigantic tree, but destitute of foliage, I shall then return to its description, and add a sketch. From this part of the island I collected but few plants; Momordica senegalensis grew wild about the fertile parts, as well as Lotus jacobæus, Tribulus cistoides, Asclepias, (procera?) and a very pretty convolvulus, with lilac flowers, climbed over rocks and trees in good soil.
From this place we proceeded to our destination. The sun was fervent, but the inconvenience was in some degree mitigated by a delightful north-east trade breeze. We passed over scorched plains, about which a few stunted bushes of mimosa were scattered, and at other places some wretched trees of Jatropha curcas. In a small vale we passed a rivulet of delicious water, at which several negresses were busily engaged in washing linen. The springs of water appear excellent, and there seems to be no deficiency of it in the valleys; but the want of rain is often severely felt: it was stated to me, that during the previous twenty months only half an inch has fallen on this island.
Continuing our journey, we passed several negroes conveying their produce, consisting of fruit, vegetables, orchilla weed, &c. to the town for sale, upon asses, with panniers made from bullocks’ hides. The animals seemed in excellent condition, at which we were not a little surprised, from what we had seen of the sterility of the soil. A few cattle were also seen wandering over the plains, where barely a speck of verdure tinged the barren volcanic rocks, still the animals were sleek, and in tolerable condition; we therefore came to the conclusion that they were turned out to feed, or, what was much more likely, to view the country and fast during the day, and driven home to feed at night.
We pursued our dreary path, occasionally passing a few negro huts, and refreshing ourselves with some delicious goats’ milk. As we came upon the fertile portion of this valley, the change of scene was certainly most agreeable; the brown-parched soil which we had been so long previously alone regarding, now gave place to the verdant plantations of sugar-cane, manioc, and various European and tropical esculent vegetables, which gave a rich and animated character to the scene. The plantations were also interspersed with a great variety of tropical fruit trees, such as orange, lemon, guava plantain, tamarind, custard apple, &c. The tamarind trees were stunted, compared with the luxuriant and elegant growth of those trees in India; they were, however, laden with ripe fruit, whose powerful acid soon set the teeth on edge of such of our party as were induced to partake of them.
Several trees of the Boabab, or monkey bread-tree, (Adansonia digitata,) were now seen, and among them one was particularly conspicuous from its size, as also from a resemblance to the union of three trees. This tree was destitute of foliage, but that loss was compensated by the curious character it assumed, being covered with fruit pending from a long, twisted, spongy stalk, varying in length from one to two feet. This tree measured forty feet in circumference, and was about sixty feet high; the bark was smooth, and of a greyish colour; the termination of its larger branches is remarkable, from being abruptly rounded, and from these rounded extremities the smaller branches are given off, as may be seen in the accompanying drawing; this forms a very characteristic feature in the tree. The fruit, on the outer shell being broken, contained not the yellow pulp usually mentioned, but a white farinaceous substance enveloping the dark brown seeds, of an agreeable acidulated taste. This may proceed from the fruit being old. The fruit is of an oval form, usually six inches in length, and three or four in diameter; rough externally, and, when mature, of a brownish yellow colour; a dark red gum exuded from the outer part of the fruit.[8]
Some of the farms and plantations were in very fine and luxuriant condition, and this was an enjoyment to us after the arid country we had before seen, destitute almost of vegetation, and covered with loose stones. Of the feathered tribe, although not very numerous, a few were shot by one of the party, among which were two specimens of Halcyon senegalensis, and a fine hawk; quails and Guinea fowls (Numida meleagris, Linn.) were abundant, and several of the former were also shot; the crow and several species of Fringillæ were likewise seen. In the afternoon we returned to the town. The population consists for the most part of mulattos and negroes: fruit, including plantains, bananas, oranges, and pine-apples, was abundant, but not yet fully in season.
Among the very few decent houses in this paltry town, was one, the residence of a Don F. Melo, (who speculates in orchilla weed,) situated in the Plaza, which displays taste and neatness both in the exterior and interior of its arrangement: on the lower land, behind the house, he has laid out with much labour an extensive garden, well irrigated, and in which European and tropical vegetables, fruits, and elegant flowering plants, were thriving in luxuriance, and sufficiently proved that even in that sterile spot, industry and perseverance could surmount almost any difficulty. At the house of this gentleman, I had an opportunity of seeing some excellent specimens of the orchilla weed; this valuable production of the vegetable kingdom is indigenous to this and other islands of the group, as well as to Madeira, the Canaries, and the coast of Barbary; it is the Roccella tinctoria of botanists,[9] and is held in high estimation for the purplish dye it yields, and I believe, excepting the cochineal, is the only dye that possesses a mordant in itself. This lichen is of a gray colour, and those plants which are of the darkest hue, long and strong, are considered the best; it grows to a great length, but is rarely obtained so, as the natives gather it before it comes to any size, on account of its high value.
The quantity collected in one year, among the whole of this group of islands, was 537,600 lbs.; but sometimes a larger quantity is obtained, when, not having much work upon the plantations, the negroes can be employed for the purpose.[10] It is found on the steep rocks in the interior of the islands, and growing in the crevices; the finest orchilla is collected at the island of St. Antonio, where it grows in some places so inaccessible as to be only procured by lowering the gatherer down the cliffs by ropes. This lichen is exported only to Lisbon, there being an order from the Portuguese government to that effect, but quantities were often smuggled direct to some foreign port.[11]
Date palms were very numerous in the vicinity of the town, but did not appear to attain any high degree of perfection, or bear fruit, and were used, for what they alone seemed fit, as firewood.
The troops were decently clad, and consisted of about five hundred, principally negroes and mulattoes, officered by Europeans.
All arrangements having been completed, we left the island in the evening, with a fine north-east trade breeze.