Preliminaries

Go out and gather the material.

Write the first draft as fast as you can.

Revise everything you have written until the following requirements have been met.

100. Indicate within the first few sentences what the composition is about.

Some of the more common devices used by experienced writers in beginning a composition are listed below. You can begin almost anything you will be called upon to write in one of these ways or in a combination of two or more of them. Use a different beginning for each composition you write until you have tried a considerable number of them. After some practice you can quickly select the one beginning that is most appropriate both to your material and to your reader.

101. Keep the same point of view throughout.

Wrong. If one wishes to enter a canoe safely, he should grasp both gunwales and lower himself to the seat. You should then push off from the shore.

Better. To enter a canoe safely, grasp both gunwales and lower yourself to the seat before pushing off from the shore.

Wrong. As he stood looking down the river he saw a house-boat plowing along; while behind him a fleet of coal barges sent ripples toward the shore.

Better. As he stood looking down the river he saw a house-boat plowing along. Turning around he noticed a fleet of coal barges sending ripples toward the shore.

Wrong. The taxi driver has an excellent opportunity to observe the life about him. All kinds and conditions of men and women make use of him at all hours of the day and night. Some think him merely a part of the machine he drives, some consider him no better than the dirt under their feet, and some—to be sure they are not many—treat him as if he were a living, breathing human being like themselves.

Better. The taxi driver has an excellent opportunity to observe the life about him. All kinds and conditions of men and women make use of him at all hours during the day and night. He finds that some treat him as if he were no better than the dirt under their feet, and some—to be sure they are not many—as if he were a living, breathing human being like themselves.

102. Include everything that the reader will need for a thorough understanding of your subject.

Wrong.

The Theater in America

Between the years 1750 and 1814 many events took place which either helped or hindered the establishment of a permanent theater in America.

One of the big events that helped establish the theater in America was the coming of the Hallam company of actors. This company was made up of English actors who came from the West Indies. The company consisted of twelve adult members and three children. Every member of the group had ability as an actor, and, consequently, the company was successful. They first played at Yorktown, Virginia, in 1752. Then, after a season in Philadelphia, they went to New York. After a three months’ stay in New York, they returned to the West Indies, where Mr. Hallam died. Here a Mr. Douglas reorganized the company and with them returned to this country.

Douglas, often called the “theater builder,” did much for the future theater. He was a man of great strength and courage. Besides being a capable manager, he was also a good actor. Douglas built the first theater in America at Williamsburg, Virginia, and the first permanent theater at Philadelphia. He also built theaters at Annapolis and at Newport.

The greatest difficulty which the play companies had to overcome was the increasing opposition of some of the people toward the theater. Throughout the country people were fighting against the theater. Especially was this true of the people of the North. The Southerners were fun-loving and pleasure-seeking, and the theater offered them a place of amusement. In many towns, however, laws were passed against acting. The opposition of the people was not directed so much toward the theater itself as toward the gambling and immorality which accompanied the theater of that day. Folders were distributed among the people explaining why the theater was not approved of and gradually the gambling and immorality disappeared. After this the theater improved and theater-going became better thought of throughout the country.

Better.

An Early Influence in the American Theater

In the year 1752 the theater in America received a great aid through the coming of the Hallam company of actors....

The condition of the theater prior to this time left much to be desired....

The nature of the company was such that its influence was decidedly good....

Naturally the effect of this kind of player was toward the betterment of the theater....

103. Omit anything that will distract the reader’s attention.

Wrong.

Scoring in Basketball

A score in basketball is made every time a player throws the ball into one of the baskets placed at each end of the court. In the West Branch High School the gymnasium is well equipped with everything the students need for their athletic contests....

Better. A score is made in basketball every time a player succeeds in throwing the ball into the basket guarded by his opponents. If this goal, as it is called, is made from the field, it counts two points. Sometimes, however, one team is given a free throw at the basket as the result of a foul’s being made. If the ball is caged under this circumstance, the foul goal, as it is called, counts one point.

104. Writing that is serious in tone or purpose should include nothing that will destroy its seriousness.

Wrong. Gypsies are a peculiar, wandering race of people that appeared in eastern Europe in the fourteenth century and that has now spread out into Asia, America, and parts of Africa. These people are easily distinguished from those among whom they rove by appearance, by language, and by behavior. In appearance they are slight, though very strong; in color, somewhat tawny. In language they are thought to resemble some long-lost Hindu tribe. In behavior they are sneaky, and a number of them are not above chicken stealing.

Better.

Gypsies are a peculiar, wandering race of people.... In behavior they are untrustworthy, and a number of them are not above petty thievery.

105. Writing that is light in tone or purpose should include nothing that will destroy its lightness.

Wrong. Many different types are in evidence around Fitzgerald’s boathouse in the spring. The type most frequently discovered, perhaps, is the lover. He comes, accompanied by his inamorata, in quest of a canoe, in which presently the two are drifting idly upon the ample bosom of Turtle creek. It is strange that lovers should sojourn here, for Turtle creek is anything rather than a background for romance.

Better. Many different types are in evidence around Fitzgerald’s boathouse in spring.... Muddy water, sand dredges, a railway construction gang at work near at hand, the whole background is unheeded by the lovers—romance needs no setting.

106. Arrange your ideas in some orderly sequence.

Following are various kinds of sequence.

107. Arrange ideas in chronological order.

All day long we were happy as a wedding party.... Early in the morning.... When noon came.... At night....

108. Arrange the divisions of the composition according to the relative position of the objects treated.

As we entered the garden.... On the right.... On the left.... Directly before us.... Upon going into the house....

109. Work from the abstract to the concrete.

Freedom may be defined as the state of being free, but to how many of us is this actually illuminating? Let us take, for example, a man who has just been released from prison, where he has been closely guarded for more than ten years. What would be his idea of freedom?

110. Work from summary to detail.

When once the mania for news gathering claims its victim, everything he sees becomes potential news.

He looks for it on his way down town in the morning....

The restaurant at which he lunches is combed unconsciously for items....

In the lobby of hotels and theaters....

Even his relatives and close friends become his prey....

111. Work from what is of most importance to what is less so.

Mohammed VI, the Turkish sultan, fled from Constantinople on a British warship, bound for Malta, today. The sultan declared he was not abdicating, but was merely removing himself from immediate danger. He was accompanied by....

112. Work from the familiar to the unfamiliar.

Everybody has noticed the way a cat’s claws are incased in tiny sheaths, but how many of us know why they should be? In the first place, the cat is descended from a wild animal whose way of obtaining food was to kill its prey and then tear it to pieces. Naturally when this animal struck into the dead body with its claws, the claws, being hook-like, would tend to remain fast. But nature found a way of overcoming the difficulty by incasing the claws in sheaths so that while the paw of the animal is still inside the carcass, the claw can be withdrawn into the sheath and the paw removed without hindrance. Perfection in nature extends even to such trifles as this.

113. Work up to a climax.

Now, as always before, it is the custom to give way to great manifestations of joy when the football team wins over a university that is much older and much better established. Just as soon as the report comes in that Drake is gaining, feeling begins to run high; when it is said that Drake is ahead, we begin to hold our breath; but when the report spreads that Drake has won, excitement breaks out like a vast tidal wave and sweeps everything before it.

114. Weld paragraph to paragraph so that they will obviously be parts of the whole instead of separate units.

Following are various methods of accomplishing this welding:

115. Weld paragraph to paragraph by word connectives.

On a summer evening the shores of Lake Tiberias are thronged with strange and interesting people.

Here are caravans from across the Arabian desert....

Above them a Bedouin drives his flocks....

Not far away a rich Arabian farmer....

Around him, around everyone, in fact, little Arabian boys....

Then, as the last rays of the sun disappear behind the Mountain of Beatitudes, ...

116. Weld paragraph to paragraph by repetition.

... Thus it is that I came to believe in ghosts.

But ghosts are not all that I came to believe in that summer....

117. Weld paragraph to paragraph by recapitulation.

... Guns, horses, motors, men, all thundered along the road, then, like dogs of war let loose at Armageddon.

The hunt was up; the scent was on the air—Germany was unchained....

118. Weld paragraph to paragraph by announcing the divisions.

The most attractive flower to me among all those that grow in my garden is the sweet pea, chiefly, I think, because of the delicacy of its color, form, and fragrance.

119. Give each idea the space it deserves.

Wrong. As the sun climbed higher, the spell of the dawn was broken, and the camp came to life. Soon the surface of the lake was dotted with bobbing heads. Upon the crests of the low hills farmers were seen beginning to plow. Milk carts rattled along the roads toward the creamery. All was in harmony to foretell a perfect day.

Better. As the sun climbed higher, the spell of the dawn was broken, and the camp began to come to life. Soon the surface of the lake was dotted with bobbing heads as the campers splashed about taking their dip before breakfast. There was much laughter and merry shouting; everybody was ready to have as much fun as he could. Across the lake the farmers were commencing to plow. And from the road behind came the rattle of milk carts on their way to the creamery. It was morning; the world was awake.

120. Give each idea the position it deserves.

Wrong. Here and there the long, shiny body of a fish shot out of the water and fell back with a faint splash. The lake changed from the deep blue reflected from the clear sky to all the brilliant colors of the sunset. The sun began to set long before it should have, according to the campers’ ideas. Canoes crept out without a sound from the shore, and the campers enjoyed to the fullest their favorite time of the day. Gulls called back and forth and settled for the night on jutting sand bars.

Better. The sun began to set long before it should have, according to the campers’ ideas. The lake changed in color from the deep blue that had been reflected from the clear sky to all the brilliance of the sunset. Here and there the long, shiny body of a fish shot out of the water and fell back with a gentle splash. Gulls called back and forth to one another and began to settle for the night on jutting sand bars. Now canoes crept from the shore without a sound, and the campers enjoyed to the full this their favorite hour of the day.

121. End with whatever will give an impression of a well-rounded whole.

... With all these hints of prospective fun, how easy it is to bang the books back upon the table and let the world go hang—on Friday night.

122. Choose a title that will indicate in a word or a phrase what the composition is about. Be sure not to refer to the title in the body of the composition as if it were an integral part of the composition.

Wrong.

Friday Night

This is the night of all the week to which I looked forward with the most pleasure.

Better.

The Best Night in the Week

There is one night in the week that is, to me, more pleasant than any other. You know which one it is as well as I do, for it is your best friend, too.

123. Plan long compositions as you gather the material.

Use cards or slips of paper of uniform size for making notes while reading. During the early stages of your reading, the various topics which you will discuss will begin to make their appearance. Make only one note on each card. After writing the note, write one or two words in the upper left-hand corner to indicate the topic treated in that note. As you accumulate notes, keep them sorted according to the topics.

When all the available sources of material have been utilized and all the notes taken, arrange the various stacks—one stack for each topic—by first spreading them out upon a table so that you can see readily all the topics at once. Then move the stacks about, thus trying out various arrangements until you have made one which seems logical and complete. You will then have a plan for your composition.

124. Revise for arrangement and development by making a plan of the composition after it is finished.

By outlining the composition you have written, you will be able to see just how certain ideas bear upon the subject and are related to one another. Again, the outline will show you whether or not the ideas follow any orderly sequence. But best of all, perhaps, it will enable you to judge whether the composition omits anything that is vital for complete understanding, or contains something that distracts the reader’s attention.

Following is a method for making a plan of the composition:

Strokes Most Commonly Used in Tennis

Idea to be developed: In order to be a good tennis player one must master certain strokes.

Etc.

125. Exercise.

Following is a composition that is very poorly put together.

1. Make an outline of the whole, using only the topic sentence in each paragraph.

2. Strike out any topic which does not help to express the central idea. Reword any topic which can be made to serve its purpose better. Add any other topics which will aid in developing more fully the central idea. Combine topics that explain almost the same thing.

3. Make changes in the arrangement of topics so that each topic will stand in its proper relationship to every other.

4. Make an outline of every paragraph, using every sentence.

5. Shift sentences into positions where they will serve better to develop the topic. Strike out any that do not directly apply. Reword any that can be improved by rewording. Insert additional sentences where they are needed.

6. Shift sentences from one paragraph to another if they can thus be made to serve their purpose better.

7. Copy the material in the regulation form for a composition, taking care that there is proper transition from sentence to sentence, and from paragraph to paragraph.

8. Apply these admonitions to one of your own compositions and rewrite accordingly.

Why Take Boxing?

Boxing is a very interesting sport. When the child of kindergarten age first attends school he has his first experience with fighting. This happens at every meeting of boys and continues into the teens. Nearly every real American boy wants to learn how to protect himself, and a course in boxing is the best way to learn defense. In boxing, the individual learns where the best blows are planted and also how to ward off these blows. If a boy knows these punches he will not be imposed upon by his companions. Even in later life men often become quarrelsome and come to blows, but the man who has learned the fundamentals of boxing always comes out in the lead. If every man knew how to box, robberies would be less frequent because the victims would be less timid and would give battle to the bandits instead of allowing themselves to be held up by highwaymen. Thus, defense is an important element in boxing.

Moreover, boxing, besides aiding in defense, is a healthful sport. The body is developed greatly after one goes out for boxing as is shown by the increase or decrease in weight, as the case may be. The weight decreases if one has been in the habit of taking no exercise as he begins training, but the weight soon increases again as the body makes the proper readjustments. Persons who are fleshy soon lose their superfluous fat. With the adjustment of weight the muscles are developed. The arms and shoulders with their continuous exercise in delivering punches and warding off blows are highly developed. The muscles of the body are developed to a great extent by the continuous twisting and bending of the body. The legs become firmer and carry the body with ease after practice in boxing because of the rapid forward, backward, and side movements necessary.

Again, the body is developed in quickness by the practice of boxing. The boxer’s mind is made more alert by the habitual practice. The muscles of the body also increase in quickness. They respond instantly to the will of the mind and thereby increase the ability to advance and retreat rapidly, to deliver and ward off punches. When the boxer has developed this quickness of sensory and muscular organs, he can grasp the intent of his opponent’s actions more quickly and govern himself accordingly.

Boxing is a very well-known sport. It is widely popular both in Europe and in America. It originated several centuries ago. The main reason for the popularity of boxing is that it is a very interesting sport. The spectator is held by the rapid action of the boxers. In the early days of boxing the men were slow and relied chiefly upon strength, but the modern boxer has developed speed and uses short, quick blows. If the boxer of the past should fight the boxer of the present, the affair would be very one-sided, because the latter would soon tire out his opponent by his quickness.

Besides being interesting because of the violent action that is a natural part of the sport, it is also interesting from the point of view of the money-maker. Thousands of dollars are spent every year in developing winners. This was shown in our latest match, the Dempsey-Carpentier fight, in which many thousands of dollars were involved. An international spirit also prevails when boxers from two countries meet. This was indicated in the same match when all the Americans yelled for Jack and all the foreigners for Georges.

Boxing has grown in popularity through the ages because of its aid to health and because of its interesting features.

Chapter V
THE PARAGRAPH

A paragraph is an indented division of the whole composition. Beginning with an indention, and usually ending with a partly blank last line, it constitutes a visible block of material on the page. The successive blocks relieve the strain on the reader and enable him to mark each step in the advance from division to division of the thought. In length the paragraph ordinarily ranges from 150 to 300 words.

200. Indent the first word of each paragraph at least half an inch. In typing, indent five spaces. Every paragraph begins on a new line.

201. The last sentence in the paragraph sometimes ends before the right-hand margin of the page is reached. In this case the last line of the paragraph may be left partly blank. All other lines must be filled clear to the margin.

202. Do not indent every sentence as if it were a new paragraph.

Wrong. At that time they reorganized a girls’ basketball team which had been dropped two years before, and they made me jumping center.

Although our high school was not a large one, we played some very good games, and managed to make a good record for the four years.

In my last year we had a new superintendent who was interested in athletics, and we then had teams in basketball, football, baseball, and track.

Right. At that time they reorganized a girls’ basketball team which had been dropped two years before, and they made me jumping center. Although our high school was not a large one, we played some very good games, and managed to make a good record for the four years. In my last year we had a new superintendent who was interested in athletics, and we then had teams in basketball, football, baseball, and track.

203. In representing conversation, begin a new paragraph with every change of speaker.

Wrong. “Shall we go swimming after school tonight?” I asked. “No, I have to work,” John replied. “When can we go, then?” “Tomorrow night after school, or any time Saturday. I don’t have to work next Saturday at all.” “All right; let’s go tomorrow.”

Right. “Shall we go swimming after school tonight?” I asked.

“No, I have to work,” John replied.

“When can we go, then?”

“Tomorrow night after school, or any time Saturday. I don’t have to work next Saturday at all.”

“All right; let’s go tomorrow.”

204. Form one paragraph out of two short paragraphs which actually constitute one division of the whole composition.

Wrong. He always has a smile and a kind word for everyone. He tries to lift everyone with whom he comes in contact to a higher plane of living.

Much sorrow has come into his life, but it seems to have made him only kinder and more gentle.

Better. He always has a smile and a kind word for everyone. He tries to lift everyone with whom he comes in contact to a higher plane of living. Much sorrow has come into his life, but it seems to have made him only kinder and more gentle.

205. Break up a paragraph that is too long into two or more paragraphs. The subject matter of each of the new paragraphs thus formed should constitute a natural subdivision of what was originally one paragraph.

Tedious. Just like all children, Charlotte was not perfect, either in school or out. While she was in the second grade, she was sent home for making paper boats during study time, a fascinating pastime which the teacher did not approve of; and while she was in the fourth grade, she and a friend were sent to the superintendent for a lecture because out of curiosity they looked through the window of the school room one evening after closing time to watch a naughty schoolmate get his paddling. The grammar school days arrived at last, and with them came the habit of giggling and playing, at the expense of lessons and the trying of the teacher’s patience and temper. During the first year in high school she calmed down and worked hard to establish a reputation. She was always very enthusiastic over athletics and yelled herself hoarse at basketball or football games. A great deal of her time was spent in reading books of various types and in out-of-doors sports. While she was a junior and also during the last year of her high school career, she helped her father with the book work in his office, thus getting a little experience along that line and also earning for herself some expense money. Commencement finally came, and she was graduated in a class of thirty-three with all the thrills and excitement which usually accompany that occasion.

Better. Just like all children, Charlotte was not perfect, either in school or out. While she was in the second grade, for instance, she was once sent home for making paper boats, a fascinating pastime for her, but one, however, of which the teacher did not approve, especially during study hours. Again, when she was in the fourth grade, one evening after school had closed for the day she and a friend peeped through the school room window out of curiosity to see a naughty schoolmate get his paddling. The result was a lecture from the superintendent the next day.

Grammar school days arrived at last, and with them came the habit of giggling and playing, at the expense of lessons and of trying the teacher’s patience and temper. During her first year in high school, however, she calmed down and worked hard to establish a reputation. She was very enthusiastic over athletics and frequently yelled herself hoarse at basketball or football games. Much of her time at this period of her life was spent in reading books of various types and in out-of-door sports.

Nevertheless, while she was a junior and also during her senior year, she found time to help her father with the book work in his office, and so acquired a little business experience and also earned some expense money. And finally, when commencement came, she was graduated along with thirty-three others amid all the thrills and excitement that usually accompany this memorable occasion.

206. Avoid a violent break in thought within the paragraph.

Wrong. At the age of five I entered the public school. The second day in school began the happiest days of my life with a good whipping. This whipping brought into my life the best friend I ever had. After eight years of the closest friendship he passed out of my life. It was then that the realization of what a mother could be swept over me. Until this time my mother had been a person to go to when in trouble. She now appeared to me in the new light of a pal.

Better. At the age of five I entered the public school. A good whipping, which I received my second day in school, not only ushered in the happiest days of my life, but also brought me one of the best friends I have ever had, Mr. Clark, the superintendent. During my eight years in that school he remained my closest friend, and it was not until I had finished there and Mr. Clark had passed out of my life that I began to realize what a real friend my mother could be.

Until this time my mother had been only a person to whom I could go when I was in trouble; now she appeared more like a pal.

207. Discard any material that does not belong in the paragraph.

Wrong. When evening comes and his day’s work is completed, he hurries home to his family. He is not extravagant in his home, but has it neatly furnished. If the weather is favorable, he takes them all for a drive in the country, or they go visiting, or do something else which he arranges for the pleasure of those he loves.

Better. When evening comes and his day’s work is completed, he hurries home to his family. If the weather is favorable, he takes them all for a drive in the country, or they go visiting, or do something else which he arranges for the pleasure of those he loves.

208. The substance of a good paragraph can usually be summed up in a single sentence. It is often advantageous to put such a sentence, called a topic sentence, at or near the beginning of the paragraph.

Example. Of all the places for summer dreams the best is a California beach. There the blended sights and sounds form a quiet setting for fanciful thoughts. The old Pacific rolls in its oily swells with only a rippling murmur; the droning roar of the surf a half mile down the shoreline rises from the tug of waves on tons of pebbles; the white hull of a launch is dipping, dipping far out upon the water, its regular exhausts sounding faint and thin. These sights and sounds are dreamy and far off; under the mood of them the quiet mind builds sweet, lazy air castles, to be forgotten and renewed.

209. Arrange ideas in some definite order within the paragraph. ([See 106-113.])

Example. A fence has been the evil genius of my life. It was not a remarkable fence, either; just a neat picket fence painted white. It surrounded a beautiful, well-kept lawn and guarded an old, pretty house which overflowed with books and toys. But the toys would sometimes become tiresome, and I would look wistfully through the fence at the children playing across the street. I would have liked to join them or to have them come over—but there stood the fence. I learned to read and gradually built up a play world of my own until one day I realized that I liked the fence. I no longer cared to play with the other children, and when I went to school I found that I could not play with them. The fence had followed me. The years outside the fence have changed me somewhat, but still whenever I am in a group of young people I have a feeling that I am not one of them. I want to stand back and watch them play. Some people call my backwardness shyness or timidity, others call it pouting and attribute it to a disagreeable disposition, but I know what it is: it is a neat picket fence painted white.

210. Link sentence to sentence within the paragraph by using words and phrases of reference, such as he, this, then, however, of course.

Example. There is a delicacy about sweet peas that makes them more attractive to me than any other flower in my garden. Notice the way the blossom is joined to the stem. It is poised there with such nice balance that at the least puff of air the flower sways on its long green stalk with the rhythm of the wind. And, too, their delicacy of color is beyond that of most flowers. Really, the only thing I can think of to compare with them is the clouds at sunrise. If you have noticed, the colors then are fresh and vivid from the light behind the clouds, though a faint mist makes them more elusive than the colors of broad day. In the sweet peas the same airy, translucent color is repeated—the wan white, the sober purple blending into lavender, the rose in infinite variety. And there are other things, besides—the dewy freshness that clings to them all day, the coolness of them, the faint perfume—which make me think them different from the rest of the flowers in my garden and which set them apart from all the others in delicacy.

211. Link sentence to sentence within the paragraph by causing each to grow out of the one preceding.

Example. A university is an institution of higher learning. For purposes of ministering the better to the various demands made upon it, it is made up of a number of colleges, as the college of medicine, the college of law, that of engineering, of liberal arts, of commerce, for instance, each college being in charge of an officer called the dean. The colleges, in turn, are composed of various departments, such as the department of Romance languages, of art, and of home economics; these are under the charge of officers called department heads or professors. And finally, each department presents many courses of instruction, like French, rhetoric, European history, and architectural drawing, each course being taught directly by an officer called an instructor or professor. Hence, although from the variety of its interests and the complexity of its activities it would seem that a university is an awkward, ungainly organism, nevertheless, if one examines it closely, one finds that it is a highly organized and smoothly running machine.

212. Avoid an inconsistent change in number within the paragraph.

Wrong. Here we find what amusements occupy his or her time. This is where their chief characteristics can be pointed out. Then a word here, an oddly written phrase there, or a lack of words gives us a clue to the nature of the student.

Better. Here we find what amusements occupy his time. This is where his chief characteristics can be pointed out. Then a word here, an oddly written phrase there, or a lack of words gives us a clue to the nature of the student.

213. Avoid an inconsistent change in person within the paragraph.

Wrong. One learns to like some students, of whom there are too few upon the campus. Others I dislike, and of these there are too many.

Better. One learns to like some students, of whom there are too few upon the campus. Others one dislikes, and of these there are too many.

214. Avoid an inconsistent change in tense within the paragraph.

Wrong. My flower garden in June is a most interesting and beautiful sight. On a bright sunny morning one would stop in amazement; the flowers were so happy when the sun reached their faces, still wet with dew, that they fairly sparkled.

Better. My flower garden in June is a most interesting and beautiful sight. On a bright sunny morning one stops in amazement; the flowers are so happy when the sun reaches their faces, still wet with dew, that they fairly sparkle.

215. Avoid an inconsistent change in voice within the paragraph.

Wrong. His directions were brief and to the point. Every question I asked was answered by just the information I desired—no more, no less. When dictating he used only the simplest words. All inquiries in letters were answered plainly.

Better. His directions were brief and to the point. He answered my questions with just the information I desired—no more, no less. When dictating he used only the simplest words and always answered plainly all inquiries in letters.

216. Avoid an inconsistent change in mood within the paragraph.

Wrong. If you were to visit the library on Saturday afternoon, you would find it nearly deserted. The tables would be empty and the reading room very quiet. The students are upon the river or are enjoying themselves upon the campus. Someone, however, who has a paper to get in may be busy at the reference shelves.

Better. If you were to visit the library on Saturday afternoon, you would find it nearly deserted. The tables would be empty and the reading room very quiet. The students would be upon the river or enjoying themselves about the campus. Someone, however, who had a paper to get in might be busy at the reference shelves.

217. Put the most significant idea near the beginning or the end of the paragraph.

Example. Far as he could see through the gathering dark there was quiet, the reaction after tremendous exertion. Shapes of men surrounded him. Here lay one flat upon his back, his features sketched in sharp focus by the fading light. Three yards to one side sat two bodies leaning back to back, heads upon breasts, helmets over eyes. Beyond them huddled an indistinguishable mass. On the other side, so close he could have touched them, an arm and a leg strung along in a line—no torso within a rod of them. The world lay desolate and silent except for the yellowing moon and the far off, intermittent firing.

Example. My one worry and regret, however, was the fact that my father was the president of the school board. Part of my teachers gave me good grades because they were afraid they would lose their positions if they did otherwise, and the rest of them tried to flunk me because they thought they were not being paid highly enough. Among them all I managed to make about a B average, and the problem which now remains for the university to solve is, did I receive more or less than I deserved while in high school.

218. Give most space to the most significant idea.

Example. Since man’s progress through the ages is a passage from the undeveloped to the highly developed, one wonders what the buildings of a thousand years from now will be like. From that day in the remote past, when the first cliff dweller conceived the idea of enlarging his home by carving out another terrace in the rock above it, to this day when we have a skyscraper 750 feet high, man’s building has approached nearer and nearer to the clouds. As the little two-story terrace grew, the cliff dwellers wondered and doubted. Likewise, when a four-story building was a fact accomplished by our great-grandfathers, to live in a ten-story building would have been considered extremely hazardous. And now since we have the forty-story Singer building, will man continue to aspire to the clouds or will he remain satisfied with his achievement?

219. Practice.

Here is a paragraph that is very poorly put together. On the basis of what you have just studied, answer the following questions and rewrite the paragraph accordingly.

1. What about the indention?

2. What about the right-hand margin?

3. Should the speech of the mother be given a whole paragraph?

4. Is it possible to form more than one good paragraph of this thought? Why, or why not?

5. Does a break occur in the thought? Where?

6. Should anything be discarded? What?

7. Can you find a topic sentence, or must you compose one?

8. What about the arrangement of ideas?

9. Can you improve the links between sentences? How?

10. Can you give more prominence to significant ideas? How?

Perhaps it was from her father that she got her restlessness. Accidentally she put her finger on the label of what looked to be the top of an ordinary hat, and the flat shape she held immediately took the form of a hat. Her only ideas regarding him came through an incident that happened when she was about fourteen.

She had never seen him, and her mother never mentioned his name. Her father lived in her mind as an ideal. She rushed, filled with questions, to her mother, for as long as she could remember there had never been a man in the house, and she had never seen such a hat except in pictures. Her mother was anything but romantic. She and her mother had been giving their house its fall cleaning, and she had found, wrapped up in an old silk comforter, what she took to be a hat—it was shaped like one except that it had no crown. “Your father’s,” had been the mother’s laconic answer, her lips drawing into a hard, straight line that forbade further questioning.

Chapter VI
GRAMMAR

In this short discussion of grammar the attempt is not made to discuss exhaustively all the features of English grammar. The purpose is only to survey and to identify all the elements of an ordinary sentence. The definitions are few, and are descriptions rather than formal definitions. The parts of speech are treated as they become important in the structure of the sentence. Such a treatment of essentials as this is necessary partly as a review, but especially because a teacher and a student cannot discuss many of the commonest sentence faults unless they have a mutually intelligible terminology. A student must be able to recognize such grammatical elements as a subject or an object, a participle or an infinitive, a phrase or a clause, in order to produce correct and effective sentences. There is a minimum amount of grammatical knowledge without which a writer cannot rewrite his compositions so as to avoid the commonest errors and imperfections.