CHAPTER VIII.
RECAPITULATION.
We have now learned as much about the plant as is required for our immediate uses, and we will carefully reconsider the various points with a view to fixing them permanently in the mind.
Plants are composed of organic and inorganic matter.
What is organic matter? Inorganic?
Of what does organic matter consist? Inorganic?
How do plants obtain their organic food?
How their inorganic?
How is ammonia supplied? Carbonic acid?
Organic matter is that which burns away in the fire. Inorganic matter is the ash left after burning.
The organic matter of plants consists of three gases, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, and one solid substance carbon (or charcoal). The inorganic matter of plants consists of potash, soda, lime, magnesia, sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, chlorine, silica, oxide of iron, and oxide of manganese.
Plants obtain their organic food as follows:—Oxygen and hydrogen from water, nitrogen from some compound containing nitrogen (chiefly from ammonia), and carbon from the atmosphere where it exists as carbonic acid—a gas.
They obtain their inorganic food from the soil.
The water which supplies oxygen and hydrogen to plants is readily obtained without the assistance of manures.
Ammonia is obtained from the atmosphere, by being absorbed by rain and carried into the soil, and it enters plants through their roots. It may be artificially supplied in the form of animal manure with profit.
Carbonic acid is absorbed from the atmosphere by leaves, and decomposed in the green parts of plants under the influence of daylight; the carbon is retained, and the oxygen is returned to the atmosphere.
When plants are destroyed by combustion or decay, what becomes of their constituents?
How does the inorganic matter enter the plant?
Are the alkalies soluble in their pure forms?
Which one of them is injurious when too largely present?
How may sulphuric acid be supplied?
Is phosphoric acid important?
How must silica be treated?
From what source may we obtain chlorine?
When plants are destroyed by decay, or burning, their organic constituents pass away as water, ammonia, carbonic acid, etc., ready again to be taken up by other plants.
The inorganic matters in the soil can enter the plant only when dissolved in water. Potash, soda, lime, and magnesia, are soluble in their pure forms. Magnesia is injurious when present in too large quantities.
Sulphuric acid is often necessary as a manure, and is usually most available in the form of sulphate of lime or plaster. It is also valuable in its pure form to prevent the escape of ammonia from composts.
Phosphoric acid is highly important, from its frequent deficiency in worn-out soils. It is available only under certain conditions which will be described in the section on manures.
Silica is the base of common sand, and must be united to an alkali before it can be used by the plant, because it is insoluble except when so united.
Chlorine is a constituent of common salt (chloride of sodium), and from this source may be obtained in sufficient quantities for manurial purposes.
What is the difference between peroxide and protoxide of iron?
How must the food of plants be supplied?
What takes place after it enters the plant?
What name is given to the compounds thus formed?
How are proximates divided?
Which class constitutes the largest part of the plant?
Of what are animals composed, and how do they obtain the materials from which to form their growth?
Oxide of iron is iron rust. There are two oxides of iron, the peroxide (red) and the protoxide (black). The former is a fertilizer, and the latter poisons plants.
Oxide of manganese is often absent from the ashes of our cultivated plants.
The food of plants, both organic and inorganic, must be supplied in certain proportions, and at the time when it is required. In the plant, this food undergoes such chemical changes as are necessary to growth.
The compounds formed by these chemical combinations are called proximates.
Proximates are of two classes, those not containing nitrogen, and those which do contain it.
The first class constitute nearly the whole plant.
The second class, although small in quantity, are of the greatest importance to the farmer, as from them all animal muscle is made.
Animals, like plants, are composed of both organic and inorganic matter, and their bodies are obtained directly or indirectly from plants.
What parts of the animal belong to the first class of proximates?
What to the second?
What is necessary to the perfect development of animals?
Why are seeds valuable for working animals?
What other important use, in animal economy, have proximates of the first class?
Under what circumstances is animal fat decomposed?
The first class of proximates in animals comprise the fat, and like tissues.
The second class form the muscle, hair, gelatine of the bones, etc.
In order that they may be perfectly developed, animals must eat both classes of proximates, and in the proportions required by their natures.
They require the phosphate of lime and other inorganic food which exist in plants.
Seeds are the best adapted to the uses of working animals, because they are rich in all kinds of food required.
Aside from their use in the formation of fat, proximates of the first class are employed in the lungs, as fuel to keep up animal heat, which is produced (as in fire and decay) by the decomposition of these substances.
When the food is insufficient for the purposes of heat, the animal's own fat is decomposed, and carried to the lungs as fuel.
The stems, roots, branches, etc., of most plants consist principally of woody fibre.
Their seeds, and sometimes their roots, contain considerable quantities of starch.
Name the parts of the plant in which the different proximates exist.
State what you know about flour.
Do we know that different plants have ashes of different composition?
The protein and the oils of most plants exist most largely in the seeds.
The location of the proximates, as well as of the inorganic parts of the plant, show a remarkable reference to the purposes of growth, and to the wants of the animal world, as is noticed in the difference between the construction of the straw and that of the kernel of wheat.
The reason why the fine flour now made is not so healthfully nutritious as that which contained more of the coarse portions, is that it is robbed of a large proportion of protein and phosphate of lime, while it contains an undue amount of starch, which is available only to form fat, and to supply fuel to the lungs.
Different plants have ashes of different composition. Thus—one may take from the soil large quantities of potash, another of phosphoric acid, and another of lime.
By understanding these differences, we shall be able so to regulate our rotations, that the soil may not be called on to supply more of one ingredient than of another, and thus it may be kept in balance.
How are farmers to be benefited by such knowledge?
The facts contained in this chapter are the alphabet of agriculture, and the learner should not only become perfectly familiar with them, but should also clearly understand the reasons why they are true, before proceeding further.
SECTION SECOND.
THE SOIL.
CHAPTER I.
FORMATION AND CHARACTER OF THE SOIL.
What is a necessary condition of growth?
In the foregoing section, we have studied the character of plants and the laws which govern their growth. We learned that one necessary condition for growth is a fertile soil, and therefore we will examine the nature of different soils, in order that we may understand the relations between them and plants.
What is a fixed character of soils?
How is the chemical character of the soil to be ascertained?
What do we first learn in analyzing a soil?
How do the proportions of organic or inorganic parts of soils compare with those of plants?
Of what does the organic part of soils consist?
The soil is not to be regarded as a mysterious mass of dirt, whereon crops are produced by a mysterious process. Well ascertained scientific knowledge has proved beyond question that all soils, whether in America or Asia, whether in Maine or California, have certain fixed properties, which render them fertile or barren, and the science of agriculture is able to point out these characteristics in all cases, so that we can ascertain from a scientific investigation what would be the chances for success in cultivating any soil which we examine.
The soil is a great chemical compound, and its chemical character is ascertained (as in the case of plants) by analyzing it, or taking it apart.
We first learn that fertile soils contain both organic and inorganic matter; but, unlike the plant, they usually possess much more of the latter than of the former.
In the plant, the organic matter constitutes the most considerable portion of the whole. In the soil, on the contrary, it usually exists in very small quantities, while the inorganic portions constitute nearly the whole bulk.
Can the required proportion be definitely indicated?
From what source is the inorganic part of soils derived?
Do all soils decompose with equal facility?
How does frost affect rocks?
Does it affect soils in the same way?
The organic part of soils consists of the same materials that constitute the organic part of the plants, and it is in reality decayed vegetable and animal matter. It is not necessary that this organic part of the soil should form any particular proportion of the whole, and indeed we find it varying from one and a half to fifty, and sometimes, in peaty soils, to over seventy per cent. All fertile soils contain some organic matter, although it seems to make but little difference in fertility, whether it be ten or fifty per cent.
The inorganic part of soils is derived from the crumbling of rocks. Some rocks (such as the slates in Central New York) decompose, and crumble rapidly on being exposed to the weather; while granite, marble, and other rocks will last for a long time without perceptible change. The causes of this crumbling are various, and are not unimportant to the agriculturist; as by the same processes by which his soil was formed, he can increase its depth, or otherwise improve it. This being the case, we will in a few words explain some of the principal pulverizing agents.
1. The action of frost. When water lodges in the crevices of rocks, and freezes, it expands, and bursts the rock, on the same principle as causes it to break a pitcher in winter. This power is very great, and by its assistance, large cannon may be burst. Of course the action of frost is the same on a small scale as when applied to large masses of matter, and, therefore, we find that when water freezes in the pores[M] of rocks or stones, it separates their particles and causes them to crumble. The same rule holds true with regard to stiff clay soils. If they are ridged in autumn, and left with a rough surface exposed to the frosts of winter, they will become much lighter, and can afterwards be worked with less difficulty.
What is the effect of water on certain rocks?
How are some rocks affected by exposure to the atmosphere? Give an instance of this.
2. The action of water. Many kinds of rock become so soft on being soaked with water, that they readily crumble.
3. The chemical changes of the constituents of the rock. Many kinds of rock are affected by exposure to the atmosphere, in such a manner, that changes take place in their chemical character, and cause them to fall to pieces. The red kellis of New Jersey (a species of sandstone), is, when first quarried, a very hard stone, but on exposure to the influences of the atmosphere, it becomes so soft that it may be easily crushed between the thumb and finger.
What is the similarity between the composition of soils and the rocks from which they were formed?
What does feldspar rock yield? Talcose slate? Marls?
Does a soil formed entirely from rock contain organic matter?
How is it affected by the growth of plants?
Other actions, of a less simple kind, exert an influence on the stubbornness of rocks, and cause them to be resolved into soils.[N] Of course, the composition of the soil must be similar to that of the rock from which it was formed; and, consequently, if we know the chemical character of the rock, we can tell whether the soil formed from it can be brought under profitable cultivation. Thus feldspar, on being pulverized, yields potash; talcose slate yields magnesia; marls yield lime, etc.
The soil formed entirely from rock, contains, of course, no organic matter.[O] Still it is capable of bearing plants of a certain class, and when these die, they are deposited in the soil, and thus form its organic portions, rendering it capable of supporting those plants which furnish food for animals. Thousands of years must have been occupied in preparing the earth for habitation by man.
As the inorganic or mineral part of the soil is usually the largest, we will consider it first.
As we have stated that this portion is formed from rocks, we will examine their character, with a view to showing the different qualities of soils.
What is the general rule concerning the composition of rocks?
Do these distinctions affect the fertility of soils formed from them?
What do we mean by the mechanical character of the soil?
Is its fertility indicated by its mechanical character?
As a general rule, it may be stated that all rocks are either sandstones, limestones, or clays; or a mixture of two or more of these ingredients. Hence we find that all mineral soils are either sandy, calcareous, (limey), or clayey; or consist of a mixture of these, in which one or another usually predominates. Thus, we speak of a sandy soil, a clay soil, etc. These distinctions (sandy, clayey, loamy, etc.) are important in considering the mechanical character of the soil, but have little reference to its fertility.
By mechanical character, we mean those qualities which affect the ease of cultivation—excess or deficiency of water, ability to withstand drought, etc. For instance, a heavy clay soil is difficult to plow—retains water after rains, and bakes quite hard during drought; while a light sandy soil is plowed with ease, often allows water to pass through immediately after rains, and becomes dry and powdery during drought. Notwithstanding those differences in their mechanical character, both soils may be very fertile, or one more so than the other, without reference to the clay and sand which they contain, and which, to our observation, form their leading characteristics. The same facts exist with regard to a loam, a calcareous (or limey) soil, or a vegetable mould. Their mechanical texture is not essentially an index to their fertility, nor to the manures required to enable them to furnish food to plants. It is true, that each kind of soil appears to have some general quality of fertility or barrenness which is well known to practical men, yet this is not founded on the fact that the clay or the sand, or the vegetable matter, enter more largely into the constitution of plants than they do when they are not present in so great quantities, but on certain other facts which will be hereafter explained.
What is a sandy soil? A clay soil? A loamy soil? A marl? A calcareous soil? A peaty soil?
As the following names are used to denote the character of soils, in ordinary agricultural description, we will briefly explain their application:
A Sandy soil is, of course, one in which sand largely predominates.
Clay soil, one where clay forms a large proportion of the soil.
Loamy soil, where sand and clay are about equally mixed.
Marl contains from five to twenty per cent. of carbonate of lime.
Calcareous soil more than twenty per cent.
Peaty soils, of course, contain large quantities of organic matter.[P]
How large a part of the soil may be used as food by plants?
What do we learn from the analyses of barren and fertile soils?
We will now take under consideration that part of the soil on which depends its ability to supply food to the plant. This portion rarely constitutes more than five or ten per cent. of the entire soil, sometimes less—and it has no reference to the sand, clay, and vegetable matters which they contain. From analyses of many fertile soils, and of others which are barren or of poorer quality, it has been ascertained that the presence of certain ingredients is necessary to fertility. This may be better explained by the assistance of the following table:
| In one hundred pounds. | Soil fertile without manure. | Good wheat soil. | Barren. |
| Organic matter, | 9.7 | 7.0 | 4.0 |
| Silica (sand), | 64.8 | 74.3 | 77.8 |
| Alumina (clay), | 5.7 | 5.5 | 9.1 |
| Lime, | 5.9 | 1.4 | .4 |
| Magnesia, | .9 | .7 | .1 |
| Oxide of iron, | 6.1 | 4.7 | 8.1 |
| Oxide of manganese, | .1 | .1 | |
| Potash, | .2 | 1.7 | |
| Soda, | .4 | .7 | |
| Chlorine, | .2 | .1 | |
| Sulphuric acid, | .2 | .1 | |
| Phosphoric acid, | .4 | .1½ | |
| Carbonic acid, | 4.0 | ||
| Loss during the analysis | 1.4 | 3.6½ | .4 |
| 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 |
What can you say of the soils represented in the table of analyses?
What proportion of the fertilizing ingredients is required?
If the soil represented in the third column contained all the ingredients required except potash and soda, would it be fertile?
What would be necessary to make it so?
What is the reason for this?
What are the offices performed by the inorganic part of soils?
The soil represented in the first column might still be fertile with less organic matter, or with a larger proportion of clay (alumina), and less sand (silica). These affect its mechanical character; but, if we look down the column, we notice that there are small quantities of lime, magnesia, and the other constituents of the ashes of plants (except ox. of manganese). It is not necessary that they should be present in the soil in the exact quantity named above, but not one must be entirely absent, or greatly reduced in proportion. By referring to the third column, we see that these ingredients are not all present, and the soil is barren. Even if it were supplied with all but one or two, potash and soda for instance, it could not support a crop without the assistance of manures containing these alkalies. The reason for this must be readily seen, as we have learned that no plant can arrive at maturity without the necessary supply of materials required in the formation of the ash, and these materials can be obtained only from the soil; consequently, when they do not exist there, it must be barren.
The inorganic part of soils has two distinct offices to perform. The clay and sand form a mass of material into which roots can penetrate, and thus plants are supported in their position. These parts also absorb heat, air and moisture to serve the purposes of growth, as we shall see in a future chapter. The minute portions of soil, which comprise the acids, alkalies, and neutrals, furnish plants with their ashes, and are the most necessary to the fertility of the soil.
GEOLOGY.
What is geology?
Is the same kind of rock always of the same composition?
How do rocks differ?
The relation between the inorganic part of soils and the rocks from which it was formed, is the foundation of Agricultural Geology. Geology may be briefly named the science of rocks. It would not be proper in an elementary work to introduce much of this study, and we will therefore simply state that the same kind of rock is of the same composition all over the world; consequently, if we find a soil in New England formed from any particular rock, and a soil from the same rock in Asia, their natural fertility will be the same in both localities. Some rocks consist of a mixture of different kinds of minerals; and some, consisting chiefly of one ingredient, are of different degrees of hardness. Both of these changes must affect the character of the soil, but it may be laid down as rule that, when the rocks of two locations are exactly alike, the soils formed from them will be of the same natural fertility, and in proportion as the character of rocks changes, in the same proportion will the soils differ.
What rule may be given in relation to soils formed from the same or different rocks?
Are all soils formed from the rocks on which they lie?
What instances can you give of this?
In most districts the soil is formed from the rock on which it lies; but this is not always the case. Soils are often formed by deposits of matter brought by water from other localities. Thus the alluvial banks of rivers consist of matters brought from the country through which the rivers have passed. The river Nile, in Egypt, yearly overflows its banks, and deposits large quantities of mud brought from the uninhabited upper countries. The prairies of the West owe a portion of their soil to deposits by water. Swamps often receive the washings of adjacent hills; and, in these cases, their soil is derived from a foreign source.
We might continue to enumerate instances of the relations between soils and the sources whence they originated, thus demonstrating more fully the importance of geology to the farmer; but it would be beyond the scope of this work, and should be investigated by scholars more advanced than those who are studying merely the elements of agricultural science.
The mind, in its early application to any branch of study, should not be charged with intricate subjects. It should master well the rudiments, before investigating those matters which should follow such understanding.
In what light will plants and soils be regarded by those who understand them?
By pursuing the proper course, it is easy to learn all that is necessary to form a good foundation for a thorough acquaintance with the subject. If this foundation is laid thoroughly, the learner will regard plants and soils as old acquaintances, with whose formation and properties he is as familiar as with the construction of a building or simple machine. A simple spear of grass will become an object of interest, forming itself into a perfect plant, with full development of roots, stem, leaves, and seeds, by processes with which he feels acquainted. The soil will cease to be mere dirt; it will be viewed as a compound substance, whose composition is a matter of interest, and whose care is productive of intellectual pleasure. The commencement of study in any science must necessarily be wearisome to the young mind, but its more advanced stages amply repay the trouble of early exertions.
FOOTNOTES:
[M] The spaces between the particles.
[N] In very many instances the crevices and seams of rocks are permeated by roots, which, by decaying and thus inducing the growth of other roots, cause these crevices to become filled with organic matter. This, by the absorption of moisture, may expand with sufficient power to burst the rock.
[O] Some rocks contain sulphur, phosphorus, etc., and these may, perhaps, be considered as organic matter.
[P] These distinctions are not essential to be learned, but are often convenient.