PREFACE.
The present book is the result of a revision and elaboration of the author’s “Elementary Botany,” New York, 1898. The general plan of the parts on physiology and general morphology remains unchanged. A number of the chapters in the physiological part are practically untouched, while others are thoroughly revised and considerable new matter is added, especially on the subjects of nutrition and digestion. The principal chapters on general morphology are unchanged or only slightly modified, the greatest change being in a revision of the subject of the morphology of fertilization in the gymnosperms and angiosperms in order to bring this subject abreast of the discoveries of the past few years. One of the greatest modifications has been in the addition of chapters on the classification of the algæ and fungi with studies of additional examples for the benefit of those schools where the time allowed for the first year’s course makes desirable the examination of a broader range of representative plants. The classification is also carried out with greater definiteness, so that the regular sequence of classes, orders, and families is given at the close of each of the subkingdoms. Thus all the classes, all the orders (except a few in the algæ), and many of the families, are given for the algæ, fungi, mosses, liverworts, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, and angiosperms.
But by far the greatest improvement has been in the complete reorganization, rewriting, and elaboration of the part dealing with ecology, which has been made possible by studies of the past few years, so that the subject can be presented in a more logical and coherent form. As a result the subject-matter of the book falls naturally into three parts, which may be passed in review as follows:
Part I. Physiology. This deals with the life processes of plants, as absorption, transpiration, conduction, photosynthesis, nutrition, assimilation, digestion, respiration, growth, and irritability. Since protoplasm is fundamental to all the life work of the plant, this subject is dealt with first, and the student is led through the study of, and experimentation with, the simpler as well as some of the higher plants, to a general understanding of protoplasm and the special way in which it enables the plant to carry on its work and to adjust itself to the conditions of its existence. This study also serves the purpose of familiarizing the pupil with some of the lower and unfamiliar plants.
Some teachers will prefer to begin the study with general morphology and classification, thus studying first the representatives of the great groups of plants, and others will prefer to dwell first on the ecological aspects of vegetation. This can be done in the use of this book by beginning with Part II or with Part III.
But the author believes that morphology can best be comprehended after a general study of life processes and functions of the different parts of plants, including in this study some of the lower forms of plant life where some of these processes can more readily be observed. The pupil is then prepared for a more intelligent consideration of general and comparative morphology and relationships. Even more important is a first study of physiology before taking up the subject of ecology. The great value to be derived from a study of plants in their relation to environment lies in the ability to interpret the different states, conditions, behavior, and associations of the plant, and for this physiology is indispensable. It is true that a considerable measure of success can be obtained by a good teacher in beginning with either subject, but the writer believes that measure of success would be greater if the subjects were taken up in the order presented here.
Part II. Morphology and life history of representative plants. This includes a rather careful study of representative examples among the algæ, fungi, liverworts, mosses, ferns and their allies, gymnosperms and angiosperms, with especial emphasis on the form of plant parts, and a comparison of them in the different groups, with a comparative study of development, reproduction, and fertilization, rounding out the work with a study of life histories and noting progression and retrogression of certain organs and phases in proceeding from the lower to the higher plants. Thus, in the algæ a first critical study is made of four examples which illustrate in a marked way progressive stages of the plant body, sexual organs, and reproduction. Additional examples are then studied for the purpose of acquiring a knowledge of variations from these types and to give a broader basis for the brief consideration of general relationships and classification.
A similar plan is followed in the other great groups. The processes of fertilization and reproduction can be most easily observed in the lower plants like the algæ and fungi, and this is an additional argument in favor of giving emphasis to these forms of plant life as well as the advantage of proceeding logically from simpler to more complex forms. Having also learned some of these plants in our study of physiology, we are following another recognized rule of pedagogy, i.e., proceeding from known objects to unknown structures and processes. Through the study of the organs of reproduction of the lower plants and by general comparative morphology we have come to an understanding of the morphology of the parts of the flower, and of the true sexual organs of the seed plants, and no student can hope to properly interpret the significance of the flower, or the sexual organs of the seed plants who neglects a careful study of the general morphology of the lower plants.
Part III. Plant members in relation to environment. This part deals with the organization of the plant body as a whole in its relation to environment, the organization of plant tissues with a discussion of the principal tissues and a descriptive synopsis of the same. This is followed by a complete study from a biological standpoint of the different members of the plant, their special function and their special relations to environment. The stem, root, leaf, flower, etc., are carefully examined and their ecological relations pointed out. This together with the study of physiology and representatives in the groups of plants forms a thorough basis for pure plant ecology, or the special study of vegetation in its relation to environment.
There is a study of the factors of environment or ecological factors, which in general are grouped under the physical, climatic, and biotic factors. This is followed by an analysis of vegetation forms and structures, plant formations and societies. Then in order are treated briefly forest societies, prairie societies, desert societies, arctic and alpine societies, aquatic societies, and the special societies of sandy, rocky, and marshy places.
Acknowledgments. The author wishes to express his gratefulness to all those who have given aid in the preparation of this work, or of the earlier editions of Elementary Botany; to his associates, Dr. E. J. Durand, Dr. K. M. Wiegand, and Professor W. W. Rowlee, of the botanical department, and to Professor B. M. Duggar of the University of Missouri, Professor J. C. Arthur of Purdue University, and Professor W. F. Ganong of Smith College, for reading one or more portions of the text; as well as to all those who have contributed illustrations.
Illustrations. The large majority of the illustrations are new (or are the same as those used in earlier editions of the author’s Elementary Botany) and were made with special reference to the method of treatment followed in the text. Many of the photographs were made by the author. Others were contributed by Professor Rowlee of Cornell University; Mr. John Gifford of New Jersey; Professor B. M. Duggar, University of Missouri; Professor C. E. Bessey, University of Nebraska; Dr. M. B. Howe, New York Botanical Garden; Mr. Gifford Pinchot, Chief of the Bureau of Forestry; Mr. B. T. Galloway, Chief of the Bureau of Plant Industry; Professor Tuomey of Yale University; and Mr. E. H. Harriman, who through Dr. C. H. Merriam of the National Museum allowed the use of several of his copyrighted photographs from Alaska. To those who have contributed drawings the author is indebted as follows: to Professor Margaret C. Ferguson, Wellesley College; Professor Bertha Stoneman of Huguenot College, South Africa; Mr. H. Hasselbring of Chicago; Dr. K. Miyake, formerly of Cornell University and now of Doshisha College, Japan; and Professors Ikeno and Hirase of the Tokio Imperial University. The author is also indebted to Ginn & Co., Boston, for the privilege to use from his “First Studies of Plant Life” the following figures: 28, 29, 46, 48, 49, 56, 62, 66, 67, 87, 102, 103, 422-426, 429, 430, 438-440, 443, 444, 448, 449, 452, 472-475. A few others are acknowledged in the text.
Cornell University, April, 1905.