The Book of the Pearl / The history, art, science, and industry of the queen of gems

by George Frederick Kunz; Charles Hugh Stevenson

MISCELLANEOUS PEARL FISHERIES OF AMERICA

The deep’s wealth, coral, and pearl, and sand

Like spangling gold, and purple shells engraven

With mystic legends by no mortal hand.

Shelley, The Revolt of Islam.

The beautiful pearls of the conch (Strombus gigas) are sought for in the West Indies and on the neighboring continental coasts. They are found most abundantly about the Bahamas, a group of more than four hundred islands off the Florida coast, where many of the fishermen devote a considerable portion of their time to collecting them. It is from this industry that the beach-combers of this group of islands, as well as those of the Florida reefs, have received the designation “Conchs.”

Near the shores, where they formerly abounded, a few conchs are yet picked up by wading fishermen. In waters of medium depth they are secured either by diving or by means of a long pole with a hook at the end. In great depths, the mollusks are located by means of a waterglass similar to the type employed in the Red Sea or among the South Sea Islands.

The animal is readily removed from the shell after crushing the tip end of the spire where the large muscle is attached. The flesh forms an important article of food to the fishermen and to the residents of the outlying islands. It is said that a “Conch” can make a visit to Nassau of a week or ten days, and subsist almost entirely on this dried meat, with which he fills his pockets on starting. A large demand exists for the beautiful shells for ornamenting flower-beds, garden-walks, etc. Many of them are burned into lime for building purposes. Formerly several hundred thousand shells were exported annually to England for use in porcelain manufacture.

The pearls are generally found embedded in the flesh of the mollusk; quite often they are in a sac or cyst with an external opening, from which they are sometimes dislodged by the muscular movement of the animal. The yield is small, a thousand shells in many cases yielding only a very small number of seed-pearls or perhaps none at all. Most of them are oval, commonly somewhat elongated. The usual size is about one grain in weight, but some of them weigh over twenty, and a very few exceed fifty grains each. These pearls are generally of a deep pink color, shading toward whitish pink at each end. While this is the usual color, yellow, white, red, and even brown conch pearls are occasionally obtained; these are not so highly prized as the pink ones. Conch pearls present a peculiar wavy appearance and a sheen somewhat like watered silk, a result of the reflections produced by the fibrous stellated structure. While many are beautifully lustrous, they are commonly deficient in orient, and the color is somewhat evanescent.

Most of the Bahama conch fishermen sell their catch of pearls at Nassau. According to the late Mr. Frederick E. Stearns, there are in Nassau four dealers who have an arrangement with Paris and London houses, to whom they can ship pearls in any number and draw against them with a bill of lading. In addition to these, there are a dozen dealers in Nassau who buy what pearls they can secure and offer them for sale.

The value of conch pearls is as variable as their form, color, and size, and they are sold by the fishermen at prices ranging from twenty-five cents to one dollar or more each. Those weighing from three to ten grains, and of good color and luster, but not quite regular in form, sell for about $10 per grain; those of exceptional perfection in color and form, and of about the same weights, sell for from $15 to $30 per grain. In other and exceptional cases, where the size is very large, the form perfect, and the color and luster choice, the value is enhanced to several hundred and even several thousand dollars each. A perfect conch pearl is among the most rare and most valuable of gems. An unusually choice one has sold in New York City for more than $5000. The yield fluctuates considerably, but perhaps averages about $85,000 in value annually. One of the finest conch pearls ever found is shown on the plate with the conch shell.

There are two important materials that have occasionally been sold and mistaken for the conch pearl. First, the pale Italian, Japanese, or West Indian coral, with a color very closely approaching that of the pearl. By means of a lens it can readily be seen that the coral is in layers, and does not possess the concentric structure of the pearl, or the peculiar interwoven structure, with its characteristic sheen, so frequent in conch pearls. Secondly, the pink conch shell in which the pearl itself is found; this is frequently cut to imitate the pearl and sold as such in the West Indies and elsewhere. This can also be detected by the fact that the layers are almost horizontal and the structure is not concentric or interwoven, as it is in the conch pearl, while the luster is more like that of the shell than that of the pearly nacre.

Streeter relates that many years ago an ingenious American turned out some bits of conch shell into the shape of pearls and placed them in the conch shells. A slight secretion formed over them, but it was not the true pearly secretion, and the layer was very thin, so that the deception was easily detected.

Not the least interesting of the American pearl fisheries is that which has the abalones (Haliotis) for its object. These occur in many inshore tropical and semi-tropical waters, and particularly in the marginal waters of the Pacific. They attach themselves to the rocks by means of their large muscular disk-shaped foot, which acts like a sucker or an exhaust-cup.

On the California coast the abalones are gathered in large quantities for the pearls, for the shells, and especially for the flesh, which is dried and used for food. The principal fishing grounds are at Point Lobos in Monterey County, and along the shores of Catalina and Santa Rosa islands in Santa Barbara County, with smaller quantities from Halfmoon Bay and from the rocks along the shores of Mendocino County. At low tide the fishermen wade out in shallow water, and, by means of a knife, separate the mollusk from its resting-place. Unless this is done quickly and before the mollusk has time to prepare itself for the attack, it closes down on the rock by means of its sucker-like foot, from which it cannot be removed without breaking the shell. A story is told at Santa Barbara of a Chinese fisherman having been drowned off one of the outer islands by having his hand caught underneath the shell of an abalone.

A few years ago, Japanese fishermen introduced the use of diving-suits in taking these mollusks in three fathoms of water; but in March, 1907, the California legislature interdicted this form of fishery. That legislature also interdicted the capture of black abalones measuring “less than twelve inches around the outer edge of the shell, or any other abalone, the shell of which shall measure less than fifteen inches around the outer edge.”

The animal is removed from the shell by thrusting a thin blade of soft steel between the flesh and the shell, and thus loosening the great muscle. The flesh is salted and boiled, and then strung on long rods to dry in the open air. When properly cured, the pieces are almost as hard and stiff as sole leather. Most of it is packed in sacks and exported to China, but large quantities are sold on the Pacific coast at from five to ten cents per pound. The catch is much less than it was forty years ago.

SHELL OF PEARL-BEARING ABALONE
From the coast of California

Many pearly masses are obtained from the abalones, and a few of these are of considerable beauty. Some are very large, measuring two inches in length and half an inch or more in width; but they are rarely of good form, and their value is commonly far less than that of choice Oriental pearls. Owing to their irregularity in form, they are scarcely suitable for necklaces. One of the best necklaces of these pearls ever brought together sold a few years ago for $2000; but individual specimens have exceeded $1000 in market value. While abalone pearls are not on the market in any great quantities, one resident of Santa Barbara has a collection of more than a thousand specimens, ranging in value from several hundred dollars to less than one dollar each. Most of the objects sold in curio and jewelry stores on the Pacific coast as abalone pearls are simply irregular knots or protuberances cut from the surface of the shell. The California fishermen are credited with having received $3000 for the abalone pearls in 1904; but it is safe to say that this represents only a small fraction of their final sale value.

In the river mussels of Canada, and especially in those from the Province of Quebec, and the Ungava Region, pearls are occasionally found. These are usually white and of good luster. They are not the object of systematic search, but in the aggregate many are secured by Indians and Eskimos, and some by the trappers and fishermen who operate from Quebec and Montreal. A number, weighing from one to sixty-five grains each, were shown at the Colonial Exhibition in London in 1886, and received favorable notice. Recently, two beautifully matched pink pearls, weighing about fourteen grains each, were obtained from one mussel. A single pearl found in Canada has sold for $1000, but as a general rule they are of relatively little value. The Hudson Bay traders are represented as having secured a fair share of these pearls.

During the last few years, many pearls have been found in the streams of Prince Edward Island and of New Brunswick Province, and also in those of Nova Scotia. Most of them are well formed, but their color is generally inferior and their luster deficient. Many of them are buff or brown in color, some are bright and fairly good, a few are rose-tinted, and others are slate-colored and even almost black. Toronto jewelers report that many Canadian pearls are in the possession of farmers and others in the lower provinces, held by them for higher prices than the jewelers are willing to pay. The Nova Scotia pearls are from a bivalve which has been identified as Alasmodon margaritifera. They are especially abundant in Annapolis and King counties.

Even in the streams of northern Labrador and of the Caniapuscaw watershed, pearls are obtained by the natives, and by the hunters and fishermen who resort to that desolate country. These closely resemble the pearls of Scotland in color, size, and luster. A story is told of a fisherman who by chance found in one shell two well-matched pearls, which he later sold for $150; so pleased was he with his success that he spent a fortnight in diligent search, but secured only half a dozen small ones, worth perhaps $3 for the lot. Most of these pearls are silvery white, but beautiful pink ones are not rare. An unusually choice 20–grain pearl from this region sold in 1905 for $1000.

On the coast of Ecuador, pearl fisheries of minor importance have been prosecuted from time to time. Dr. H. M. Saville, of the American Museum of Natural History, states that in his explorations in that country he frequently came across evidence of pearls and the information that fisheries had existed on the coast centuries ago.

An interesting letter from that world-wide traveler and interesting writer, William E. Curtis, states that formerly there was a pearl fishery on the coast of Ecuador at the little town known as Manta, in the Province of Manabi; but it had to be abandoned on account of a particularly voracious species of fish called el manti, which abounds in that locality and gives the place its name. Pearls are said to be even more abundant at Manta than in Panama Bay. It is reported that this is the place where the Incas obtained those splendid gems which the Spaniards found in the palaces and temples of Peru.

In the waters of Costa Rica, pearl-oysters are found, and at times the fishery has been of considerable local importance. Owing to fear of injury to the reefs, the use of diving machinery was interdicted there a few years ago; but in 1906 its employment was authorized under certain restrictions. Licenses good for six months were authorized for a maximum of thirty machines, which may work at a minimum depth of thirty-seven feet.

On the coast of Colombia, South America, scattered reefs of pearl-oysters occur. A lease of the pearl fisheries and those for corals and sponges was granted July 2, 1906, but it is unknown what results have followed. This lease lasts five years, beginning August 1, 1906.

There is almost an absolute paucity of information in regard to the occurrence of fresh-water pearls in other parts of South America. The only data we have obtained are from Prof. Eugene Hussak of the Mining School of Sao Paulo, Brazil, who writes us that some pearls have been obtained from one of the Bahia rivers. Possibly, when the resources of the interior of that continent are better known, many pearls may be found.

XI

PEARL-CULTURE AND PEARL-FARMING

XI
PEARL-CULTURE AND PEARL-FARMING

Some asked how pearls did grow, and where.

Then spoke I to my girl,

To part her lips, and show them there

The quarelets of pearl.

Herrick, The Quarrie of Pearls.

The great profit that would accrue from an increased output of pearls has long directed attention to the problem of bringing this about by artificial means.

In his life of Apollonius of Tyana, Philostratus, a Greek writer of the third century, repeats a story afloat at the time, which credited the Arabs of the Red Sea with possessing some method of growing pearls artificially. The story as it reached Greece was that they first poured oil upon the sea for the purpose of calming the waves, and then dived down and caused the oysters to open their shells. Having effected this, they pricked the flesh with a sharp instrument and received the liquor which flowed from the wounds into suitable molds, and this liquor there hardened into the shape, color, and consistence of the natural gems.[^[324]]

While the description given by Philostratus is charged with many improbable details, and could scarcely develop belief, even in the most credulous, as to the exact method of procedure, it seems that the story may not have been wholly without foundation, and that attempts were made at that remote date to stimulate the growth of pearls.

In more modern times, the possibility of aiding or starting pearly formations in mollusks seems first to have been conceived by the Chinese about the fourteenth century. In 1736 there appeared in that storehouse of Oriental information, “Lettres édifiantes et curieuses écrites des missions étrangères,”[^[325]] a communication from F. X. de Entrecolles, dated Pekin, 4th November, 1734, which set forth that there were people in China who busied themselves with growing pearls, and the product was not only vastly superior to the imitations manufactured in Europe, but were scarcely to be distinguished from the genuine. From Father Entrecolles’s very detailed quotation of his unnamed Chinese authority, we condense this account. In a basin one half full of fresh water, place the largest mussels obtainable, set this basin in a secluded place where the dew may fall thereon, but where no female approaches, and neither the barking of dogs nor the crowing of chickens is to be heard. Pulverize some seed-pearls (Yo tchu), such as are commonly used in medicine, moisten this powder with juice expressed from leaves of a species of holly (Che ta-kong lao), and then roll the moistened powder into perfectly round pellets the size of a pea. These are permitted to dry under a moderate sunlight, and then are carefully inserted within the open shells of the mollusks. Each day for one hundred days the mussels are nourished with equal parts of powdered ginseng, china root, peki, which is a root more glutinous than isinglass, and of pecho, another medicinal root, all combined with honey and molded in the form of rice grains.

Although extremely detailed in some particulars, the Chinese account omits much to be desired as to the method in which the shells were opened to receive the pellets and the nourishment, and as to the importance of seclusion from females and loud noises. Admitting that it is “inaccurate and misleading,” this letter seems to indicate very clearly that the Chinese had some method of assisting nature in growing pearls in river mussels.

The first person in Europe whose suggestion of the possibility of pearl-culture attracted general attention was Linnæus, the Swedish naturalist (1707–1778). In a letter to Von Haller, the Swiss anatomist, dated 13th September, 1748, he wrote: “At length I have ascertained the manner in which pearls originate and grow in shells; and in the course of five or six years I am able to produce, in any mother-of-pearl shell the size of one’s hand, a pearl as large as the seed of the common vetch.”[^[326]] There was much secrecy about Linnæus’s discovery, and even yet there is uncertainty as to the details of the method.

Shell of Dipsas plicatus, with attached metal figures of Buddha coated with nacre

Shell of Dipsas plicatus, with attached porcelain beads coated with nacre

The Linnean Society of London apparently possesses some of the very pearls grown by Linnæus, as well as several manuscripts which throw much light on this subject. It appears from the latter that, under date of 6th February, 1761, Linnæus wrote that he “possessed the art” of impregnating mussels for pearl production, and offered for a suitable reward from the state to publish the “secret” for the public use and benefit. A select committee of the state council of Sweden was appointed to confer with him, and on 27th July, 1761, the naturalist appeared and verbally explained his discovery. After various meetings, the select committee approved the “art” and recommended a compensation of 12,000 dalars (about $4800). It does not appear that the award was paid, and the following year the secret was purchased by Peter Bagge, a Gothenberg merchant, for the sum of 6000 dalars. On 7th September, 1762, King Adolph Frederick issued a grant to this merchant “to practice the art without interference or competition.”[^[327]]

Peter Bagge was unable to exercise the rights which he had acquired, nor was he able to dispose of them to advantage. On his death the memorandum of the secret became lost, and it was not found until about 1821, when it was discovered by a grandson, J. P. Bagge. Under the date of 27th February, 1822, the King of Sweden confirmed to this grandson the privileges which his ancestor had purchased in 1762. Fruitless efforts were again made to dispose profitably of the rights either to individuals or to the Swedish government.

The details of Linnæus’s “secret” have never been published authoritatively. In his “History of Inventions,” Beckmann states that before the naturalist thought of the profits that might accrue from his discovery, he intimated the process in the sixth edition of his “Systema naturæ,” wherein he states: “Margarita testæ excrescentia latere interiore, dum exterius latus perforatur.”[^[328]] “I once told him,” says Beckmann, “that I had discovered his secret in his own writings; he seemed to be displeased, made no inquiry as to the passage, and changed the discourse.”[^[329]]

In the second volume of his edition of “Linnæus’s Correspondence,”[^[330]] Sir J. E. Smith remarks: “Specimens of pearls so produced by art in the Mya margaritifera are in the Linnean cabinet. The shell appears to have been pierced by flexible wires, the ends of which perhaps remain therein.” Referring to this remark, J. P. Bagge comments: “This is the nearest I have seen any one come to truth, but still it will be remarked by reading the ‘secret’ that more information is required to enable persons to practice the art.”

After a thorough examination of the manuscripts and other material, Professor Herdman concludes that the essential points of Linnæus’s process are to make a very small hole in the shell and insert a round pellet of limestone fixed at the end of a fine silver wire, the hole being near the end of the shell so as to interfere only slightly with the mollusk, and the nucleus being kept free from the interior of the shell so that the resulting pearl may not become adherent to it by a deposit of nacre.[^[331]]

Shortly after Linnæus communicated with the Swedish government and before his death, it was learned in Europe that the art of producing “culture pearls” by a somewhat similar process had been practised by the Chinese for centuries.[^[332]] They used several forms of matrices or nuclei, but principally spheres of nacre and bits of flat metal or molded lead, which were not infrequently in conventional outline of Buddha. In the spring or early summer, these were introduced under the mantle of the living mollusk after the shell had been carefully opened a fraction of an inch, and the animal was then returned to the pond, or lake. The mollusk did its work in a leisurely way, like some people who have little to do, and many months elapsed before it was ready for opening and the removal of the pearly objects.

The most satisfactory description we have seen of this process appears to be that communicated nearly a century later to the London Society of Arts by Dr. D. T. Macgowan,[^[333]] through H. B. M. plenipotentiary in China, from which this account is abridged and modified.

The industry is prosecuted in two villages near the city of Titsin, in the northern part of the province of Che-kiang, a silk-producing region. In May or June large specimens of the fresh-water mussels, Dipsas plicatus, are brought in baskets from Lake Tai-hu, about thirty miles distant. For recuperation from the journey, they are immersed in fresh water for a few days in bamboo cages, and are then ready to receive the matrices.

These nuclei are of various forms and materials, the most common being spherical beads of nacre, pellets of mud moistened with juice of camphor seeds, and especially thin leaden images, generally of Buddha in the usual sitting posture. In introducing these objects, the shell is gently opened with a spatula of bamboo or of pearl shell, and the mantle of the mollusk is carefully separated from one surface of the shell with a metal probe. The foreign bodies are then successively introduced at the point of a bifurcated bamboo stick, and placed, commonly in two parallel rows, upon the inner surface of the shell; a sufficient number having been placed on one valve, the operation is repeated on the other. As soon as released, the animal closes its shell, thus keeping the matrices in place. The mussels are then deposited one by one in canals or streams, or in ponds connected therewith, five or six inches apart, and where the depth is from two to five feet under water.

If taken up within a few days and examined, the nuclei will be found attached to the shell by a membranous secretion; later this appears to be impregnated with calcareous matter, and finally layers of nacre are deposited around each nucleus, the process being analagous to the formation of calculary concretions in animals of higher development. A ridge generally extends from one pearly tumor to another, connecting them all together. Each month several tubs of night soil are thrown into the reservoir for the nourishment of the animals. Great care is taken to keep goat excretia from the water, as it is highly detrimental to the mussels, preventing the secretion of good nacre or even killing them if the quantity be sufficient. Persons inexperienced in the management lose ten or fifteen per cent. by deaths; others lose virtually none in a whole season.

In November, the mussels are removed from the water and opened, and the pearly masses are detached by means of a knife. If the matrix be of nacre, this is not removed; but the earthen and the metallic matrices are cut away, melted resin or white sealing-wax poured into the cavity, and the orifice covered with a piece of shell. These pearly formations have some of the luster and beauty of true pearls, and are furnished at a rate so cheap as to be procurable by almost any one. Most of them are purchased by jewelers, who set them in various personal ornaments, and especially in decorations for the hair. Those formed in the image of Buddha are used largely for amulets as well as for ornaments. They are about half an inch long, and while in the shell have a bluish tint, which disappears with removal of the matrix. Quantities of them are sold as talismans to pilgrims at the Buddhist shrines about Pooto and Hang-chau.

In some shells the culture pearls are permitted to remain by the Chinese growers, for sale as curios or souvenirs; specimens of these have found their way into many public and private collections of Europe and America. These shells are generally about seven inches long and four or five inches broad, and contain a double or triple row of pearls or images, as many as twenty-five of the former and sixteen of the latter to each valve. That the animal should survive the introduction of so many irritating bodies, and in such a brief period secrete a covering of nacre over them all, is certainly a striking physiological fact. Indeed, some naturalists have expressed strong doubts as to its possibility, supposing the forms were made to adhere to the shell by some composition; but the examination of living specimens in different stages of growth, with both valves studded with them, has fully demonstrated its truth.

It is represented that in the northern part of the Che-kiang province about five thousand families are employed in this work in connection with rice-growing and silk-culture. To some of them it is the chief source of income, single families realizing as much as 300 silver dollars annually therefrom. In the village of Chung-kwan-o, the headquarters for culture pearls in China, a temple has been erected to the memory of the originator of this industry, Yu Shun Yang, who lived late in the thirteenth century, and was an ancestor of many persons now employed thereby.

The method in vogue in China for so many centuries has been the starting-point for similar attempts in various other countries. During the New Jersey pearling excitement in 1857, there were found several spherical pieces of nacre which had been introduced into Unios apparently for experimental pearl-culture; and in the collection of shells bequeathed to the United States National Museum by the late Dr. Isaac Lea, is a hemispherical piece of candle grease partly coated with pinkish nacre. Kelaart applied the Chinese method to the Ceylon pearl-oysters with much success in 1858. At the Berlin Fisheries Exhibition, in 1880, appeared the results of experiments in growing culture pearls in the river mussels in Saxony. Small foreign bodies had been introduced in the mantle, and others had been inserted between the mantle and the shell. These nuclei consisted of shell beads, unsightly pearls from other mussels, etc.; but unfortunately the shape of these was such that the mantle could not fit closely around them, consequently the result was so irregular as to be of no value except to show that German Unios as well as those of China could be made to cover foreign objects with pearly material.

Professor Herdman notes that, between 1751 and 1754, an inspector named Frederick Hedenberg received an annual salary “to inoculate the pearl-mussels of Lulea (in the northern part of Sweden) with ‘pearl-seeds’ which he manufactured, and then to replant the mussels. Certain pearls were produced by the inspector, which it is recorded were sold for some 300 silver dollars.”[^[334]]

As noted by Broussonnet, in Finland artificial pearls were produced by inserting a round piece of nacre between the inner face of the shell and the mantle. The owner of the pearl fisheries at Vilshofen has succeeded in producing pearly figures by introducing into the mollusk flat figures of pewter, most of them representing fish in form.

In 1884, Bouchon-Brandely made experiments in pearl production at Tahiti. Gimlet holes about half an inch in diameter were drilled through different places in the shells of pearl-oysters, and through each of these holes a pellet of nacre or of glass was inserted and held by brass wire passing through a stopper of cork or burao wood, by means of which each opening was hermetically closed, so that the pellet was the only foreign substance protruding on the inside of the shell.[^[335]] The oysters were returned to the sea without further injury, and after the lapse of a month the pellets were found covered with thin layers of nacre.

Artificial rearing-ponds for the development of pearl-oysters on the Island of Espiritū Santo, Gulf of California

Trays containing small pearl-oysters prepared for placing at the bottom of artificial rearing-ponds at Espiritū Santo Island, Gulf of California

Experiments in growing pearls in the abalone or Haliotis were made in 1897 by Louis Bouton, an account of which was given at the meeting of the Paris Académie des Sciences in 1898.[^[336]] The tenacity of life in this mollusk makes it especially desirable for experiments of this nature. Through small holes bored into the shell, pellets of mother-of-pearl were inserted and placed within the mantle, the small holes being afterward closed up. Other nacreous pellets were introduced directly into the bronchial cavity. The objects were soon covered with thin, pearly layers, resulting in a few months in spheres of much beauty, resembling somewhat the pearls naturally produced by this mollusk. In six months, according to M. Bouton, the layers became of sufficient thickness to be attractive. Within limitations, the size of the pearl produced is in proportion to the length of time it is allowed to remain within the mollusk. The results of the experiments seem to encourage further efforts in this line, and possibly in course of time there may be a profitable business in growing pearls in abalones on the Pacific coast of the United States. Indeed, the experiments in transplanting and cultivating the pearl-oyster in Australia leads one to fancy that the culture of that species in the warm coastal waters of America is by no means an impossibility.

Many other experiments along similar lines have been made more recently. An interesting feature of attempts made by Mr. Vane Simmonds of Cedar Rapids, Iowa, in 1896–1898, is that in order to avoid straining the adductor muscles by forcibly opening the shell while the mollusk resisted the intrusion, each selected Unio was exposed in the open air and sunshine until the valves opened; then a wooden wedge was carefully inserted in the opening, and the mollusk immediately immersed in water to revive it or to sustain life. After a few moments of immersion, the operator carefully raised the mantle from the shell, inserted the pellet of wax or other small article to be covered with nacre, drew the mantle to its normal position, removed the wedge, and returned the mollusk to a selected place in the stream at sufficient depth to avoid danger of freezing in winter.

Probably it would be more satisfactory to stupefy the mollusks by means of some chemical in order to insert the pellets. Marine mollusks have been successfully stupefied by slowly adding magnesium sulphate crystals to the sea water until the animals no longer respond to contact. If treatment is not too prolonged, they may be returned to normal sea water with good prospects of recovery. To stupefy fresh-water mollusks, either chloral hydrate or chlorosone may be employed, although the latter is expensive to use in great quantity. Dr. Charles B. Davenport, of the Carnegie Institution, suggests that it might be well to experiment with pouring ether or chloroform over them.

In Japan the production of these pearly formations in Margaritifera martensi, which is closely related to the Ceylon oyster, has developed into some prominence since 1890, and the results have been well advertised. The industry is located in Ago Bay, near the celebrated temple of Ise in the province of Shima, and gives employment to about one hundred persons. It is stated that the proprietor, Kokichi Mikimoto, has leased about one thousand acres of sea bottom, on which are a million oysters of this species, which yield from 30,000 to 50,000 culture pearls annually.

As described by Dr. K. Mitsukuri, the shoal portions of this area are used for breeding the oysters and raising them to maturity, and in the deeper parts—covered by several fathoms of water—the oysters are specially treated for producing the culture pearls. In the former, the spat is collected on small stones, weighing six or eight pounds each, placed during May or June. The following November these stones, with the attached spat or young, are removed, for protection from cold, to depths greater than five or six feet, where they remain for about three years. At the end of that period, the growing oysters are taken from the water, the shells opened slightly, and rounded bits of pearl shell or nacre are introduced under the mantle without injury to the mollusks. About 300,000 are thus treated annually, and placed in the deeper water at the rate of about one to each square foot of bottom area. After the lapse of about four years more, the oysters are removed from the water and opened, when a large percentage of the pellets are found covered on the upper or exposed surface with nacre of good luster.

Most of these culture pearls are button-shaped and weigh two or three grains each. Although somewhat attractive and superior to the culture pearls of China and other fresh waters, they by no means compare favorably with choice pearls. They are rarely, if ever, spherical, and only the upper surface is lustrous; consequently they serve only the purpose of half-pearls. A cross section shows the nacreous growth in a thin concentric layer, forming a fragile hemispherical cap, the concave wall of which is covered with a brownish granular secretion which prevents perfect adhesion. Compared with choice pearls, they are not only deficient in luster, but are fragile, and are beautiful only on the upper surface, and not available for necklaces. Good specimens sell for several dollars each, and some individuals reach $50 or more. Specimens exhibited at the Paris Exposition in 1900 were awarded a silver medal; at the St. Petersburg Exhibition in 1902 they were awarded a gold medal; at the Tokio Exhibition a grand prize, and a medal at the St. Louis Exposition in 1904. The awards were given in the fisheries, and not the gem divisions.

The work of Mikimoto is not the only attempt now being made in Japan to produce pearls. A letter from Dr. T. Nishikawa, of the Tokio Imperial University, states: “It is a great pleasure for me to tell you that I am studying pearl formation and pearl-oyster culture in the university laboratory, and recently I have got my pearl laboratory at Fukura, on the Island of Awaji, where I began the pearl-culture work this summer (1907). Fortunately, I found the cause of Japanese pearl formation, i.e., the reason why and how the pearl is produced in the tissue of an oyster. I made practical application of this theory with great prospects for producing the natural and true pearls at will.”

Among the most interesting of the pearl-culture enterprises are those of the Compañia Criadora de Concha y Perla, under the direction of Sr. Gaston J. Vives, in the Gulf of California. This company has an extensive station at San Gabriel, near La Paz, where breeding oysters are placed in prepared chests or cages for collecting the spat on trays. After remaining there for several weeks or months, the young mollusks are removed to prepared places (viveros) for further growth. Experiments are now made in depositing them between a series of parallel dams alternately touching each shore of a lagoon, thus developing a current of water over the oysters for conveying food to them, and thus hastening their growth.

In efforts to increase the output of pearls, attention has been given to the possibilities for extending the area and production of the reefs, and for stocking new areas and replenishing exhausted ones, thus bringing the pearl-bearing mollusks to maturity in greater abundance.

Although theoretically it does not seem a very difficult undertaking to cultivate the pearl-oysters by methods somewhat similar to the cultivation of edible oysters and clams, in no part of the world has this been successfully done on an extensive scale. While in certain minor cases, the areas of some species of pearl mollusks have been extended indirectly through man’s agency—as the range of the Red Sea pearl-oyster into the Mediterranean since the Suez Canal was opened—there is no well-known instance in which new areas have been abundantly populated through direct efforts.

In the chapter on the pearl fisheries of Asia are noted the hitherto unsuccessful efforts made in Ceylon and India to preserve the young and immature oysters on the storm-swept reefs by removing them to less exposed areas. This has received close attention from the Ceylon authorities during the last two years. Other practical measures which are recommended for that region include “cultching,” or the deposit of suitable solid material, such as shells or broken stone, to which the young oysters can attach themselves; thinning out overcrowded reefs, and cleaning the beds by means of a dredge, thereby removing starfish and other injurious animals. The attempts made by individuals and associations to extend the range of the reefs on the coast of Australia, among the Tuamotu Islands, in the Gulf of California, and some other localities, are noted in the appropriate chapters. But it may be stated that in most instances lack of adequate police protection has been not the least of the difficulties with which these experiments have had to contend.

Nor has much greater success followed upon efforts to prevent the exhaustion of the reefs and productive grounds through overfishing, except in those instances in which the government exercises a proprietory interest and determines the season, the area to be fished, and the quantity of mollusks to be removed. The most prominent instance of this is in Ceylon, where the fishery has been restricted to such seasons and periods as appeared to insure the maximum yield of pearls. Without restriction upon the fishery, the pearl-oyster in that populous region would doubtless become almost extinct in a few years. Another instance of proprietory interest on the part of the government is in some of the German States, where pearl fishing has been regulated and restricted for centuries. But there the sewage from cities and factories has accomplished almost as effectively, if less rapidly, what unrestricted fishing would have done.

Much attention has been given to the subject of pearl-culture in Bavaria, where the government has granted a small subsidy to encourage this industry, and a model pearl-mussel bank has been established in one of the brooks for the rational culture of the mussels.

On the Australian coast, the only theoretical protection of consequence is the restriction on taking small or immature oysters; but, owing to the great area over which the fisheries are prosecuted there, it has not been possible to enforce the regulations. At some of the Pacific islands and elsewhere, interdictions exist as to use of certain apparatus of capture, but this is intended for the purpose of reserving the industry to dependent natives rather than for protecting the reefs. Several efforts have been made to insure adequate protection for the Unios in our American rivers, but nothing in this direction has yet been accomplished by legislative enactment, except in Illinois.

Reference has already been made to the parasitic stage of Unios.[^[337]] The attachment of the newly-hatched mollusks to the gills or fins of a fish is entirely a matter of chance, and unless this takes place they die within a few days. Under natural conditions the fish thus infected will rarely be found carrying as many of the parasitic Unios as they can without serious injury. If the fish are placed in a tank or a pond containing large numbers of newly-hatched Unios, it is possible to bring about the attachment of hundreds of them for every one that would be found there by chance of nature. A fish six inches in length may thus be made to carry several hundred parasitic Unios, and thus a thousand fish artificially infected may do the work of several hundred thousand in a state of nature. Experiments with small numbers of fish under observation in the laboratory indicate that their infection on a large scale is entirely possible, and the experiment by Messrs. Lefevre and Curtis now in progress at La Crosse, Wisconsin, in which over 25,000 young fish have been infected, gives every indication that such work may be begun even with the scanty knowledge now possessed.

Since it has already been shown that the production of pearls is an abnormal condition, it does not follow that an increase in the quantity of mollusks would necessarily result in a corresponding increase in the yield of pearls. Indeed, it might even be that the artificial conditions bringing about an enhanced prosperity and abundance of the mollusks would result in a corresponding decrease in the product of gems, the improved surroundings impairing if not destroying the conditions to which the pearls owe their origin. This has resulted in directing efforts toward abnormally increasing the abundance of pearls in a definite number of mollusks.

The development of the parasitic theory of pearl formation has naturally invited attention to the possibilities of increasing the yield of pearls by inoculating healthy mollusks with distomid parasites. It does not appear that this has yet advanced beyond the experimental stage, and virtually all that has been accomplished has been set forth in the chapter on the origin of pearls. It seems that there are great possibilities in the artificial production along these lines; and that under skilful management it could be made a profitable industry, especially if carried on concurrently with the systematic cultivation of mother-of-pearl shells.

Although there is scientific basis for the belief that it may be possible in time to bring about pearl growth in this manner, the public should not be too hasty in financing companies soliciting capital for establishing so-called “pearl farms.” Every once in a while announcement is made in the public press of wonderful success which has been attained by some investigator, who surrounds his discovery with as much mystery as enveloped the Keeley motor, and who is as anxious to sell stock as was the owner of that mythical invention. A prospectus of one of these “pearl syndicates,” which is now before us, claims to “increase and hasten pearl production by forcing the oyster, through doctoring the water in which it is immersed and also by irritating the mollusk itself.” So far as the writers are aware, aside from the inexpensive but somewhat attractive culture pearls, no commercial success has yet followed the many attempts at artificial production.

This chapter should not close without reference to the so-called “breeding pearls,” probably the most curious of all theories of pearl growth, regarding which many inquiries have been made. Throughout the Malay Archipelago there exists a generally accepted belief that if several selected pearls of good size are sealed in a box with a few grains of rice for nourishment they will increase in number as well as in size. If examined at the expiration of one year, small pearls may be found strewn about the bottom of the box, according to the theory; and in some instances the original pearls themselves will be found to have increased in size. If again inclosed for a further period of a year or more, the adherents of the theory say, the seed-pearls will further increase in size, and additional seed-pearls will form. Furthermore, the grains of rice will present the appearance of having been nibbled or as though a rodent had taken a bite in the end of each.

It is claimed that the breeding pearls are obtained from several species of mollusks, mostly from the Margaritifera, but also from the Tridacna (giant clam) and the Placuna (window shell). While cotton is the usual medium in which the pearls and rice are retained, some collectors substitute fresh water and yet others prefer salt water. It seems that rice is considered essential to success.

The earliest account we have seen of this extraordinary belief was given by Dr. Engelbert Kæmpfer,[^[338]] who was connected with the Dutch embassy to Japan from 1690 to 1696, and since that time it has been referred to by many travelers in the Malay Archipelago.

A correspondent in the time-honored “Notes and Queries,” 20th September, 1862, writes:

Nearly five years ago, while staying with friends in Pulo Penang (Straits of Malacca), I was shown by the wife of a prominent merchant five small pearls, which had increased and multiplied in her possession. She had set them aside for about 12 months in a small wooden box, packed in soft cotton and with half a dozen grains of common rice. On opening the box at the expiration of that time, she found four additional pearls, about the size of a small pinhead and of much beauty, which I saw and examined not long after the lady made the discovery. While my story may be received with laughter, I can most solemnly assure you of the truth of my having seen these pearls, and I have not the slightest doubt of the perfect truthfulness of the lady who possessed them. I questioned an eminent Malay merchant of Penang on this subject, and he assured me that one of his daughters had once possessed a similar growth of pearls.[^[339]]

Notwithstanding the apparent absurdity of this pearl-breeding theory, belief in it appears to be not only sincere but wide-spread, as can be attested by any one familiar with affairs in the archipelago. A critical examination into the matter was made in 1877 by Dr. N. B. Dennys, curator of the Raffles Museum at Singapore, the result of which was communicated to the Straits branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 28th February, 1878.[^[340]] From his numerous quotations of persons who gave the results of their experiences we extract two instances. One gentleman had 120 small pearls in addition to the five breeding ones with which the experiment had started twenty years before, and during the entire period the box had not been molested except that it was opened occasionally for inspection by interested persons. Another experimentor inclosed three breeding pearls with a few grains of rice on 17th July, 1874; on opening the box on 14th July, 1875, nine additional pearls were discovered, and the three original ones appeared larger.

The belief has many curious variations. It is stated that in Borneo and the adjacent islands, many of the fishermen reserve every ninth pearl regardless of its size, and put the collection in a small bottle which is kept corked with a dead man’s finger. According to Professor Kimmerly, nearly every burial-place along the Borneo coast has been desecrated in searching for “corks” for these bottles, and almost every hut has its dead-finger bottle, with from ten to fifty “breeding pearls” and twice that number of rice grains.[^[341]] A correspondent at Sandakan, North Borneo, writes that at the time of his death at Hongkong in 1901, Dr. Dennys had in his possession a small box containing “breeding pearls”; but these disappeared after his death, and his brother, the crown solicitor, was unable to find them. This correspondent also states that the Ranee of Sarawak, a British protectorate in western Borneo, has a collection of “breeding pearls” numbering about two hundred, and that this is the only large collection known at present.

As contrasted with abundant and unquestionably sincere testimony that pearls do “breed,” it may be stated that absolutely no result has followed one or two native experiments made under supervision. While it must be admitted that negative evidence is always weaker than positive, and twenty failures would be outweighed by one successful experiment, yet the scientific objections to the possibility of pearls “breeding” cannot be overcome. The phenomenon is doubtless one of those curiosities of natural history in which some important factor has been overlooked.

Another curious theory is that peculiar pearls continue to grow after removal from the mollusk in which they originate. Quite recently it was reported from New Durham, North Carolina, that a pearl found there in 1896 had been growing continually since it was found and removed from the water. Unfortunately, it was weighed only when the last observation was made, and its increased size doubtless existed only in the imagination of its possessor.

XII

MYSTICAL AND MEDICINAL PROPERTIES OF PEARLS

XII
MYSTICAL AND MEDICINAL PROPERTIES OF PEARLS

Divers are the virtues of gems; some give favor in the sight of lords; some protect against fire; others make people beloved; others give wisdom; some render men invisible; others repel lightning; some baffle poisons; some protect and augment treasures, and others cause that husbands should love their wives.

Arabic version of Solomon’s writings.

While no special gems are mentioned in the tribute which the Arabs credit to Solomon, it seems that pearls must certainly have been included, for in nearly all countries where these gems have been prized and from the earliest period, they have been credited with mystic properties and healing virtues.

In the first chapter of this book, reference was made to the Atharvaveda, dating from at least 2400 years ago, and its allusion to the use of an amulet of pearl shell and of pearls among the Hindus in bestowing long life and prosperity upon young Brahmanical disciples. As this amulet is fastened upon the youth, the following hymn is recited, according to this ancient Veda of the Atharvans:

Born of the wind, the atmosphere, the lightning, and the light, may this pearl shell, born of gold, protect us from straits!

With the shell which was born in the sea, at the head of bright substances, we slay the Rakshas and conquer the Atrins [devouring demons].

With the shell [we conquer] disease and poverty; with the shell, too, the Sadanvas. The shell is our universal remedy; the pearl shall protect us from straits!

Born in the heavens, born in the sea, brought on from the river [Sindhu], this shell, born of gold, is our life-prolonging amulet.

The amulet, born from the sea, a sun, born from Vritra [the cloud], shall on all sides protect us from the missiles of the gods and the Asuras!

Thou art one of the golden substances, thou art born from Soma [the moon]. Thou art sightly on the chariot, thou art brilliant on the quiver.

(May it prolong our lives!) The bone of the gods turned into pearl; that, animated, dwells in the waters. That do I fasten upon thee unto life, luster, strength, longevity, unto a life lasting a hundred autumns. May the amulet of pearl protect thee![^[342]]

The mystical Taoists, in their pursuit of immortality, made much of pearls as an important ingredient in formulæ for perpetuating youth. According to an old Taoist authority, in preparing one of these elixirs, an extra long pearl which has been worn for many years is steeped in some infusion of malt, or a preparation of serpents’ gall, honeycomb, and pumice-stone. When the pearl becomes plastic, it is drawn out to the length of two or three feet, cut into suitable lengths, and formed into pills, the taking of which renders food thenceforth unnecessary.[^[343]]

The myth of the dragon and the pearl has been a far-reaching theme of the artists in Japan and China, whether in color, metal, or stone. There has been much written as to how the myth became so fixed in the minds of the Orientals, and Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria, who has made an exhaustive study of the myth of the dragon in all its phases, has very courteously communicated to us the following facts. Personally he had never been able to learn of a true or clear description of the origin of the myth other than the well-recorded legend given by Legge in the “Sacred Books of the East” (Vol. XL, p. 211), in which there is a quotation from Shuangtze, a writer of the fourth century before Christ, who says: “Near the Ho river there was a poor man, who supported his family by weaving rushes. His son, when diving in a deep pool, found a pearl worth a thousand ounces of silver. The father said: ‘Bring a stone and beat it in pieces. A pearl of this value must have been in a pool nine khung deep and under the chin of the black dragon. That you were able to get it must have been owing to your having found him asleep. Let him awake, and the consequences will not be small.’” Prince Rupprecht says:

This legend has nothing to do with the illustration to which you refer; it belongs to a cycle of myths concerning a stone in the head of a serpent, or the crown of the king of the serpents or dragons; myths which also exist in Germany since the days of old. I should rather be inclined to think that the commonly accepted pearl between the two dragons is not a pearl at all. At least this pearl is always surrounded by ornaments in the shape of flames or claws, and Professor Hirth discovered on such a representation in woodcut, an explanation of the flames by the sign for Yangsui, a very ancient kind of metallic mirrors, of concave form, that were used to produce the heavenly fire.

JAPANESE LEGEND OF THE DRAGON AND THE PEARL, IDEALIZED IN JADE
Heber R. Bishop Collection, Metropolitan Museum of Art

This explanation is probably erroneous and due to a misunderstanding of the signs for flames. In my opinion, another explanation, that the pearl is not really a pearl but a spider, is nearer to the truth. As an argument in favor of this theory the following sentence may be quoted from an encyclopedia of the eleventh century (“Pieu-tzi-lei,” chap. 223): “The pearl of a fish is its eye, the pearl of a tortoise is its foot, the pearl of the spider is its belly.” Pearl, as well as spider, are both called in Chinese by the same word but are written in a different way.

I, for my part, believe that the pearl is the belly not indeed of a spider, but of Garuda, the eagle of Vishnu, known in the old Hindu mythology as the foe of the Vagas, beings with human bodies and the tails of serpents. At least, I found on an old Chinese gateway, dating back to the times of the Mongol emperors, a sculpture showing the contest between Garuda and the Vagas. On another sculpture of the late King epoch the Vagas are already changed into dragons, and the wings, the limbs and the head of Garuda have become quite insignificant, while his belly is prominent like a ball.

A beautiful metaphor occurs in ancient Chinese writings, in the Book of the Later Han,[^[344]] for instance, which regards this gem as the hidden soul of the oyster.

There is no end of legends and myths regarding the pearl in oriental literature. One fable credits it with a peculiar magical power: by speaking the right word, a spirit can be called therefrom which makes the owner a possessor of all the happiness of the earth. Browning notes this in two exquisite stanzas, “A Pearl, a Girl,” published on the day of his death in 1889, in which he compares this characteristic with a woman’s love called forth by the mystic word.

A simple ring with a single stone.

To the vulgar eye no stone of price;

Whisper the right word, that alone—

Forth starts a sprite, like fire from ice,

And lo, you are lord (says an Eastern scroll)

Of heaven and earth, lord whole and sole,

Through the power in a pearl.

A woman (’tis I this time that say)

With little the world counts worthy praise;

Utter the true word—out and away

Escapes her soul: I am wrapt in blaze,

Creation’s lord, of heaven and earth,

Lord whole and sole—by a minute’s birth—

Through the love in a girl.

In the folk-song of Servia is a pretty little poem which testifies to the love they bear to pearls:

A youth unmated prays to God,

To turn him to pearls in the sea,

Where the maidens come to fill their urns;

That so they might gather him into their laps,

And string him on a fine green thread,

And wear him pendant from the neck;

That he might hear what each one said,

And whether his loved one spoke of him.

His prayer was granted and he lay

Turned to pearls in the dark blue sea,

Where the maidens come to fill their urns;

Then quickly they gather him into their laps,

And string him on a green silk thread,

And wear him pendant from the neck;

So he hears what each one says of her own

And what his loved one says of him.[^[345]]

In the days when romance and chivalry held sway in Europe, pearls and other favors were presented by ladies for the brave knights to wear at tournaments. And we are told in the Arthurian legends how Elaine, “the lily maid of Astolat,” gave to Sir Lancelot “a red sleeve of scarlet, embroidered with great pearls,” for him to wear on his helmet: and “then to her tower she climbed and took the shield, there kept it and so lived in fantasy”; while he fought and won at the tilt, “wearing her scarlet sleeve, tho’ carved and cut, and half the pearls away.”[^[346]]

The sweet sentiment of purity associated with the pearl ennobles it above all other gems. Rabanus Maurus, archbishop of Mainz, wrote, about 850, that “mystically, the pearl signifies the hope of the Kingdom of Heaven, or charity and the sweetness of celestial life.”[^[347]] True, it was not among the twelve gems which adorned the breastplate of the high priest of the Temple, symbolical of the twelve apostles. A Father of the Church—St. Augustine, we believe—explains this by saying that it was reserved for a more sacred office, that of representing Christ himself.

Pearl signifies purity, innocence, humility, and a retiring spirit. All stones of the gray color of the pearl have the significances which are given to this beautiful gem.[^[348]]

Unlike other gems, the pearl comes to us perfect and beautiful, direct from the hand of nature. Other precious stones receive careful treatment from the lapidary, and owe much to his art. The pearl, however, owes nothing to man. Perhaps this has much to do with the sentiments we cherish for it. It touches us with the same sense of simplicity and sweetness as the mountain daisy or the wild rose. It is absolutely a gift of nature, on which man cannot improve. We turn from the brilliant, dazzling ornament of diamonds or emeralds to a necklace of pearls with a sense of relief, and the eye rests upon it with quiet, satisfied repose and is delighted with its modest splendor, its soft gleam, borrowed from its home in the depths of the sea. It seems truly to typify steady and abiding affection, which needs no accessory or adornment to make it more attractive. And there is a purity and sweetness about it which makes it especially suitable for the maiden.

The idea of pearly purity is inseparably linked with the name Margaret, derived from the Persian Murwari (pearl, or child of light) through the Greek μαργαρίτης. This name—beautiful in sound as well as in origin—is popular in all European countries, and likewise are its abbreviations and diminutives: in Italian, Margherita and Rita; in French, Marguerite, Margot, and Groten; in German, Margarethe, Gretchen, and Grethel; and in English, Margaret, Marjorie, Madge, Maggie, Peggy, etc.

The use of the word as a proper name among the early Christians was doubtless suggested by the sweet simplicity and loveliness of the pearl, and by the beautiful symbolical references to this gem in the Scriptures; and the meaning of the name has been strengthened by the pure lives and the good deeds of the many beautiful Margarets in all lands, including the virgin martyr, St. Margaret of Antioch, “the mild maid of God” referred to in the Liturgy, who, before the fifth century, was the embodiment of feminine innocence and faith overcoming evil, and who is often represented wearing a string of pearls; also St. Margaret Ætheling of the eleventh century, who endeared the name in Scotland, was canonized in 1215, and was adopted as the patron saint of Scotland in 1673; and Margaret, “Pearl of Bohemia,” so beloved by the Danes.

Especially among the Germans has the name a tender significance; with them it is symbolical of maidenly sweetness and purity associated with richness of womanhood, such as was typified by Goethe in the heroine of his “Faust.” This idea may have impelled Wordsworth in the selection of a name for the lovely, girlish character in his “Excursion”; and Tennyson for his “Sweet pale Margaret,” and likewise Scott for “Ladye Margaret, the flower of Teviot.” With the memory of these lives and characters before her, many a loving mother has crystallized the hope entertained for a baby daughter by enriching her with this beautiful name.

Poets seem never to tire of using the pearl as a symbol of perfection in form, in purity, in luster, and in sweetness. But probably none has made a more lovely comparison than Owen Meredith:

As pure as a pearl,

And as perfect: a noble and innocent girl.[^[349]]

The Oriental poets unite with those of the West in their love for this gem, and those gifted writers are lavish in its use. Let us but add the lament of Shabl Abdullah on the death of Nozami:

Nozami’s gone, our fairest pearl is lost.

From purest dew, kind Heaven had given her birth,

And then had fashioned her the pearl supreme.

She softly shone, but hidden from mankind,

So God has now restored her to her shell.

Far more crude, but possibly equally pathetic, is that old epitaph from Yorkshire, England:

In shells and gold pearls are not kept alone,

A Margaret here lies beneath a stone.

In the seventeenth century, Pierre de Rosnel wrote in a burst of enthusiasm:

The pearl is a jewel so perfect that its excellent beauty demands the love and esteem of the whole universe. Suidas expresses himself in regard to it thus: “The possession of the pearl is one of love’s greatest delights; the delight of possessing it suffices to feed love.” In a painting, Philostratus, who had the same ideas, has represented cupids with bows enriched with pearls; and the ancients were all agreed to dedicate the pearl to Venus. Now, to my thinking, the reason for their so doing was, that inasmuch as this goddess of love, the fairest of all divinities, is descended from heaven and is formed of the sea, so in like manner the pearl—the loveliest of all gems—is formed in the sea and is the offspring of the dew of heaven. But he that would learn more of the excellence of the pearl, let him inquire of the ladies, who will relate much more in its praise than I can write, and who will doubtless confess that nothing else so well adorns them.[^[350]]

Emblematic as the pearl is of maidenly purity and sweetness, it is deemed especially appropriate as a wedding gift. This use dates from the earliest dawn of Hindu civilization, when the beloved Krishna drew it from the sea to decorate his beautiful daughter on her nuptial day. And among the Hindus not uncommonly the presentation of a virgin pearl and its piercing forms part of the marriage ceremony. In most of the European royal weddings in recent years, pearls have been prominent among the bridal gifts; nor have they been overlooked among the presents to American brides, including one much in the public print about 1906, for whom a necklace of them was selected by a neighboring republic as an appropriate present.

The dedication of the pearl to love and marriage appears to have been recognized by the artistic Greeks. One of the choicest engravings preserved from classic times is a magnificent sardonyx showing the marriage of Cupid and Psyche, in which the lovers are united by what some authorities consider a string of pearls—emblematic of conjugal bonds—by means of which the god Hymen leads them to the nuptial couch.[^[351]] This engraved gem now forms one of the choicest objects in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, having been purchased at the sale of the Marlborough gems, London, 1898, at a cost of about $10,000.

And yet in Western countries the ill omen of pearls as bridal ornaments has been widely recognized, these determining the tears that will be shed in the married life. As Milton says, referring to the Marchioness of Winchester:

And those pearls of dew she wears,

Prove to be presaging tears.

It was told that when the Empress Eugénie of France was finishing her toilet preparatory to her wedding in Notre Dame in 1853, a personal attendant reminded her of the omen, and begged that she refrain from wearing her pearl necklace on that occasion. Eugenie paid no heed to the warning and wore the beautiful jewels just the same; and, as all the world knows, her life has been one long tragedy. Since that necklace was a lengthy one, containing very many pearls, the bride who wears only a few on her wedding day need not dread the adage so much, for, unfortunately, no woman’s life is wholly free from grief; and most brides would doubtless risk a few tears rather than refuse to wear a wedding gift of pearls.

It was a very old idea that to dream of pearls betokens tears. A suggestion of this occurs in John Webster’s “Duchess of Malfi” (1623), Act III, sc. 5:

Duchess: I had a very strange dream to-night;

Methought I wore my coronet of state,

And on a sudaine all the diamonds

Were chang’d to pearles.

Antonio: My interpretation

Is, you’ll weepe shortly;

For to me the pearles

Doe signifie your teares.

And we quote also from “The Parson’s Wedding” (1663), Act II, sc. 5, where Jolly exclaims: “What! in thy dumps, brother? The captain sad! ’Tis prophetic. I’d as lieve have dreamt of pearl, or the loss of my teeth.”

Tradition relates that Queen Margaret Tudor, wife of James IV of Scotland, just before the battle of Flodden Field (1513), had many fears as to the disastrous issue of that conflict, owing to having dreamed on three nights in succession that all her jewels were suddenly turned into pearls. This was interpreted as a sign of coming widowhood and sorrow, which was soon verified; and a similar story is told of Marie de’ Medici shortly before the murder of Henry IV of France in 1610.

The employment of pearls medicinally dates from an ancient period. This use is mentioned in the oldest existing Sanskrit medical work, the “Charaka-Samhita,”[^[352]] composed early in the Christian era; and likewise in the somewhat more modern “Susruta,”[^[353]] which probably originated before the eighth century.

It is particularly in Oriental countries that therapeutic properties have been credited to pearls. The powder of these gems has been rated very highly there, and is still used to some extent. It was considered beneficial in cases of ague, indigestion, and hemorrhages, and was regarded as possessing stimulative qualities. Medical literature of the Orient contains many accounts of the uses of pearls and of the methods of forming them into pills, ointments, etc.

According to a treatise written by Narahari, a physician of Kashmir, about 1240 A.D., the pearl cures diseases of the eyes, is an antidote to poisons, cures consumption and morbid disturbances, and increases strength and general health.[^[354]]

In China, as well as in other Asiatic countries, a distinction was made in the therapeutic effects of so-called “virgin” pearls and of those pierced or bored for stringing. The Chinese natural history of Li Shi Chin, completed about 1596, states that bored pearls will not serve for medicine, for which unpierced ones should be used. It further adds that the taste is saltish, sweetish, and cold; and that they benefit the liver, clear the eyes, and cure deafness. Dr. T. Nishikawa informs us that at the present time many Mytilus seed-pearls are exported from Japan to China for medicinal purposes.

Quoting principally from Ahmed Teifashi, Whitelow Ainslie wrote in 1825 that Arabian physicians suppose the powder of the pearl to have virtues in weak eyes; and they credit it with efficacy in palpitations, nervous tremors, melancholia, and hemorrhage. Also they have this strange notion, that when applied externally and while in the shell, it cures leprosy.[^[355]]

Statements of the curative properties of pearls come also from Japan at a somewhat recent date. The catalogue of the National Exhibition at Yedo in 1877, Part V, page 78, notes that they soothe the heart, lessen phlegm, are an antidote to poison, and cure fever, smallpox, and blear-eyedness.

The popular modern idea in India as to the therapeutic value was thus expressed by a native prince, Sourindro Mohun Tagore, Mus. Doc., the Maharajah of Tagore, in 1881:

The use of pearls conduces to contentment of mind and to strength of body and soul. The burnt powder of this gem, if taken with water as sherbet, cures vomiting of blood of all kinds. It prevents evil spirits working mischief in the minds of men, takes off bad smell from the mouth, cures lunacy of all descriptions and all mental diseases, jaundice and all diseases of the heart, intestines and stomach. Burnt pearl mixed with water and taken into the nostrils, as a powder, takes away headsickness, cures cataract, lachryma and swelling of the eyes, the painful sensation such as is caused by the entry of sand into them, and ulcers. Used as a dentifrice, it strengthens the gums and cleanses the teeth. Rubbed on the body with other medicines, it cures all skin diseases. It stops bleeding from cuts and ultimately heals them up. Whether taken internally or externally, it is a sure antidote to poison. It drives away all imaginary fears and removes all bodily pain. To prevent its tendency to affect the brain, it should always be used with the burnt powder of basud, and in its absence with that of white mother-of-pearl. The dose of pearl-powder should not exceed 2¼ mashas [19.68 grs.].[^[356]]

The Hindus credited specific virtues to pearls of different colors: the yellow brought wealth, the honey shade fostered understanding, the white attracted fame, and the blue, good luck. Defective pearls caused leprosy, loss of fortune, disgrace, insanity, and death, according to the degree of defect. The “Mani-málá,” previously quoted, states that “pearls possessed of every valuable quality shield their master from every evil, and suffer nothing harmful to come near him. The house which contains a perfect pearl the ever-restless Lakshmi (goddess of wealth) chooses to make her dwelling for ever and a day.”[^[357]]

A similar idea is expressed in an old Hindu treatise on gems by Buddhabhatta, where we read: “The pearl from the shell ought always to be worn as an amulet by those who desire prosperity.”[^[358]]

Pearls still find a place in the pharmacopœia of India. One of the latest standard works, that of R. N. Khory and N. N. Katrak,[^[359]] credits the powder as a stimulant, tonic, and aphrodisiac. It is one of the ingredients in numerous Indian prescriptions used in curing impotence, heart-disease, consumption, etc. According to these authorities, the dose is from one fourth to one half grain of the powdered pearl.

Owing to the high cost of sea pearls, even those of the smallest size, a substitute for medicinal and similar purposes is found in the Placuna pearls of Ceylon, Borneo, etc. These are of such slight luster that only the choicest are of ornamental value, consequently they are sold at relatively small prices. A considerable demand exists for them to be placed in the mouths of deceased Hindus of the middle class, instead of the sea pearls which are used by the wealthy, or the rice which is employed in a similar manner by persons of poorer rank. This custom seems to be analogous to that of the ancient Britons, and also to that of the American Indians, in depositing food and other requisites for a journey in burial graves. The practice is an old one in India and was noted by Marco Polo more than six hundred years ago.

Most of the Placuna pearls are calcined and are used with areca-nuts and betel-pepper leaves in a very popular masticatory, one of the “seven sisters of sleep,” which is to the Hindu what opium is to the Chinaman, or tobacco to the American or European. The hard white areca-nut (Areca Catechu) is about the size and shape of a hen’s egg. Three or four thousand tons of the small, tender nuts are annually shipped from Ceylon to India for this masticatory, which is chewed by a hundred million persons. After boiling in water, pellets of them are placed in a leaf of the betel-pepper (Piper betle) with a small quantity of lime made from pearls or shells, according to the desired quality and value of product. It is credited with hardening the gums, sweetening the breath, aiding digestion, and stimulating the nervous system like coffee or tobacco; its most visible effect is tingeing the saliva and blackening the teeth, which is far from attractive, especially in an otherwise beautiful woman. A more recent use for these Placuna pearls is as an ingredient in a proprietary face powder and enamel, which is marketed in Europe.

It is not alone the Orientals that have found medicinal virtues in pearls. Even in Europe they have occupied a prominent place in materia medica, especially during the Middle Ages when a knowledge of the occult properties of gems was an important branch of learning. Indeed, they could scarcely have been overlooked by people who at one time or another swallowed pretty much everything, from dried snake’s eyes to the filings of a murderer’s irons, in their quest for the unusual and costly with which to relieve and comfort themselves. During the Middle Ages in Europe, writers who gave attention to pearls, as well as to other gems, treated almost exclusively of their reputed efficacy in magic and in medicine; and most of the accounts from the ninth to the fourteenth century seem wholly without scientific value, and at times reach the climax of extravagance and absurdity in their claims for the wonderful potency of the gem.

Albertus Magnus, the Dominican scholar born in Germany in the twelfth century, wrote that pearls were used in mental diseases, in affections of the heart, in hemorrhages, and dysentery.[^[360]]

The “Lapidario” of Alfonso X of Castile (1221–1284), called “The Wise,” the father of the Spanish language, states:

The pearl is most excellent in the medicinal art, for it is of great help in palpitation of the heart, and for those who are sad or timid, and in every sickness which is caused by melancholia, because it purifies the blood, clears it and removes all its impurities. Therefore, the physicians put them in their medicine and lectuaries, with which they cure these infirmities, and give them to be swallowed. They also make powders of them, which are applied to the eyes; because they clear the sight wonderfully, strengthen the nerves and dry up the moisture which enters the eyes.[^[361]]

Anselmus de Boot, physician to Emperor Rudolph II, and one of the great authorities at the beginning of the seventeenth century, gave the following directions for making “aqua perlata, which is most excellent for restoring the strength and almost for resuscitating the dead. Dissolve the pearls in strong vinegar, or better in lemon juice, or in spirits of vitriol or sulphur, until they become liquified; fresh juice is then added and the first decanted. Then, to the milky and turbid solution, add enough sugar to sweeten it. If there be four ounces of this solution, add an ounce each of rose-water, of tincture of strawberries, of borage flowers and of balm and two ounces of cinnamon water. When you wish to give the medicine, shake the mixture so that the sediment may be swallowed at the same time. From one ounce to an ounce and a half may be taken, and nothing more excellent can be had. In pernicious and pestilential fevers, the ordinary aqua perlata cannot be compared to this. Care must be taken to cover the glass carefully while the pearls are dissolving, lest the essence should escape.”[^[362]]

A curious book on the medicinal use of pearls was written in 1637 by Malachias Geiger,[^[363]] in which he especially praises the efficacy of Bavarian pearls. It was true that their material value was less than that of oriental pearls, but this was compensated by their therapeutic qualities. He had accomplished many cures of a very serious disease and had used these pearls successfully in cases of epilepsy, insanity, and melancholia.

Quotations might be given from a hundred medieval writers as to the therapeutics of pearls. The diseases for which they were recommended, as noted by Robert Lovell’s “Panmineralogicon, or Summe of all Authors,” published at Oxford in 1661, seems to have included a large portion of the entire list known at that period. This summary states:

Pearls strengthen and confirme the heart; they cherish the spirits and principall parts of the body; being put into collyries, they cleanse weafts of the eyes, and dry up the water thereof, help their filth, and strengthen the nerves by which moisture floweth into them; they are very good against melancholick griefes; they helpe those that are subject to cardiack passions; they defend against pestilent diseases, and are mixed with cordiall remedies; they are good against the lienterie, that is, the flux of the belly, proceeding from the sliperiness of the intestines, insomuch that they cannot retaine the meat, but let it passe undigested; they are good against swounings; they help the trembling of the heart and giddinesse of the head; they are mixed with the Manus Christi against fainting (called Manus Christi perlata in the London Pharmacopaea); they are put into antidotes or corroborating powders; they help the flux of bloud; they stop the terms, and cleanse the teeth; they are put into antidotes for the bowels, and increase their vertue, make the bloud more thin, and clarify that which is more thick and feculent; they help feavers. The oile of Pearles or unions helpeth the resolution of the nerves, convulsion, decay of old age, phrensie, keepeth the body sound, and recovereth it when out of order, it rectifieth womens milk, and increaseth it, corrects the vices of the natural parts and seed. It cureth absesses, eating ulcers, the cancer and hemorrhoides.... The best are an excellent cordial, by which the oppressed balsame of life and decayed strength are recreated and strengthened, therefore they resist poyson, the plague, and putrefaction, and exhilarate, and therefore they are used as the last remedie in sick persons.[^[364]]

RUSSIAN EIKON OF THE MADONNA
Ornamented with pearls

So powerful and mysterious were their alleged virtues, that in some instances it was necessary only that the pearls be worn to make effective their prophylaxis against disease. This belief was by no means confined to the ignorant and inexperienced, for we are told that even Pope Adrian was never without his amulet made of the extraordinary combination of oriental pearls, a dried toad, etc.[^[365]] Leonardo, in the fifteenth century, wrote that pearls render true and virtuous all who wear them.[^[366]] Although we wonder at what we call the superstitions of the Middle Ages, perchance future generations will smile at many of our mistaken follies.

A prominent historical instance of administering pearls medicinally was in the treatment of Charles VI of France (1368–1422), to whom pearl powder mixed with distilled water was given for the cure of insanity.

A far more illustrious patient was Lorenzo de’ Medici, “The Magnificent” (1448–1492), the celebrated ruler of Florence. When this plebeian prince lay dying of a fever at Careggi, just after that famous interview with Savonarola, his friends called in Lazaro da Ticino, a physician of reputation, who administered pulverized pearls. Politian, who was present, is credited with the statement that when the medicine was administered, to the inquiry as to how it tasted, Lorenzo replied: “As pleasant as anything can be to a dying man.”[^[367]]

Even the English philosopher, Francis Bacon (1561–1626), mentioned pearls among medicines for the prolongation of life. He adds: “Pearls are taken, either in a fine powder or in a kind of paste or solution made by the juice of very sour and fresh lemons. Sometimes they are given in aromatic confections, sometimes in a fluid form. Pearls no doubt have some affinity with the shells wherein they grow; perhaps may have nearly the same qualities as the shells of crawfish.”[^[368]]

Powdered pearl or mother-of-pearl mixed with lemon juice was used as a wash for the face, and was considered “the best in the world.”[^[369]] The pearl powder and lemon juice were permitted to stand for a day or two and the combination was then filtered before using. Another method of preparing this was:

Dissolve two or three ounces of fine seed-pearl in distilled vinegar, and when it is perfectly dissolved, pour the vinegar into a clean basin; then drop some oil of tartar upon it, and it will cast down the pearl into fine powder; then pour the vinegar clean off softly; put to the pearl clear conduit or spring water; pour that off, and do so often until the taste of the vinegar and tartar be clean gone; then dry the powder of pearl upon warm embers, and keep it for your use.[^[370]]

Through their composition of carbonate of lime, pearls possibly possess some slight therapeutic value, which, however, can easily be supplied by other materials—as the shell, for instance—and is entirely out of proportion to their market value as ornaments.

Although pearls have lost their therapeutic prestige and no longer have a recognized place in materia medica, their healing qualities are not to be denied, for there are few ills to which women are subject that cannot be bettered or at least endured with greater patience when the sufferer receives a gift of pearls; the truth of which any doubting Thomas may easily verify in his own household to the limit of his purse-strings.

Owing to their beauty and great value, pearls have been deemed particularly appropriate as a sacrifice in enriching a drink for a toast or tribute. Shakspere alludes to this in the words of King Claudius, the pearl being frequently designated union in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries:

The king shall drink to Hamlet’s better breath;

And in the cup an union shall he throw,

Richer than that which four successive kings

In Denmark’s crown have worn.[^[371]]

It is stated that a pearl worth £15,000 was reduced to powder and drunk by Sir Thomas Gresham, the English merchant, in the presence of the Spanish ambassador, as a tribute to Queen Elizabeth, by whom he had been knighted.[^[372]]

The most celebrated instance of enriching a drink with a pearl was doubtless Cleopatra’s tribute to Antony, Pliny’s account of which we give in the words of old Philemon Holland:

This princesse, when M. Antonius had strained himselfe to doe her all the pleasure he possibly could, and had feasted her day by day most sumptuously, and spared for no cost: in the hight of her pride and wanton braverie (as being a noble courtezan, and a queene withall) began to debase the expense and provision of Antonie, and made no reckoning of all his costly fare. When he thereat demanded againe how it was possible to goe beyond this magnificence of his, she answered againe, that she would spend upon him at one supper ten million Sestertij. Antonie laid a great wager with her about it, and shee bound it againe, and made it good. The morrow after, Cleopatra made Antonie a supper which was sumptuous and roiall ynough: howbeit, there was no extraordinarie service seene upon the board: whereat Antonius laughed her to scorne, and by way of mockerie required to see a bill with the account of the particulars. She again said, that whatsoever had been served up alreadie was but the overplus above the rate and proportion in question, affirming still that she would yet in that supper make up the full summe that she was seazed at: yea, herselfe alone would eat above that reckoning, and her owne supper should cost 60 million Sestertij: and with that commanded the second service to be brought in. The servitors set before her one only crewet of sharpe vineger, the strength whereof is able to resolve pearles. Now she had at her eares hanging these two most precious pearles, the singular and only jewels of the world, and even Natures wonder. As Antonie looked wistly upon her, shee tooke one of them from her eare, steeped it in the vineger, and so soon as it was liquified, dranke it off. And as she was about to doe the like by the other, L. Plancius the judge of that wager, laid fast hold upon it with his hand, and pronounced withal, that Antonie had lost the wager.[^[373]]

Elsewhere has been set forth the impracticability of dissolving a pearl in a glass of vinegar without first pulverizing it.[^[374]] It seems probable that if Pliny’s interesting story has any foundation, Cleopatra might have swallowed a solid pearl in a glass of wine—certainly a more pleasing draught as well as a more graphic sacrifice; and we should accept its reported value with a grain of salt, for it would scarcely have been safe for the court gossip to belittle the value of this tribute of love.

Pliny, and other Roman writers, mention another instance, that of Clodius “the sonne of Aesope the Tragedian Poet,” who took two pearls of great price “in a braverie, and to know what tast pearles had, mortified them in venegre, and drunke them up. And finding them to content his palat wondrous well, because he would not have all the pleasure by himselfe, and know the goodnesse thereof alone, he gave to every guest at his table one pearle apeece to drinke in like manner.”[^[375]] The chronicler fails to tell what the guests thought of the flavor of pearls, or whether some would not have preferred them for a more appropriate use.

XIII

VALUES AND COMMERCE OF PEARLS

XIII
VALUES AND COMMERCE OF PEARLS

A pearl,

Whose price hath launch’d above a thousand ships,

And turn’d crown’d kings to merchants.

Troilus and Cressida, Act II, sc. 2.

To trace the markets of the pearl is to trace the routes of commerce from early times. The first routes from the Far East seem to have been two: one by the Persian Gulf and the Euphrates to Babylonia and Assyria, and thence by caravan through Damascus to Tyre and Sidon; the other by the Red Sea and Suez to Egypt. As regards the former route, Sir George Birdwood furnishes positive evidence that the Phenicians visited India as early as 2200 B.C. It seems highly probable that pearls were introduced by this route at an early period, although it is difficult to find material proof of the fact.

By means of this commerce, the great ancient civilizations of Phenicia, Mesapotamia and the Nile valley doubtless became familiar with the gem treasures of eastern Asia. Then came the opening of the Mediterranean with first “the great Sidon,” and later Tyre, as the starting-points of commerce, exploration, and colonial settlement among the islands and on the shores of what, to the Asiatic peoples, was the great western sea. However, as the Greek islands and their colonies developed, the Phenicians were more strictly confined to the coasts of Africa and Spain. Gades, Tartessus, and Carthage were their great colonies and trading-ports, and their adventurous sailors passed on through the Straits of Gibraltar and directed their course northward to the British Isles, where they very probably obtained the pearls of the Scotch rivers.

Meanwhile, the campaigns of Alexander had carried Greek influence and authority over all western Asia, reaching even to India itself, and had led to a widely increased intercourse. Although he died at the age of thirty-two, Alexander the Great did more than any single individual in the world’s history to bring the nations of the Eastern and the Western worlds into contact with each other, and it is certainly due to this circumstance that we find much greater evidences of the use of pearls in the western countries after his time. Besides this, the founding of Alexandria provided a mart, in whose bazaars the traders of India, Persia, and Arabia bartered their treasured gems, just as their descendants do in the same place at the present day.

It was not, however, until the establishment of the Roman empire that this commercial intercourse reached its highest development. The Romans, with their marvelous capacity for organization, were the first to build a great system of permanent and well-kept roads to facilitate land travel and land traffic. These great roads, starting from the Forum, reached out in every direction, even to the limits of the empire; and, as a result of increased commercial activity, more gems were engraved, mounted, and set during the five hundred years of Rome’s commercial supremacy than during any other early epoch of the world’s history.

In Rome, the trade in pearls was so important that there was a corporation of “margaritarii.” The officinæ margaritariorum were installed in the Forum, in the neighborhood of the tabernae argentariæ; some were also on the Via Sacra.[^[376]] However, the name margaritarius did not only apply to the jewelers, merchants, and setters of pearls, but also to those who fished for them and to the guardians of the gems and jewels wherein pearls were used.

With the fall of the Western empire, the Dark Ages settled down like a cloud over Europe for five hundred years. Only among the Saracens and at Byzantium did the culture of the old civilization survive, and eventually the light of knowledge and of progress was rekindled from these sources. The Crusades were the chief factors in this new development; they gave a mighty stimulus, by means of which Europe was aroused from her lethargy and once more brought into contact with the Orient. Venice and Genoa now became the great carriers, and from this time, and to this source, may be traced many of the oriental gems in Europe. The Venetian fleet of three hundred merchant ships brought the products of the East and distributed them over Europe, by way of the German cities of Augsburg and Nuremberg, where the great jewelers and silversmiths made world-famed ornaments.

PECTORAL CROSS OF CONSTANTINE IX. MONOMACHUS (1000–1054 A.D.)
Containing some wood attributed to the true cross.

When Constantinople fell into the hands of the Turks, the treasures of the Eastern empire were scattered throughout Europe; but, at the same time, the establishment of the Turkish empire served to close the way to India and the far East for the merchants and travelers of Europe, and, hence, new means of access had to be sought by sea. This, as is well known, was the cause of the voyages of De Gama and Columbus. The unexpected result of these voyages—the discovery of a new continent—ushered in the wonderful period of Spanish and Portuguese development and their colonization of both the East and the West Indies; and to this epoch belongs the introduction of American pearls to the markets of Europe. The gradual decline of the power of Spain and Portugal—largely owing to bigotry and to the reckless exploitation of the regions under their control—brings us to the beginning of the present phase of commercial intercourse in which all the nations of the civilized world are engaged in varying proportion, according to their power and aptitude. Never before have the different regions of the earth been more closely in touch with each other, and we may safely say that nothing is likely to occur which can permanently interrupt the progressive development of the world’s commerce.

With the various means of transportation and locomotion that have existed in the past twenty-three or twenty-four centuries, there is no doubt that the commerce of pearls has varied more or less, but there has ever been, in some part of the world, a great potentate, a great collector or dealer who has influenced the finest gems to gravitate his way. Never has there been a time when some person was not prepared to encourage—and to richly encourage—the sale of fine jewels to him. The history of the commerce of precious stones is a history of travel and exploration, of hardship, pleasure, reward, and sometimes of serious disappointment.

The lesson we derive from these decorative objects of natural beauty and softness—treasured alike by savage, barbarian, ancient warrior, statesman, king, emperor, peasant, bourgeois, magyar, lady, and queen—always carries with it the moral that the gifts of creation are ever prized by some one in every age or place.

The necessary qualifications affecting the value of a pearl are: first, that it should be perfectly round, pear-shaped, drop-shaped, egg-shaped, or button-shaped, and as even in form as though it were turned on a lathe. It must have a perfectly clear skin, and a decided color or tint, whether white, pink, creamy, gray, brown or black. If white, it must not have a cloud or a blur or haze, nor should the skin have the slightest appearance of being opaque or dead. It must be absolutely free from all cracks, scratches, spots, flaws, indentations, shadowy reflections or blemishes of any kind. It must possess the peculiar luster or orient characteristic of the gem. The skin must be unbroken, and not show any evidence of having been polished.

Diamonds and the more valuable precious stones generally are bought and sold by the weight called a carat. This carat, whatever its precise value, is always considered as divisible into four diamond or pearl grains, but the subdivisions of the carat are usually expressed by the vulgar fractions, one fourth, one eighth, one twelfth, one sixteenth, one twenty-fourth, one thirty-second, and one sixty-fourth. The origin of the carat is to be sought in certain small, hard, leguminous seeds, which, when dried, remain constant in weight. The brilliant, glossy, scarlet-and-black seed of Abrus precatorius constitutes the Indian rati, about three grains; the Adenanthera pavonina seed weighs about four grains. The seed of the locust-tree, Ceratonia siliqua, weighs on the average three and one sixth grains, and constitutes, no doubt, the true origin of the carat.

Another[^[377]] of the more notable of these weight-units used for precious stones and precious metals is the candarin, condorine, or cantarai, also termed by the Chinese fun or fan, and by the south Indians a fanam, and used all over the Indo-Chinese archipelago. This is by origin a large lentil or pea of a pinkish color dotted with black, about double the size of the gonj, and possessing the same quality of very slight variability of weight when dried. It is probably a variety of the same botanic genus or species as the Abrus precatorius. The value when reduced to absolute standard became a subsidiary part or submultiple of the weight of some local coin, rupee, or pagoda, or a decimal fraction of some local tchen, as in China and Japan.

The following derivation of the word carat is given by Grimm: “Carat. Italian: carato; French: carat; Spanish and Portuguese: quilate; Old Portuguese: quirate, from Arabic qirat, and this from the Greek, κεράτιον.”[^[378]]

The carat is not absolutely of the same value in all countries. Its weight, as used for weighing the diamond, pearl, and other gemstones in different parts of the world, is given in decimals of a gram, by the majority of the authorities, as follows:

	Grams	In Grains Troy
Indian (Madras)	.2073533	3.199948
Austrian (Vienna)	.20613+	3.18107+
German (Frankfort)	.20577+	3.175514
Brazil and Portugal	.20575+	3.175206
France	.2055+	3.171347
England	.205409	3.169943
Spain	.205393	3.169696
Holland	.205044	3.16431+

	Pearl Grains in Grams	In Grains Troy
Indian (Madras)	.0518383	.799987
Austrian (Vienna)	.05153+	.79526+
German (Frankfort)	.05144+	.793878
Brazil and Portugal	.05143+	.793801
France	.051375	.792836
England	.051352	.792485
Spain	.051348	.792424
Holland	.051261	.791077

Assuming that the gram corresponds to 15.43235 English grains, an English diamond carat will nearly equal 3.17 grains. It is, however, spoken of as being equal to four grains, the grains meant being “diamond” or “pearl” grains, and not ordinary troy or avoirdupois grains. Thus a diamond or pearl grain is but .7925 of a true grain. In an English troy ounce of 480 grains there are 151½ carats; and so it will be seen that a carat is not indeed quite 3.17 grains, but something like 3.1683168 grains, or less exactly, 3.168 grains. Further, if we accept the equivalent in grains of one gram to be, as stated above, 15.43235, and if there be 151½ carats in a troy ounce of 480 grains, it will follow that an English diamond carat is .205304 of a gram, not .205409, as commonly affirmed. The following exact equivalents, in metric grams and grains troy, of the diamond carat as used in different parts of the world in 1882, are given by Mr. Lowis d’A. Jackson:

DIAMOND CARATS
	Grams	Grains Troy
Turin	.2135	3.29480
Persia	.2095	3.23307
Venice	.2071	3.19603
Austro-Hungary	.2061	3.18060
France (old)	.2059	3.17752
France (later)	.2055	3.17135
France (modern)	.2050	3.16363
Portugal	.2058	3.17597
Frankfort and Hamburg	.2058	3.17597
Germany	.2055	3.17135
East Indies	.2055	3.17135
England and British India	.2053	3.16826
Belgium (Antwerp)	.2053	3.16826
Russia	.2051	3.16517
Holland	.2051	3.16517
Turkey	.2005	3.09418
Spain	.1999	3.08492
Java and Borneo	.1969	3.03862
Florence	.1965	3.03245
Arabia	.1944	3.00004
Brazil	.1922	2.96610
Egypt	.1917	2.95838
Bologna	.1886	2.91054
International carat	.2050	3.16363
Proposed new international carat	.2000	3.08647

Recalculating the above figures into pearl grains we have:

PEARL GRAINS
	Grams	Grains Troy
Turin	.053375	.823700
Persia	.052375	.808267
Venice	.051775	.799007
Austro-Hungary	.051525	.795150
France (old)	.051475	.794380
France (later)	.051375	.792837
France (modern)	.051250	.790907
Portugal	.051450	.793902
Frankfort and Hamburg	.051450	.793992
Germany	.051375	.792837
East Indies	.051375	.792837
England and British India	.051325	.792065
Belgium (Antwerp)	.051325	.792065
Russia	.051275	.791292
Holland	.051275	.791292
Turkey	.050125	.773545
Spain	.049975	.771230
Java and Borneo	.049225	.759655
Florence	.049125	.758112
Arabia	.048600	.750010
Brazil	.048050	.741522
Egypt	.047925	.739595
Bologna	.047150	.727635
International	.051250	.790907
Proposed International	.050000	.771617

With the present system of diamond carats and pearl grains it is necessary to keep two entirely different sets of weights or to resort to troublesome calculations. The stock-book of a jeweler, at the present time, will contain the following fractions, expressing the weight of a single pearl: ½, ¼, ⅛, ¹⁄₁₆, ¹⁄₃₂, ¹⁄₆₄, when the weight could be much better stated as ⁶3⁄₆₄ of a carat. It requires but a glance to see how much easier this would be. Certain dealers have therefore proposed the use of sets of fractions arranged in a similar way. In this manner a stock-book can be kept much more easily and with greater precision. Others, again, have adopted a decimal notation of the fractions of a carat, which is even more simple and feasible, since the common fractions ½, ¼, ⅛, etc. can be expressed as .5, .25, .125, etc., of a carat, this being either a carat of .2053 of a gram or the English carat of .20534 of a gram.

On the other hand, an agreement was arrived at, as the result of a conference between the diamond merchants of London, Paris, and Amsterdam, by which the uniform weight of a diamond carat was fixed at .205 of a gram, making the pearl grain .05125 of a gram. This standard, which was suggested in 1871, by a syndicate of Parisian jewelers, goldsmiths, and others dealing in precious stones, was subsequently (1877) confirmed. But there is still a lack of uniformity in the standard by which diamonds and pearls are bought and sold, and very serious discrepancies exist in the sets of carat weights turned out by different makers, although the international carat is almost universally used.

At the International Congress of Weights and Measures held at the World’s Fair at Chicago in 1893, the writer suggested that the carat should consist of 200 milligrams, so that ½ of a carat would be 100 milligrams and ¼ of a grain would be 12.5 milligrams. This would mean 5 carats or 20 grains to a French gram, and 5000 carats or 20,000 pearl grains to a French kilogram. This would depreciate the present diamond carat or pearl grain only about one per cent., and it would do away with the needless series of carats and grains of the many nationalities. It could be simply explained to any private individual in any country, especially as there are only two countries which do not use the metric system.

This carat has been earnestly indorsed, its introduction advocated, and its merits clearly shown, by M. Guilliame, of the French Bureau des Arts et Metiers, whose energetic work has found a reasonable cooperation, in this country as well as in Europe, in introducing what will be a scientific, logical, comprehensive, and possibly the final and international carat; and any ancient, obsolete, or foreign carat can be readily reduced to this carat once the metric value of the former is computed.

The Association of Diamond Merchants of Amsterdam has already, to avoid confusion, fixed the value of the carat (17th October, 1890) at 1 kilogram = 4875 carats, or 1 carat = 3.16561 grains troy = 205.128 mg. One pearl grain = .7914 grains troy = 51.282 mg.; but the association has decided that, in case of litigation, these values shall be determined by appointed bureaus, which would express them in grams and milligrams, a most important and valuable decision, as the gram and the milligram will always be known as weights of constant value.

In view of the difficulty of inducing the abolition of the carat in different countries, the German Federation of Jewelers decided to petition the imperial government for authority to use the carat, in order that it might be legally recognized. Such a proposition not being in accord with the German laws in force on the subject of the metric system, it was proposed to substitute for the carats then in use one carat only, weighing two hundred milligrams. This proposal was very favorably received in trade circles and may be taken into consideration by the International Committee of Weights and Measures. The Commission des Instruments et Travaux, to which this proposition was referred, recommended its adoption to the committee in the following terms:

“The Commission recognizes that it would be very desirable that the unit of weight of precious stones (the carat) which varies in different countries, should be made uniform, and should be reduced to the nearest metric equivalent. The weight of 200 mg., which is very close to the carat most in use (205.5 mg.), would seem to be the best for this purpose. The Commission believes that there can be no objection to this standard of 200 mg. being called ‘the metric carat’ in order to facilitate the abolition of the old carat.”

This proposition, adopted at the meeting of the International Committee on the 13th of April, was communicated to the more important associations. The Chambre Syndicale de la Bijouterie, Joaillerie et Orfèvrerie de Paris, and the Chambre Syndicale des Négotiants en Diamants, Perles, Pierres Précieuses et des Lapidaires de Paris assured the committee of their support of this measure.

The following is the text of the resolution which was passed by both the above associations in January, 1906:

“The Council, recognizing the advantages which would result to the international trade in precious stones from the use of a unit based on the metric system, desires that the metric carat of 200 mg. be universally adopted.”

The German Federation of Jewelers passed the following resolution in August, 1906:

“The German Federation considers that it is both necessary and advantageous to replace the old carat by the metric carat of 200 mg.; it authorizes its president to approach the imperial government and the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, and the foreign associations in order that the metric carat may be introduced as soon as possible in all countries.”

The Chamber of Commerce of Antwerp promised, in a letter dated the 7th of December, 1906, to rescind a decision of 29th of April, 1895, approving the adoption of a carat of 205.3 mg., when the metric carat of 200 mg. should come into universal use in the markets.

The Association of Jewelers and Goldsmiths of Prague formally authorized the German Federation to act in its name, in order that the reform should come about as soon as possible by international agreement, and the Association of Goldsmiths of Copenhagen has declared its willingness to support the reform. The Committee of Weights and Measures in Belgium prepared a law for the adoption of the metric carat in December, 1906.

Mr. Larking, president of the Chamber of Commerce of Melbourne, Australia, has transmitted by letter of September 16, 1907, the following resolution of the Association of Manufacturing Jewelers of the Colony of Victoria:

“It is desirable that the carat weight should be the same in all countries, and our association approves a metric carat of 200 milligrams.”

On October 16, 1907, the Association of Societies for the Protection of Commerce in the United Kingdom passed the following resolution:

“The Committee of the Association approves the attempt to urge the adoption in all countries of an international carat of 200 milligrams, and hopes that, in the interest of the unification of weights, it will prove successful.”

The fourth General Conference of Weights and Measures, held in Paris in October, 1907, passed this resolution:

“The Conference approves the proposition of the International Committee and declares that it sees no infringement of the integrity of the metric system in the adoption of the appellation ‘metric carat’ to designate a weight of 200 milligrams for the commerce in diamonds, pearls, and precious stones.”[^[379]]

The following resolution was passed by The Birmingham Jewelers’ and Silversmiths’ Association, January 23, 1908: “That the best thanks of this Committee be conveyed to the Decimal Association for the good work they are doing, and this Committee expresses the hope that all countries will adopt an International Carat of 200 milligrams in weight.” Finally, on March 11, 1908, the metric carat of 200 milligrams was adopted in Spain as the official carat for diamonds, pearls, and precious stones.

Pearls have become of so much importance to so many dealers that a special form of weight has been proposed for them. This would have a diamond form and not a square form, and it would be stamped “Grain” instead of “Carat.” Another set would be stamped in milligrams, the regular milligram weight with the pearl fraction above it, and they could even be made round so as better to designate the pearl.

The great value of pearls has suggested the making of a gage, called the Kunz gage, by means of which round pearls can be very accurately measured. Pearls of a given weight and perfectly spherical form have been weighed and then measured by this gage, and the theoretical diameters as computed from the measurement of a single pearl are in the majority of instances in exact accord with these actual measurements, the occasional variations in the smaller pearls barely exceeding the thousandth part of an inch. These discrepancies may be due to imperceptible divergencies in sphericity or, possibly, to trifling differences in specific gravity.

The following table gives the diameters of round pearls by measurement, from ¹⁄₁₆ to 500 grains, in millimeters and inches:

Weight Grains	Diameter Millimeters	Inches
1⁄16	1.3	.0512
⅛	1.66	.0653
¼	2.09	.0823
½	2.65	.1043
¾	2.99	.1187
1	3.32	.1307
1¼	3.60	.1417
1½	3.80	.1496
1¾	3.98	.1567
2	4.18	.1645
2¼	4.32	.1701
2½	4.47	.1759
2¾	4.63	.1823
3	4.80	.1889
3¼	4.88	.1921
3½	5.01	.1972
3¾	5.17	.2035
4	5.23	.2058
4¼	5.44	.2141
5	5.65	.2224
5½	5.86	.2283
6	6.03	.2374
6½	6.20	.2442
7	6.36	.2504
8	6.64	.2614
9	6.90	.2716
10	7.15	.2815
11	7.38	.2905
12	7.60	.2992
13	7.81	.3074
14	8.00	.3149
15	8.18	.3220
16	8.36	.3291
17	8.53	.3358
18	8.70	.3425
19	8.86	.3488
20	9.01	.3547
25	9.71	.3823
30	10.31	.4059
35	10.86	.4275
40	11.35	.4468
45	11.82	.4653
50	12.23	.4815
60	13.00	.5118
70	13.38	.5386
80	14.30	.5630
90	14.89	.5862
100	15.42	.6071
125	16.60	.6535
150	17.63	.6941
200	19.41	.7641
300	22.22	.8748
400	24.46	.9630
500	26.35	1.0374

The new and finer analytical balances weigh to the tenth part of a milligram, the two thousandth part of a carat, the five hundredth part of a grain; but this is not necessary. If the 200–milligram carat were used, the two hundredth part of a carat could readily be ascertained, and then a short-beam, rapid-weighing balance would answer every purpose and save much time for the dealer who must make many weighings in the course of a day. In an office where thousands of weighings were made in a month, the task was accomplished with such minute accuracy that the margin of error did not exceed one carat during that time.

The mina, the sixtieth part of the lesser Alexandrian talent of silver, was divided by the Romans, when they occupied Egypt, into twelve ounces (unciae), and, weighing as it did 5460 grains, it became the predecessor of the European pounds of which the troy pound is a type. If we may believe a Syrian authority, Anania of Shiraz, who wrote in the sixth century, the carat or diamond weight was originally formed from one of these ounces by taking the ¹⁄₁₄₄ part.[^[380]]

We find in Murray[^[381]] that the Greek κεράτιον was originally identical with the Latin siliqua, and was called the siliqua Graeca. As a measure of weight and fineness the carat represents the Roman siliqua as ¹⁄₂₄ of the golden solidus of Constantine, which was ⅙ of an ounce, hence the various values into which ¹⁄₂₄ and ¹⁄₁₄₄ enter, or originally entered. As a measure of weight for diamonds and precious stones, it was originally ¹⁄₁₄₄ of an ounce or 3⅓ grains. It is stated in Hakluyt (Voy. II, pp. 1, 225, 1598): “Those pearls are praised according to the caracts which they weigh; every caract is four graines.”

There have been at all times men who possessed a delicate touch or a fine sense of feeling, but probably few men are living to-day who would be able to accomplish the feat attributed to Julius Cæsar, namely, that of estimating the weight of a pearl by simply holding it in his hand. There are very few who can tell the weight of a pearl in this way, and while the story may be historically interesting, it is rather dubious.

To attempt to formulate a list of prices, comparative or otherwise, of pearls, is almost an impossibility, as probably no two authors of the past three centuries have ever seen the same lot of pearls, nor have their estimates always been the same as to quality, rarity and value.

As interesting statistics from an historical point of view, there will be presented here a list of the values of pearls dating back some ten centuries. That there always has existed a higher valuation for the larger pearls, which are the rarest, will readily be apparent, but that the correct value of a pearl of one, ten, twenty or fifty grains be definitely given for the years 1602, 1702, 1802, or 1902 is an impossibility. However, we believe this to be the first attempt to present so large a body of carefully selected quotations, and they are given to the reader, whether he be layman or professional, for what they are worth.

In regard to the smaller pearls, as is the case with the smaller diamonds, prices have been dependent upon the changes of fashion; that is, whether the prevailing style of jewelry was such that the smaller pearl or diamond was in demand. In other words, if they were used as a decoration forming a border, a flower, a scroll ornament, or a pave requiring many small gems, the demand naturally increased and the prices were higher or lower as the occasion required.

It is not the project of this book to fix the prices of pearls at the present time, for any such attempt would prove misleading, owing to the fact that pearls vary in the estimation of the different dealers, and a figure given here for the highest standard, if applied to an inferior grade, would necessarily mislead the buyer to his positive injury. This much, however, can be said: during the year 1907 pearls from five grains upward have been sold according to their quality, at a base of five, eight, ten, fifteen, or even twenty dollars in very exceptional cases; that is to say, twenty, thirty-two, forty, sixty, or eighty shillings, or twenty-five, forty, fifty, seventy-five or one hundred francs. Nevertheless, it would be impossible, without considerable experience, for a layman to apply these valuations to objects that require much practice in determining their quality and perfection.

With diamonds, rubies, and emeralds there may be a stated price per carat for stones of a certain size, but a gem of unusual perfection or brilliancy, or of exceptionally fine color, will often command a price far beyond that generally quoted. It is the same with the pearl. Sums which may seem exorbitant in comparison with those that are paid for ordinary pearls, are often given for specimens remarkable for their beauty, size, or luster.

Pearls of one hundred grains are even more rare at the present time than are diamonds of one hundred carats. Until the middle of the nineteenth century, the diamonds of the world weighing one hundred carats or over could be counted on the fingers, but since the opening of the African mines in 1870, the number of large diamonds has increased at a much greater ratio than have the pearls of one quarter of their weight. It would thus seem that pearls of great size are worth four times as much as diamonds of equal weight. For instance, a 100–carat diamond of the finest quality would be worth at least from $1000 to $1500 a carat, making a total value of $100,000 to $150,000; and a pearl of 100 grains at a base of $10 would be worth $100,000. But no such high price has ever been paid.

The usual method of estimating the value of pearls is by establishing a base value for those weighing one grain and then multiplying this amount by the square of the number of grains that the pearl weighs. For instance, if the base value of a one-grain pearl should be fixed at $1, a pearl weighing two grains would be worth $4 (2 × 2 = 4), or $2 per grain; one weighing five grains would be worth $25, or $5 per grain, etc. Naturally, these values increase in proportion to the increase in the value of the base. A base of $3 would give a value of $75 for a five-grain pearl, or $15 per grain, while a $10 base would make the value $50 per grain, or $250.

This method of estimating pearls by squaring their weights has been credited by many authors to David Jeffries, who published an interesting treatise on diamonds and pearls in 1750–1753. It has also been credited to Tavernier, the oriental traveler of the middle of the seventeenth century. We have, however, traced this method back to Anselmus de Boot, in his treatise on precious stones, dated 1609. Before this date we have not been able to find any mention of the computation of the value of diamonds and pearls by squaring their weight and multiplying the product by a base of a franc, guilder, crown, dollar, or of many dollars, as would be necessary at present. It is probable, however, that this system is of oriental origin and it may have come to Europe through some of the oriental traders, with the precious stones, as did the use of the carat.

De Boot makes the carat (four grains) his unit of comparison, increasing his base value by one third for pearls weighing eleven carats (forty-four grains) or over. In Pio Naldi’s treatise, published in Bologna in 1791, the unit is the grain, the base being the fourth part of the value of four pearls weighing together one carat. Naldi, also, increases his base value making it 1½ lire ($.30) for pearls weighing less than ten grains, and 2½ lire ($.50) for those weighing twenty grains and upward.

A curious method of valuing pearls by their weight is shown in a treatise by Buteo, published in 1554.[^[382]] The writer states that a pearl weighing two carats was valued at 5 gold crowns; one of four carats at 25 crowns; and so on, the price increasing fivefold when the weight was doubled. The intermediate figures were obtained by computing the proportional mean of any two known weights and values. For example: 8 × 4 = 32, the square root of which is 5.656. Now, the value of a four-carat pearl is 25 and that of an eight-carat pearl 125 crowns, and 125 × 25 = 3125, the square root being 55.9; hence a pearl weighing 5.656 carats was worth 55.9 crowns.

The base value of a necklace can be determined in the following way. Should the center pearl weigh 25 grains, multiply 25 by 25; the result is 625; then, take the next two, three, or four pearls, as many as are of approximately the same weight, add their weights together, multiply the resulting figure by itself and divide the product by the number of pearls in the group. Proceed in exactly the same way with the remainder of the necklace, always grouping the pearls so that there shall not be a considerable difference in weight between the smallest and the largest pearl, and then add together the figures obtained for the center pearl and for the various groups and divide the price of the necklace by this total; the quotient will represent the multiple or base.

As may be seen by comparison of the first with the second and third of the accompanying tables, the result arrived at in this way will, if there is any difference in the weight of the pearls in the various groups, vary slightly from that obtained by calculating the weight of each pearl separately, but it represents a satisfactory approximation.

NECKLACE OF 41 GRADUATED PEARLS ON A $10 BASE
1	pearl, weighing 25	grs.	25	× 25				625.000
2	pearls, each of 22	grs.	44	× 44		1936	÷ 2 =	968.000
2	pearls, each of 20	grs.	40	× 40		1600	÷ 2 =	800.000
2	pearls, each of 19	grs.	38	× 38		1444	÷ 2 =	722.000
2	pearls, each of 18	grs.	36	× 36		1296	÷ 2 =	648.000
2	pearls, each of 17½	grs.	35	× 35		1225	÷ 2 =	612.500
2	pearls, each of 17	grs.	34	× 34		1156	÷ 2 =	578.000
2	pearls, each of 16½	grs.	33	× 33		1089	÷ 2 =	544.500
2	pearls, each of 16	grs.	32	× 32		1024	÷ 2 =	512.000
2	pearls, each of 15½	grs.	31	× 31		961	÷ 2 =	480.500
2	pearls, each of 15	grs.	30	× 30		900	÷ 2 =	450.000
2	pearls, each of 14½	grs.	29	× 29		841	÷ 2 =	420.500
2	pearls, each of 14	grs.	28	× 28		784	÷ 2 =	392.000
2	pearls, each of 13½	grs.	27	× 27		729	÷ 2 =	364.500
2	pearls, each of 13	grs.	26	× 26		676	÷ 2 =	338.000
2	pearls, each of 12½	grs.	25	× 25		625	÷ 2 =	312.500
2	pearls, each of 12	grs.	24	× 24		576	÷ 2 =	288.000
2	pearls, each of 11½	grs.	23	× 23		529	÷ 2 =	264.500
2	pearls, each of 11	grs.	22	× 22		484	÷ 2 =	242.000
2	pearls, each of 10¾	grs.	21½	× 21½		462¼	÷ 2 =	231.125
2	pearls, each of 10¼	grs.	20½	× 20½		420¼	÷ 2 =	210.125
41			624				10,003.750
$10 × 10,003.75 = $100,037.50

THE SAME NECKLACE FIGURED IN GROUPS
1 pearl, weighing	25	grs. 25 × 25 =		625.00
2 pearls, total weight	44	grs. 44 × 44 =	1936 ÷ 2 =	968.00
4 pearls, total weight	78	grs. 78 × 78 =	6084 ÷ 4 =	1521.00
4 pearls, total weight	71	grs. 71 × 71 =	5041 ÷ 4 =	1260.25
6 pearls, total weight	99	grs. 99 × 99 =	9801 ÷ 6 =	1633.50
6 pearls, total weight	90	grs. 90 × 90 =	8100 ÷ 6 =	1350.00
6 pearls, total weight	81	grs. 81 × 81 =	6561 ÷ 6 =	1093.50
6 pearls, total weight	72	grs. 72 × 72 =	5184 ÷ 6 =	864.00
6 pearls, total weight	64	grs. 64 × 64 =	4096 ÷ 6 =	682.67
	624			9997.92
$10 × 9997.92 = $99,979.20

GREAT PEARL NECKLACE OF THE FRENCH CROWN JEWELS
Composed of 362 pearls, weighing 58.8 grains. Actual size. Worn by Empress Eugenia

On a $5 base this necklace would be worth $50,018.75 according to the first reckoning, and $49,989.60 according to the second; on a base of $2.50 the figures would be $25,009.37 and $24,994.80 respectively.

THE SAME NECKLACE FIGURED IN OTHER GROUPS
1	pearl, weighing	25	grs.	25 ×	25 =				625.00
4	pearls, total weight	84	grs.	84 ×	84 =	7056	÷	4 =	1764.00
6	pearls, total weight	109	grs.	109 ×	109 =	11881	÷	6 =	1980.16
6	pearls, total weight	99	grs.	99 ×	99 =	9801	÷	6 =	1633.50
6	pearls, total weight	90	grs.	90 ×	90 =	8100	÷	6 =	1350.00
8	pearls, total weight	106	grs.	106 ×	106 =	11236	÷	8 =	1404.50
10	pearls, total weight	111	grs.	111 ×	111 =	12321	÷	10 =	1232.10
		624							9989.26
$10 × 9989.26 = $99,892.60

On a $5 base this would represent a value of $49,946.30 and one of $24,973.15 on a base of $2.50. The different grouping of the pearls accounts for the slight reduction in value.

A system of estimating the value of pearls which has recently been introduced into Germany, is an adaptation of the ordinary method of squaring the number of grains and then multiplying the result by a certain base figure. The pearls are first grouped according to quality and size, and a figure is agreed upon as the multiplicator of each class. In Germany the carat is employed as the weight unit for pearls as well as for diamonds, and in this new system the total weight of a given number of pearls of the same class is first reduced to grains; the number of grains is then multiplied by four and the quotient is multiplied by the figure agreed upon. The resulting sum, after being divided by the number of pearls, gives the carat value of such pearls. For example, if the base figure agreed upon is 5, and we wish to find the carat worth of 4 pearls of similar size, weighing together 3¹4⁄₆₄ carats, the sum would be as follows:

206 × 4 × 4 × 5
	= 64.37
64 × 4

At this rate per carat, reckoning in marks, the value of the 3¹4⁄₆₄ carats would be 207.20 marks. This result is identical with that obtained by the ordinary method, but the calculation is perhaps a trifle simplified.[^[383]]

A curious Hindu treatise on gems has been preserved for us in the Brhatsamhitâ of Varâhamihira (505–587 A.D.). It is the earliest work of this kind that we have in Sanskrit, and M. Louis Finot,[^[384]] who has published it, together with several other similar treatises, believes that it was based upon an original composed at a much earlier period. In his introduction M. Finot says: “It would be an error to regard the ratnaçastra [treatise on gems] as a simple manual for the use of jewelers. Without doubt this subject formed one of the principal branches of commercial instruction, ... but it was also taught to princes and it is for their use that the ratnaçastras we publish seem to have been composed.”

This treatise only describes four gems, although a larger number are enumerated. These gems are the diamond, the pearl, the ruby, and the emerald. One of the most interesting portions is that treating of the valuation of pearls. The system described is peculiar, and, unfortunately, there is some difficulty in finding an absolutely correct equivalent for the values expressed.

A price is first placed upon a pearl weighing 4 mâsakas (about 45 grains). This is estimated at 5300 kârsâpanas (about $1600). As the weight diminishes the valuation decreases as follows:

4	mâsakas	5300 kârsâpanas
3½	mâsakas	3200 kârsâpanas
3	mâsakas	2000 kârsâpanas
2½	mâsakas	1300 kârsâpanas
2	mâsakas	800 kârsâpanas
1½	mâsakas	353 kârsâpanas
1	mâsakas	135 kârsâpanas
4	guñjas[[385]]	90 kârsâpanas
3	guñjas	50 kârsâpanas
2½	guñjas	35 kârsâpanas

Smaller pearls were grouped together in dharanas (one dharana = about 72 grains). If there were thirteen fine pearls in a dharana, they were valued at 325 rûpakas (about $100); the other values were as follows:

16 pearls in a dharana were worth	200 rûpakas
20 pearls in a dharana were worth	170 rûpakas
25 pearls in a dharana were worth	130 rûpakas
30 pearls in a dharana were worth	70 rûpakas
40 pearls in a dharana were worth	50 rûpakas
55–60 pearls in a dharana were worth	40 rûpakas
80 pearls in a dharana were worth	30 rûpakas
100 pearls in a dharana were worth	25 rûpakas
200 pearls in a dharana were worth	12 rûpakas
300 pearls in a dharana were worth	6 rûpakas
400 pearls in a dharana were worth	5 rûpakas
500 pearls in a dharana were worth	3 rûpakas

It would be extremely interesting if we could find at this early date (sixth century A.D.) an indication of the use of the system of computing the value of pearls by the square of their weight as expressed in some weight unit, and it is singular that the three valuations given for the weight in guñjas are graduated in accordance with this system. A pearl weighing 2½ guñjas and valued at 35 kârṣapâṇas would have a base value of 5.6 kârṣâpaṇas. Estimated at this ratio we would have the following figures:

3 guñjas	50.4 kârṣâpaṇas
4 guñjas	89.6 kârṣâpaṇas

Now, the values actually given are 50 and 90 kârṣâpaṇas, respectively, and these figures are easily obtained by rejecting the fraction that is less than one half and counting the fraction that is in excess of one half as a unit. After this, however, the progression becomes irregular. A pearl weighing 1 mâṣaka (5 guñjas) is valued at 135 kârṣâpaṇas, while the equivalent according to the system would be 140. However, it is possible that the writer may have changed this figure intentionally so as to add exactly one half to the preceding valuation (90 + 45 = 135). The succeeding values bear no relation to the system and appear to be entirely arbitrary. Still, it can scarcely be due to hazard that the first three figures are practically in exact accord with the system and the fourth in close approximation. As the change seems to come when the weight is expressed in mâṣakas instead of guñjas, we are tempted to think that the system may have been used for single pearls weighing less than twelve grains (1 mâṣaka = 11¼ grains), while the value of those over that weight was estimated in a different way.

In a much later Hindu treatise, by Buddhabhatta, after certain values have been given for pearls of the best quality, a pearl of this class is described as follows:

White, round, heavy, smooth, luminous, spotless, the pearl gifted with these qualities is called qualified (guṇavat). If it be yellow, it is worth half this price; if it be not round, a third; if flat or triangular, a sixth.[^[386]]

One of the earliest records we have of a system of prices for pearls is the treatise on precious stones written in the year 1265, by Ahmed ibn Yusuf al Teifashi, who was probably a native jeweler of Egypt. In his time pearls were sold in Bagdad in bunches of ten strings, each string comprising thirty-six pearls. If one of these strings weighed one sixth of a miskal (four carats or sixteen grains), the ten strings were valued at four dinars (about ten dollars). The values increased progressively as follows:[^[387]]

Average weight of each pearl	10 strings of 36 pearls, weight of each string		Value
Grains	Carats	Grains	Dinars	U. S. money
½	4	16	4	$10.00
⅔	6	24	5	12.50
1⅓	12	48	6	15.00
2	18	72	10	25.00
3⅓	30	120	15	37.50
4	36	144	20	50.00
4⅓	42	168	25	62.50
5⅓	48	192	35	87.50
6	54	216	40	100.00
7⅓	66	264	70	175.00
8	72	288	80	200.00
9⅓	84	336	110	275.00
10	90	360	150	375.00
10⅔	96	384	200	500.00
12	108	432	400	1000.00
12⅔	114	456	550	1375.00
13⅓	120	480	650	1625.00
14	126	504	750	1875.00
14⅔	132	528	800	2000.00
16	144	576	1000	2500.00
18⅔	168	672	1500	3750.00

Al Teifashi then proceeds to describe a pearl of the first quality; it must be “perfectly round in all its parts, colorless and gifted with a fine water. When a pearl possesses these requisites and weighs one miskal [24 carats or 96 grains] it is worth 300 dinars [$750]. If, however, a match is found for this pearl and each one weighs one miskal and has the same form, the two pearls together cost 700 dinars [$1750].” This writer also mentions that in the shops of the Arab jewelers, the pearl which exceeded the weight of a drachma (12 carats or 48 grains) even by one grain, was called dorra, while the name johar was used for that which did not reach the above weight.

In 1838, Feuchtwanger gave the price of a one-carat pearl as five dollars, and used this amount as the multiplier of the square of the weight; therefore, a four-carat pearl would cost four times four multiplied by five dollars, the value of the first carat; that is to say, a sixteen-grain (four-carat) pearl would have been worth eighty dollars in 1838, according to this computation.

THE SIAMESE PRINCE IN FULL REGALIA

In 1858, Barbot[^[388]] gave the value of pearls under ordinary conditions, but very indefinitely, as follows:

Grains	Carats	Francs per carat	U. S. currency
1	¼	4	$0.80
2	½	10	2.00
3	¾	25	5.00
4	1	50	10.00

Above four grains they sold by the piece, and below, by the ounce. Baroque pearls sold for 300 to 1000 francs per ounce. Seed-pearls, if quite round, were worth about 120 francs per ounce.

Emanuel[^[389]] gave the following table of prices for the pearl, reduced to United States currency:

Grains	1865	1867
3	$2.88— $3.84	$4.32— $4.80
4	5.28— 6.72	6.72— 8.40
5	8.40— 10.80	9.60— 12.00
6	13.20— 15.60	16.80— 19.20
8	21.60— 26.40	24.00— 28.80
10	38.40— 43.20	48.00— 52.80
12	57.60— 72.00	67.20— 76.80
14	72.00— 86.40	86.40— 96.00
16	96.00—144.00	96.00—144.00
18	144.00—192.00	144.00—192.00
20	192.00—240.00	192.00—240.00
24	288.00—345.60	288.00—345.60
30	384.00—480.00	384.00—480.00

The following values appear in the “Encyclopedia Hispano-Americana,” Barcelona, 1894, Vol. XV, p. 180 (Louis Dieulafait):

Grains	Value, 1865		Value, 1867
	Pesetas	U. S. currency	Pesetas	U. S. currency
3	17— 18	$3.40— $3.60	21— 23	$4.20— $4.60
4	25— 32	5.00— 6.40	32— 40	6.40— 8.00
5	41— 52	8.20— 10.40	46— 58	9.20— 11.60
6	64— 75	12.80— 15.00	81— 93	16.20— 18.60
8	104— 128	20.80— 25.60	116— 139	23.20— 27.80
10	202— 227	40.40— 45.40	252— 277	50.40— 55.40
12	302— 378	60.40— 75.60	352— 403	70.40— 80.60
14	378— 453	75.60— 90.60	455— 504	91.00—100.80
16	504— 756	100.80—151.20	504— 756	100.80—151.20
18	756—1005	151.20—201.00	756—1005	151.20—201.00
20	1005—1260	201.00—252.00	1005—1260	201.00—252.00
24	1512—1815	302.40—363.00	1512—1815	302.40—363.00
30	2117—2521	423.40—504.20	2117—2521	423.40—504.20

COMPARATIVE STATEMENT SHOWING THE VALUES OF PEARLS AT STATED TIMES
Weight	1609[[390]]		1672[[391]]	1675[[392]]		1751[[393]]		1774[[394]]		1791[[395]]
Grains	Thal.	Kreutz.	Livres	£	s	£	s	£	s	Lire
1	0	13		0	½	0	1	0	⅓	1½
2	0	52	2	0	2	0	4	0	2	6
3	1	47	5	0	6	0	9	0	7½	13½
4	3	0	10	0	12	0	16	0	18	24
5	4	48	18	1	5	1	5	1	10	37½
6	6	52	28	2	10	1	16	2	5	54
7	9	13	38	4	10	2	9	3	1	73½
8	12	0	55	6	0	3	4	4	10	96
9	15	23	75	8	0	4	1	6	0	121½
10	18	52	100	10	0	5	0	8	5	150
11	22	48	130	12	0	6	1	9	15	242
12	27		175	14	0	7	4			288
13	31	48		16	0	8	9	13	15	338
14	36	52	270	18	0	9	16			392
15	42	13		21	10	11	5	21	0	450
16	48		380	25	0	12	16			512
17	54	13		30	0	14	9	27	10	578
18	60	52	500	35	0	16	4			648
19	67	48		37	10	18	1			722
20	75		650	40	0	20	0	37	10	800
22	90	52		50	0	24	4	52	10	1210
24	108			60	0	28	16	82	10	1440
26	126	52				33	16	99	0	1690
28	147					39	14	150	0	1960
32	192					51	4	225	0	2560
36	243					64	16	262	10	3240
40	300					80	0	300	0	4000
45	506	17				101	5			5062½
50	625					125	0			6250
60	900					180	0			9000
70	1225					245	0			12250
80	1600					320	0			16000
90	2025					405	0			20250
100	2500					500	0			25000

COMPARATIVE STATEMENT SHOWING THE VALUES OF PEARLS AT STATED TIMES, REDUCED TO UNITED STATES CURRENCY
Weight Grains	1609	1672	1675	1751	1774	1791
1	$0.20		$0.12	$0.24	$0.09	$0.30
2	0.81	$0.80	0.48	0.96	0.50	1.20
3	1.82	1.90	1.44	2.16	1.87	2.70
4	3.24	3.80	2.88	3.84	4.50	4.80
5	5.06	6.84	6.00	6.00	7.50	7.50
6	7.28	10.64	12.00	8.64	11.25	10.80
7	10.92	14.44	21.60	11.76	15.25	14.70
8	12.96	20.90	28.80	15.36	22.50	19.20
9	16.40	28.50	38.40	19.44	30.00	24.30
10	20.25	38.00	48.00	24.00	41.25	30.00
11	24.50	49.40	57.60	29.04	48.75	48.40
12	29.16	66.50	67.20	34.56		57.60
13	34.22		76.80	40.56	68.75	67.60
14	39.69	102.60	86.40	47.04		78.40
15	45.56		103.20	54.00	105.00	90.00
16	51.84	144.40	120.00	61.44		102.40
17	58.52		144.00	60.36	137.50	115.60
18	65.61	190.00	168.00	77.76		129.60
19	73.10		180.00	86.64		144.40
20	81.00	247.00	192.00	96.00	187.50	160.00
22	98.01		240.00	116.16	262.50	242.00
24	116.64		288.00	138.24	412.50	288.00
26	136.89			162.24	495.00	338.00
28	158.76			188.16	750.00	392.00
32	207.36			245.76	1125.00	512.00
36	262.44			311.04	1312.50	648.00
40	324.00			384.00	1500.00	800.00
45	546.75			486.00		1012.50
50	675.00			600.00		1250.00
60	972.00			864.00		1800.00
70	1323.00			1176.00		2450.00
80	1728.00			1536.00		3200.00
90	2187.00			1944.00		4050.00
100	2700.00			2400.00		5000.00

Giving the pearl values in 1867, Emanuel[^[396]] says: “It would be almost useless to give any value for drop pearls, as when of large size and fine quality they are of so rare occurrence as to command fancy prices; still, as a slight guide, it may be mentioned that perfect white drop pearls, of 80 to 100 grains, may be estimated at from £7 to £11 [$35–$55] per grain; those of 50 to 80 grains at from £4 to £7 [$20–$35] per grain, and those of 30 to 50 grains at from £3–£5 [$15–$25] per grain; smaller sizes bring from 20s. to 60s. [$5–$15] per grain.”

Emanuel also states that misshapen pieces called “baroque pearls” (perles baroques), are sold by the ounce, the price varying from £10 to £200 ($50–$1000) per ounce, depending on quality, color, and size.

PRICES IN NEW YORK CITY IN 1878
Grains	Value per grain	Total value
1	$1.00	$1.00
2	1.83	3.66
3	2.75	8.25
4	3.60	14.40
5	4.03	20.15
6	4.69	28.14
7	6.32	44.24
8	6.87	54.96
9	7.42	66.78
10	8.25	82.50
11	9.62	105.82
12	10.45	125.40
13	11.68	151.84
14	12.55	175.70
15	14.20	213.00
20	19.70	394.00
24	24.75	594.00

HALF-PEARLS
I QUALITY. PER HUNDRED
	Diameter
Size No.	Millimeters	Inches	1873	1876	1878	1885	1908
4			$1.10		$0.85	$0.50	$1.55
5	1.20	.047	1.35	$0.70	1.00	.60	1.95
6	1.22	.048	1.80	.90	1.35	.70	2.90
7	1.24	.049	2.25	1.10	1.70	1.12	3.88
8	1.26	.049	2.70	1.35	2.00	1.80	5.27
9	1.28	.050	3.35	1.80	2.50	2.00	6.65
10	1.80	.071	4.50	2.25	3.40	3.00	9.15
11	1.83	.072	5.60	2.70	4.20	4.00	11.36
12	1.86	.073	8.00	3.35	5.90	5.00	13.86
13	1.90	.075	9.00	4.50	6.75	5.75	15.51
14	2.00	.078	11.00	5.60	8.40	6.75	17.50
15	2.10	.082	14.00	8.00	10.00	8.25	20.80
16	2.25	.088	17.00	9.00	12.50	10.50	25.00
17	2.40	.094	19.00	11.00	14.00	12.00	30.50
18	2.60	.102	23.00	14.00	17.00	14.50	37.40
19	2.75	.108	28.00	17.00	21.00	16.25	48.50
20	2.90	.114	33.00	19.00	24.00	18.25	61.00
22	3.05	.120	42.00	28.00	31.00	33.00
24	3.15	.124	53.00	38.00	39.00	48.00
26	3.30	.130	67.00	45.00	50.00	69.00
28	3.55	.140	101.00	56.00	75.00	98.00
30	3.90	.153	124.00	79.00	92.00	150.00

HALF PEARLS
II QUALITY. PER HUNDRED
Size No.	1873	1876	1878	1885	1908
4	$0.55		$0.45	$0.30	$0.84
5	.70	$0.35	.50	.35	1.22
6	.90	.45	.70	.50	1.87
7	1.10	.55	.85	.80	3.05
8	1.35	.70	1.00	1.05	4.43
9	1.80	.90	1.35	1.45	5.82
10	2.25	1.10	1.70	1.80	8.32
11	3.35	1.35	2.50	2.60	10.53
12	4.00	1.80	3.00	3.00	12.75
13	4.50	2.25	3.40	3.75	14.41
14	5.60	3.35	4.20	4.25	15.51
15	6.75	4.00	5.00	4.75	18.00
16	9.00	4.50	6.75	5.25	20.80
17	10.00	5.60	7.50	6.00	26.35
18	11.00	6.75	8.40	7.00	31.90
19	14.00	9.00	10.00	7.75	41.60
20	17.00	10.00	12.50	8.75	52.70
22	20.00	14.00	15.00
24	27.00	19.00	20.00
26	34.00	23.00	25.00
28	51.00	28.00	38.00
30	62.00	40.00	46.00

HALF PEARLS
III QUALITY. PER HUNDRED
Size No.	1876	1907	Size No.	1876	1908
4		$0.47	15	2.70	8.93
5	$0.25	.70	16	3.35	11.20
6	.35	1.11	17	4.00	13.90
7	.40	1.94	18	4.50	18.00
8	.45	2.77	19	5.60	22.20
9	.70	3.86	20	6.75	27.75
10	.80	4.99	22	9.00	40.00
11	.90	5.82	24	14.00	75.00
12	1.10	6.65	26	17.00	85.00
13	1.60	7.48	28	19.00	100.00
14	2.25	8.32	30	28.00	200.00

VALUE OF IRREGULAR PEARLS IN 1774[[397]]
Pearls to the ounce	Value in English money		Equivalent in U. S. currency	Average for each pearl
	£	s.
500	3	0	$15.00	$0.03
300	6	0	30.00	.10
150	11	2	55.50	.37
100	18	0	90.00	.90
60	33	15	168.75	2.81
30	75	0	375.00	12.50

The following values for the smaller oriental pearls are given in the “Museum Brittanicum” of John and Andrew van Rymsdyck, 1778, p. 9.

No. to the ounce		Rix dollars	Equivalent in U. S. currency	Average for each pearl
200		70	$75.60		$0.378
300		50	54.00		.18
900		10	10.80		.012
2000		3	4.24		.00212
4000		2½	2.70		.006755
8000	}	2	2.16	{	.00027
10,000		2	2.16		.000216

Pio Naldi’s treatise of 1791 gives the following rule for estimating the value of small, round pearls, weighing less than one carat or four grains. As the carat value of four such pearls is given as five lire and 576 one-grain pearls were counted as one ounce, these two numbers were used to determine the value of an ounce of small pearls. The product of 576 multiplied by 5 is 2880, and this number was then divided by 2000, 1000, 500, or whatever might be the number of pearls in a given ounce. If there were 2000 pearls, the carat value would be 1.44 lire or $.29; if there were 1000, the carat would be worth 2.88 lire or $.57; if 500, 5.76 lire or $1.15, etc.

HALF-PEARLS: LOTS OF THREE DIFFERENT SIZES.
BROOCH OF HALF-PEARLS AND ONYX. UNITED STATES, 1860

The same author[^[398]] gives tables expressing the values of pearls not perfectly spherical in form, which he designates as “perle dolce.” These pearls he considers to be worth half the price of good round pearls; that is to say, 2½ lire (about $.50) per carat for four weighing together one carat. Where there are as many as three thousand of these “perle dolce” in an ounce, the 2½ lire base is multiplied by 576, the number of grains given to the ounce; this makes the value of an ounce of one-grain pearls $288. This amount is then divided by 3000, and the quotient, $.096, represents the value of one carat of these small pearls. Multiplying this by 144 we obtain, as the value of an ounce of such pearls, $13.82. An ounce consisting of two thousand would be worth $20.73, while if there were but one hundred to the ounce it would be valued at $414.72, or $4.15 for each pearl and $.72 per grain of weight. In this latter case the pearls would average 5¾ grains. Another class of pearls denominated by this author as “scaramazzi,” pearls of an irregular form and with protuberances, are estimated in a similar way, but at exactly half of the above values. The baroque pearls were not considered to be worth even half as much as the “scaramazzi.”

Scotch pearls (fresh-water) are mentioned by De Boot (1609, p. 88 sq.) among the other western pearls—Bohemian, etc. He remarks that they were valued much less than the oriental pearls, but if they were of especially pure color their value was greater, although they lacked the silvery hue characteristic of the eastern pearl. Fine pearls of this sort were valued on a carat base of one fourth of a thaler ($.27), so that a forty-grain pearl was worth $27, and one of eighty grains, $108. The author of the Bologna treatise, “Delle Gemme,” 1791, attributes the lack of luster in the Scotch pearls to the presence of a dark mass in the interior which interfered with the passage of light. He estimates Scotch pearls to be worth one half the value of oriental pearls of mediocre quality, provided the former are fairly good.

A Scotch writer of the seventeenth century is more enthusiastic in regard to these pearls; he mentions having paid one hundred rix dollars for an exceptionally fine one, but he does not specify its weight. This is the value given by De Boot for a pearl of this class weighing eighty grains, as we have just mentioned. The Scotch writer asserts that he could never sell a necklace of fine Scotch pearls in Scotland itself, as every one wanted oriental pearls; he continues: “At this very day I can show some of our own Scots Pearls as fine, more hard and transparent than any Oriental. It is true that the Oriental can be easier matched, because they are all of a yellow water, yet foreigners covet Scots Pearls.”

In Ceylon[^[399]] and India, pearl-grading and valuing has received close attention, and an elaborate system has been evolved by the pearl merchants. This system has been in use for generations and possibly for centuries. Although apparently very complicated, it is in reality quite simple, if we only remember that the value of inferior pearls is determined by their weight, whereas the value of superior pearls is computed from the square of their weight.

The pearls are first grouped according to the size, of which ten grades are made. This is done by passing them successively through ten brass saucer-like sieves or baskets (peddi), each about three and a half inches in diameter and one inch deep. The holes in the bottom of each sieve are of uniform size, but they are graduated in size for the different baskets. The pearls are sifted in the basket with the largest holes, and those which will not pass through are of the first size. The pearls which pass through are then sifted in the second basket, and those retained are of the second size; and so on through the entire series of ten sieves or baskets. Those which pass through the tenth sieve are known as masi-túl, or powder pearls; they are of little value owing to their very small size, and are not subject to further classification. Of course, the attached pearls or very irregular baroques—the oddumuttu—are not subject to the sifting process, and are valued independently of this.

Sometimes in India, as well as in western countries, false measures are used, and an oriental pearl merchant may have one set of sieves for use in buying and another for selling. The rule for determining the proper size of the holes in the first sieve is that they may pass pearls weighing 20 to the kalan̄chǔ, whence this sieve is commonly known as the “20 peddi.” The second sieve is the “30 peddi,” since it passes pearls weighing 30 to the kalan̄chǔ. In the proper order the other sieves respectively pass pearls requiring 50, 80, 100, 200, 400, 600, 800, and 1000 to the kalan̄chǔ.

This use of sieves for grading the Ceylon pearls was mentioned by Cleandro Arnobio, a writer of the latter part of the sixteenth century, in his “Tesoro delle Gioie,” and he took his description from an older writer, Garzia dell’ Horto.

After the sifting, each of the ten graded lots of pearls are placed on pieces of cloth for classification as to quality, shape, and luster. This classification requires much skill and judgment on the part of the valuer. Not only will two persons commonly fail to class a large lot of pearls exactly alike, but one person is not likely to class the same lot twice in precisely the same manner.

A. B. Pearl nose rings. Baroda, India.
C. East Indian earring of strings of pearls and table diamonds.
Collection of Edmund Russell, Esq.
D. E. Grape pendants. Oriental pearls.

From long established custom, recognition is made of twelve classes into which the ten grades or sizes of pearls are divided with respect to shape and luster, the local names of these classes giving a fair indication of their respective characteristics. These names are:

1 Ani, “best”: perfect in sphericity and luster, the true orient pearl. 2 Anatári, “follower”: failing slightly in sphericity and luster. 3 Masanku or Masaku: badly colored pearls, usually gray, symmetrical, and with luster. 4 Kaiyéral, “the clasp of a necklace”: a dark-colored treble pearl, not quite round. 5 Machchakai. 6 Vadivu, “beauty,” also “decreasing”: that which is strained or sifted; found in the 100, 200, and 400 sieves. These small pearls, regular in shape, and of good luster, are especially favored in the East. 7 Madanku, “folded,” or “bent”: all pearls of vadivu size that are imperfect in form or color. 8 Kǔrǔval, “short”: deformed and double pearls; they may, however, be of excellent luster. Ani Kǔrǔval: where two áni are fused together, but so formed that if separate they would be perfectly spherical. Písal Kǔrǔval: where several pearls of good luster and color are fused partially and irregularly together. Pampara Kǔrǔval: a pearl grooved regularly, like a top. 9 Kalippu, “abundance,” or “rejected”: inferior to Anatári; a good pearl, may be lens-shaped or elongated; usually flattened. 10 Písal, “torn”: a deformed pearl or cluster of small misshapen pearls; of poor color and of little value. 11 Kurál: very misshapen and small. 12 Túl, “powder”: the seed-pearls, those retained by the 600, 800, and 1000 sieves.

In addition to the above designations, the following are also used:

Samadiam: a pearl of a reddish hue; pear-shaped but of dull color.

Nimelai: a nose-pearl, perfect skinned, and pear- or egg-shaped.

Sirippu: a pearl grooved with irregular wrinkle-like furrows.

Kodai, “brown”: like a nut, with no nacreous luster; formed of prismatic shell; may be large, is usually spherical, and includes pearls of various colors. This name is also used for white pearls with black or brown marks. Van Kodai: a kodai pearl with one side nacreous. Karunk Kodai: a black or blue-black slag-like pearl.

Masi-túl, “ink-dust,” or “chalk-powder”: smaller than the 1000 sieve. Generally used for medicinal purposes, or burnt and eaten with areca-nut and betel by the natives.

Oddu—or Ottumuttu, “shell-pearl”: an attached pearl or nacreous excrescence on the outside of the shell.

Of the twelve classes named above, the first four are known as the chevvǔ, or superior classes; the next three as the vadivu, or beautiful classes; and the last five as the kalan̄chǔ, or inferior classes. The chevvǔ pearls are found only in the first four sieves or baskets; and for this reason these are known as the chevvǔ peddi or “chevvǔ baskets,” although they may also retain inferior pearls. A name used to indicate the class of pearls found in the first four sieves is mel or melmuttu, “upper” or “superior pearl,” while vadivu designates those retained by the next three and túl those of the last three.

After the pearls have been graded according to size and classified according to quality, they are weighed. The unit of weight is the manchádi, the seed of Abrus precatorius, a small, red berry of practically uniform weight when ripe. H. W. Gillman of the Ceylon Civil Service reports the weight of the man̄chádi to be 3.35 grains troy. Fractional parts of a unit are obtained by using a berry called kundumani, grains of rice, etc., whose weights have been determined beforehand. A brass weight—the kalan̄chǔ—is also employed; it equals 67 grains or 20 man̄chádi.

However, choice pearls—those of the superior classes—are not valued in this manner, but at so much per chevvǔ of their weight, which is three fourths of the square of the weight in man̄chádi. Thus, to find the value of an anatári pearl in the second sieve, if the weight be found to be three man̄chádi, three fourths of the square of three, or 6¾, is multiplied by the base value of the anatári class.

The actual process of the calculation of value is as follows: owing to the small size of the pearls, many fractions enter into the computations; to preserve uniformity it is customary to increase all fractions so that each may have 320 as a denominator, this being a common multiple of those that ordinarily arise in chevvǔ calculations. The weight in man̄chádi of the pearls is increased to a fractional figure having 320 as a denominator. Three fourths of the square of the numerator of this fraction is divided by the number of pearls, and this quotient is divided twice consecutively by 320, giving the chevvǔ of the weight. The market value then follows from the quoted price of the pearls per chevvǔ at the time.

In actual practice, these computations are not made; but each merchant provides himself with sets of tables showing the calculations for different weights, analogous to the use of interest tables by bankers, or of tables of logarithms by surveyors. Some of the merchants commit these tables to memory, and at times may be heard reciting them quietly to themselves to refresh the memory.

If a pearl of a particular grade and class is of exceptional merit, the merchant adds somewhat to the money value computed by the above process. This applies especially to double pearls of the kǔrǔval class, which sometimes consist of two fine bouton pearls suitable for setting, but not for stringing.

Pearls of one of the inferior or kalan̄chǔ classes are valued by simple weight, at so much per kalan̄chǔ, the market price, of course, differing for pearls of the various classes. The weight having been ascertained, each in its class as before noted, the value is determined by multiplying that weight by the current market price per unit of such pearls, at so many rupees per kalan̄chǔ.

NECKLACE CONTAINING 126,000 SEED-PEARLS. LOUIS XVI PERIOD
Property of an American lady

The star pagoda is used in calculating the values. This small gold coin was current in south India in the early part of the last century. In the computations it is considered to be worth three and a half rupees, although its intrinsic value as a gold coin is about six rupees.

It is considered probable that the London syndicate,[^[400]] which has lately leased the Ceylon pearl fisheries for a period of twenty years, will do away with the complicated calculations employed for so many generations, surviving all changes of administration, Portuguese, Dutch, and British. This is only one of the many instances showing the tendency of the British Government to abolish time-honored usages in India, without regard to the wishes of its population; and, unimportant as many of these changes may seem to us, they all serve to foster a spirit of discontent that may lead to serious trouble. This conduct on the part of Great Britain is all the stranger in view of the stubborn opposition of that country to the adoption of the scientific and logical metric system.

In Bombay, the weight of pearls in tanks is made the basis of their valuation; the tank equals 24 ratti or about 72 grains troy. The square of the number of tanks is multiplied by 330 and the quotient divided by the number of pearls; this gives the number of chevvǔs, or chows, as they are sometimes called, and the market price of the chevvǔs for a given class of pearls shows their value. If, for instance, we have 56 pearls of a certain quality, weighing 5 tanks, and the chevvǔs of these pearls is worth 14 rupees, the sum would be as follows:

5 × 5 × 330 × 14
	= 2062.5 rupees, or about $825.
56

In this case, as in the other system of weighing which we have mentioned, the chevvǔs is only a nominal weight; but there is in India a real weight unit which bears this name.[^[401]]

The high esteem in which the pearl was held by the Hindus is well illustrated by the following statement from an old treatise on gems: “A pearl weighing two kalan̄jas (about 180 grains) should not be worn even by kings. It is for the gods, it is without equal.”[^[402]]

An interesting account of a great savant’s experience, in the early part of the sixteenth century, regarding the value of pearls, is given by Guillaume Budé[^[403]] (1467–1540), the celebrated French Hellenist who lived during the reign of Francis I and who is regarded as the founder of the College de France. In his work entitled “De Asse,” he states that he once inquired of a gem dealer in Paris whether the latter could recall the weight of some remarkable pearl which had passed through his hands. The dealer replied that he had seen one weighing 30 carats (120 grains), whereupon another gem dealer, who was present, remarked that he had in his possession one of 40 carats (160 grains). This pearl was sold a few days later for 3000 gold crowns ($6750). On another occasion Budé was told that a pearl of exquisite beauty weighing 30 carats, had been sold to the Duchesse de Bourbon, daughter of Louis XI of France, for the sum of 4000 gold crowns ($9000).

In regard to the manner of computing the value of pearls Budé writes: “I think the ratio of these prices can be calculated. When I asked a gem dealer what was the value of a pearl of four carats [sixteen grains], according to the formula, he replied: ‘I have seen such a pearl sell for thirty gold crowns [$67.50].’ Whereupon I asked: ‘How much would you estimate one weighing eight carats [thirty-two grains]?’ ‘At least two hundred gold crowns [$450],’ he answered; and as I continued to ply him with questions, gradually increasing the weight, he responded in such a way that I could understand that the increase of the price bore not a numerical, but a proportional relation to the weight; so that the above mentioned eight-carat pearl, having double the weight of a four-carat pearl, was valued at seven times as much. The same was true of a pearl weighing twelve carats, twenty carats, and so on; the price augmenting by a greater and greater increment as the weight increased.”

In the “Coronae Gemma Noblissima” of Wilhelmus Eo (1621, pp. 32, 33), an instance is given of the rapid changes that are possible in the worth of a pearl. A large and beautiful pearl was brought to Nuremberg by a merchant who had paid 500 florins for it; he soon found a purchaser among the merchants there, who was willing to pay him 800 florins. This latter merchant in his turn disposed of his gem for 1000 florins, and shortly after it again changed hands twice, the first time at an advance of 200 florins and the second at an advance of 300 florins. All this happened within a few days. The writer tells us that the last purchaser, who paid 1500 florins for the pearl, took it with him to Venice “where the wealthy dames wear a great treasure of beautiful pearls as necklaces upon their bare skin, and he will not have lost anything on his pearl there.”

In 1884, Mr. Edwin Streeter was asked by a member of a London syndicate to proceed to the East, to value a large quantity of jewels, as a heavy sum of money was about to be advanced to a certain Power, to provide the sinews of war. On his way he was requested to stop at one of the principal towns in Germany to purchase some jewels which had been valued for probate but were not easy of sale in that market. The valuation paper was shown to him, and after examining the ornaments, he agreed to take them at the prices named. Among them was an old gold brooch of Russian manufacture, valued at £4; in the center of this brooch was what appeared to be a piece of hematite, but was in reality a fine, round, black pearl, weighing 77 grains. The color had faded from exposure to the sun. This pearl was brought to London, and the outer layer was taken off, when a perfect black pearl of 67 grains was uncovered. This was sold to a manufacturing jeweler in London for £400; but, having heard that in Paris there was a pearl that would exactly match it, Mr. Streeter bought it back again for £600, and then sold it at a large profit to one of the Paris crown jewelers, who, in his turn, sold the pair to a rich iron merchant for 50,000 francs (£2000 or $10,000). Since then the sum of 100,000 francs (£4000 or $20,000) has been refused for this pair of matchless black pearls. At present values they may be worth double this sum.

At different times the values assigned to the different forms and colors of pearls have varied. For instance, in the French Encyclopédie of 1774 (Vol. XII, p. 385), it is stated that pear-shaped pearls, although they might be equally perfect and of the same weight as round pearls, were valued much less than these. Even in the case of well-matched pairs, their price was a third less than that of round pearls.

As early as the sixteenth century it was not uncommon that jewelers who had in their possession a fine pear-shaped pearl would have a replica of it molded in lead, and then send the casts to the large cities of Europe and the East. If a mate was found for it, the respective owners soon came to terms, for such pearls command a much higher price together than they do separately.

An interesting story is told of no less a collector than the Duke of Brunswick, who was so generous to the city of Geneva. For many years every pear-shaped pearl from every land had been submitted to him for examination. He always claimed the privilege of examining it alone for a moment or two and in every instance he returned it. At last a new pear-shaped pearl of marvelous size and beauty was heard of in a distant country. It was sent to Germany, where the duke was visiting at that time, to a local dealer who acted as agent for the owner. The price demanded for it seemed excessive, but the duke took the pearl, stepped aside for a moment, and said, quick as a flash, “The pearl is mine.” The next day he showed it with a mate he had owned for many years and that was a most faultless match. Through all the years of his search he had never informed any one of his intention to match the pearl he already owned.

In 1879, at the time of the death of the father of Sultan Buderuddin of the Sulu Islands, a box of large and fine pearls was among the treasures he left behind him. Many of these disappeared, but some of them came into the hands of Sultan Buderuddin and his mother. The former sold those which he had inherited, in order to defray the expenses of a pilgrimage to Mecca, in 1882. His mother, who exerted a great influence over the conduct of affairs, retained a number of the pearls, and it was always difficult to induce her to part with any of them. When, as very rarely happened, she was persuaded to do so, she invariably got a higher price for them than they would have commanded in London, because she was never anxious to sell, and always said: “Why should I sell my pearls? If the Spaniards come to attack us, I can put them in a handkerchief and go into the hills; but if I had dollars I should need a number of men to carry them.” We do not yet know what became of the stolen pearls.

Many times has a dealer put nearly all that he possessed into a fine pearl or necklace, frequently without a reward; often gradually buying more and more, hoping for some great patron to relieve him. When the client appears, there is happiness, but when he does not, there is woe. This instance is well illustrated when Philip IV of Spain asked of the merchant Gogibus: “How have you ventured to put all your fortune into such a small object?” “Because I knew there was a king of Spain to buy it of me,” was the quick reply. And Philip rewarded the faith of the jeweler by purchasing the pearl.

Caire and Dufie[^[404]] state:

We need have no fear that either the price or the use of pearls will diminish when we consider the great demand for them both on account of luxury and superstition. There is no Hindu who does not regard it as a matter of religion that he should pierce at least one pearl on the occasion of his marriage. This must be a new pearl which has never been perforated. Whatever may be the mysterious signification, this very ancient usage is, at least, very useful for the commerce of pearls.

In 1898, one of the writers had a long talk with his late chief, who had, at that time, devoted sixty years of his life to the jewelry profession. In the course of the conversation the latter remarked: “It seems to me that pearls are too dear”; to which the writer rejoined: “Have pearls ever gone down in price during your entire connection with the jewelry profession?” The answer was: “No, they have always advanced.” Whereupon the writer said: “I can give you statistics for two hundred years preceding your earliest experience, which prove that pearls constantly advanced in value during that period.”

The following are the names given to the different kinds of pearls, according to their origin.

The term “oriental” designates those pearls that are found in the true pearl-oyster, and have a marine or salt-water origin, being found either in the ocean or one of its adjacent tributaries, and belonging to one of the numerous species of the Margaritiferæ.

The term “fresh-water” is given to those pearls that are found in the fresh-water brooks, rivulets, rivers, or fresh-water lakes, and not in salt water, and which belong to the Unionidæ.

The term “conch” is applied to that variety of pearl which is usually pink, or yellow, in color, and that is either found in the univalve shell, known as the common conch (Strombus gigas), or in the yellow shell (Cassis madagascarensis).

The word “clam pearl” is used to designate those pearls that are found in the common clam of the Atlantic coast, and are either black, dark purple, purple, or mixed with white, more especially if they are boiled.

“Placuna pearl” designates those pearls that are found in the Placuna, or window-glass shell, in the East. They have a micaceous luster, are rarely of much value, and are sold entirely in the Orient, almost exclusively for medicinal purposes.

“Oyster pearl” signifies those concretions that are found in the common edible oyster (Ostrea). They are generally black, purple, or with a mixture of black and white, or purple and white. They are devoid of nacreous luster and possess neither beauty nor value.

“Coque de perle” designates the globuse walls of the nautilus and possibly other shells that have a pearly nacre; they are almost hemispherical and are either round or long, having a pearly effect.

“Abalone”: a name applied to those pearls that are found in the univalve “ear-shell” or awabi, as it is called in Japan. They are generally green, blue-green, or fawn-yellow, and have an intense red, flame-like iridescence. They are rarely round, generally flat, or irregular, and are occasionally worth several hundreds of dollars each.

“Pinna pearls”: those pearls that are found in the Pinna, or wing-shells of the Mediterranean and adjacent seas. These possess no orient, but are more highly crystalline than any other pearls. They are almost translucent and have a peculiar red or yellow color, and are of little value except locally.

“Cocoanut pearl”: this name is given to those pearls that are found in the giant oyster or clam of the vicinity of Singapore; they are erroneously called cocoanut pearls because they have the appearance of the meat of the cocoanut. They are often of great size, but have no commercial value.

The following are special designations of the different varieties of pearls according to their forms and appearance:

Paragon: this term was formerly used to designate large and exceptionally perfect or beautiful pearls, usually weighing over one hundred grains.

Round: when the pearl is absolutely spherical, as if turned on a lathe, without any flattening or any indentations on the sides.

Button or Bouton: if the pearl is domed on top and has either a flat or slightly convex back.

Pear-shaped: when the pearl is formed like a pear, terminating in a point, and is either flat at the lower end or rounded.

Drop-shaped: when the pearl is elongated like a pear, but is larger at the lower end than a pear-shaped pearl.

Egg-shaped: when ovate in form, rounded more or less at each end, or formed like an egg.

Cone-shaped: applied to pearls that are elongated and rounded with one flat end, and have the form of a cone.

Top-shaped: a name given to those pearls that are broad, flattened at the top and rounded on the sides, terminating in a point, like a top.

Seed-pearls is a name given to pearls that are round or irregular, and weigh one fourth grain or even less. They are frequently so small that 18,000 are contained in a single ounce, and they are often sent from the East in bunches of about a dozen or so of strings.

Dust-pearls. When seed-pearls are very small they are known as “dust-pearls”; they are really as fine as dust and have very little value; still, their form is in many cases wonderfully perfect.

Petal pearls are those which are somewhat flat, frequently more pointed at one end than at the other, and have the appearance of a petal or leaf.

Hinge pearls are those pearls that are long, generally pointed at either or both ends, and are found near the hinge part of the shell. They are divided into two distinct forms, namely dog-tooth, and wing-shaped.

Wing pearls: those that are elongated or irregular, resembling a wing or part of a wing.

Dog-tooth: applied to pearls with pointed ears, elongated, and which are narrower than the wing pearls.

Slugs: a name used for the very irregular, distorted pearls, frequently made up of masses or groups of small pearls; usually without luster or form, and of little value except for medicinal purposes.

Nuggets: when the pearls are somewhat round, but are indented or slightly irregular.

Haystacks: when the pearls are either round or oval, with the top considerably elevated.

Turtlebacks: when the pearls are a trifle longer than they are wide, with a domed surface not much elevated. This form is quite prevalent among American pearls.

Strawberry pearls: those that are round or elongated and entirely covered with prickly points, somewhat resembling a strawberry or pickle. It is believed that these irregular marks are frequently produced by minute pearls.

“Blister” and “Chicot” are names applied to those pearls that are found embedded within a nacreous coating, often containing mud, water, or imperfect mother-of-pearl. After these “blisters,” as they are termed, are broken, and layer after layer has been removed from the contents, very fine pearls have frequently been found.

Peelers: a term applied to pearls having imperfect surfaces or skins that may have some inner layers which are perfect. Pearls having opaque bands or rings are rarely peeled with much success as this opaque layer frequently extends to some depth.

Cylindrical pearls: for pearls that have the form of a cylinder, being elongated and flattened at each end.

Hammer pearls: when pearls are long and somewhat rounded and assume the shape of a hammer or barrel. These are rounded or domed at the side and flattened at the ends.

Baroque (Wart pearls in German): when pearls are not of any perfect form such as round, pear, ovate, or any regular form, they are termed baroque, and this term covers a large class of varieties, such as all that follow (except seed- and half-pearls).

Double, triple, or twin pearls are those that are made up of two or more pearls united together in a single nacreous coating, showing, however, that they are still separate pearls.

Monster pearls: this name was formerly applied to very large, irregular, pearly masses which either resembled some animal or were adapted to form the head, trunk, or other part of an animal: these are also occasionally called “Paragons.”

Bird’s-eye: a name used for a pearl that has dull spots, giving it the appearance of a bird’s-eye.

“Ring-a-round” is a term applied to such pearls as are black, brown, pink, or white, and have a circle running around the pearl itself of some distinctive contrasting color, as white on black, pink on brown or black on white.

Embedded pearls are those that are partly or entirely surrounded by mother-of-pearl, having been enveloped and passed outward from the interior of the shell by the mollusk so that in time the pearl would have been lost on the outside of the shell. These embedded pearls are occasionally found in the manufacture of mother-of-pearl articles. When the mother-of-pearl is split, the pearl will fall out from between the layers.

Half-pearls is the name given to such pearls as are round and spherically domed, and are either somewhat flat or almost the shape of one half of a whole pearl of the same diameter. They are usually made by cutting off the best part of a hemispherical bright spot from a large irregular pearl; frequently two to four cuttings are made from the bright spots of a single pearl, each of the cuttings having the appearance of half a pearl.

The so-called Indian pearls have a faint rosy tint with much orient. These are generally pearls from the Ceylonese fisheries that are sold from the Bombay side. The term “Madras white” describes the whiter varieties, there being a preference for these in Madras, while the rosy, yellow, and darker shades are favored in Bombay.

Australian pearls are generally a pure waxy white and lustrous, often with a silver-white sheen, extremely brilliant and beautiful.

Nearly all the Venezuela and Panama pearls have a faint golden-yellow tint, very often extremely lustrous, and are especially desired by the darker skinned people and brunettes.

The preference at various times has varied with different peoples: in China and India, golden-yellow and satin-yellow pearls are preferred; from Panama we have the very white; in Bombay the yellow pearls from the Persian Gulf are highly appreciated.

Yellow pearls from other shells than the pearl-oyster are frequently offered for sale in the East, where they are greatly appreciated, although they find little favor in England. Some of these pearls are attributed to the pearly nautilus (Nautilus pompilius). This may be the case with those that have a pearly luster, but those that have the appearance of porcelain, and are as bright as polished china, are certainly not from this shell, but evidently from the large Melo or other shells of that character. Some may come from the large conch (Cassis madagascarensis). A yellow pearl, very perfect in form and color, and weighing more than one hundred grains, was shown at the Paris Exposition of 1889 and was valued at 50,000 francs.

Wonderful golden-yellow pearls with a saffron tint are unusually lustrous and beautiful. One of the most remarkable pearls of this character is of a brilliant golden-yellow color which belongs to an American lady, and weighs 30½ grains. These pearls are from Shark’s Bay, West Australia, and only a limited number of them are found annually.

Black pearls do not seem to have been regarded with any favor by the ancients, and we find no mention of them by medieval writers. Only fifty years ago a perfectly round, black pearl, weighing 8 grains, was sold for £4 ($20); to-day this pearl would easily bring £100 ($500). Empress Eugenie, the wife of Napoleon III, may be said to have brought them into favor; she owned a splendid necklace of black pearls which was sold at Christie’s, after the fall of Napoleon, for the sum of £4000 ($20,000). Some time later, the Marquis of Bath bought, at Christie’s, the pearl which formed the clasp of the necklace, paying £1000 ($5000) for it; he destined it for the center of a bracelet.

Greenish-black pearls are perhaps valued higher than any other colored pearls, if they have the proper orient; this is probably partly owing to their rarity. A bluish-black pearl possessing a fine orient commands almost the same price as a pure black pearl. Those which are found in the Placuna placenta are often of a dull gray hue, while those produced by the Pinna squamosa are generally brown in color.

Baroque pearls were formerly much worn and appreciated in Spain and Poland. Their price varies greatly, according to their size, their beauty, and also to their scarcity in any particular place. The pieces of pearl detached from the shells—often half-pearl and half mother-of-pearl, and called “de fantaisie”—are always very irregular in form, and sometimes offer a certain resemblance to a part of the human or animal form.[^[405]]

How is it that such quantities of jewels are continually brought from the East, and such a wealth of them continues to exist there, when there are now no very extensive mines that maintain a constant supply? The reason is that from time immemorial, precious stones have been the form in which wealth, in those lands, has been hoarded and preserved. Until very recently, in the Orient, interest-bearing securities have been unknown; and hence jewels have been sought and kept as an investment, and sold only when money was needed for special purposes, as in times of war, famine, or other emergency.

Their small bulk made them easy to conceal and to transport, and hence they were well adapted for such use. How long this condition will last, is perhaps dependent only upon the introduction of interest-paying investments, and of the new forms of Western civilization that involve greater expenses and require means of income in excess of the older and simpler conditions.

The wealth of jewels possessed by Oriental monarchs, notables, and dealers, has been the theme of story and tradition, time out of mind. We of the West have been disposed to regard these tales as largely exaggerated, and to some extent they may be; yet any one who has witnessed an important social function or state occasion where East Indian rajahs and nabobs are present, knows that the profusion of jewels which they wear is simply astounding to our Western eyes. These objects represent, moreover, the gatherings of generations and centuries; they are heirlooms and ancestral treasures, priceless to their owners as the pride of their houses; handed down from fathers to sons in long succession; and they have also the investment feature already noted, in that whenever necessity arises they can be turned into available funds.

The manner of keeping and of selling such objects is also different from ours. If it be a question of buying gems from an Eastern owner, the best are never shown first, but on the contrary, the most inferior. The purchaser must either be content with these, or else must prove clearly that he is a substantial buyer or evince a knowledge and appreciation that mark him as a judge of such objects. The order in which they are produced is, first the poorest, then successively, poor, medium, fair, good, fine, and at last the rare and wonderful prizes.

In visiting an Oriental dignitary, his jewel-treasures are not all shown at once, as at an American reception or an Indian durbar, or even as a collector or connoisseur among us exhibits his cabinet, arranged for choice display. The method is far different. The visitor may be shown a few objects in the first day or hour; perhaps a few more later in the day; some on the next day or the one following, and so on; and he may remain a guest for weeks, and never see all, or the finest of the jewels belonging to his host. When they are produced, moreover, they are not in iron caskets or in gold or silver jewel-cases, covered or lined with fine leather or with silk or satin. On the contrary, they are often in old ginger jars, shabby boxes, tin cans, and all sorts of unsightly or unpromising receptacles, which, when placed between the owner and his guest, may well cause the latter to wonder. Nor is his surprise lessened as the wrappings are unfolded, one after another, perhaps a dozen old cloths, until the piece of jewelry or the splendid pearl is at last brought to view, after having been hidden from sight in its manifold wrappings for months or perhaps for years.

But this method of keeping such treasures is not in reality so strange as it appears. There are none of the provisions that we have for the responsible safe-guarding of investments or valuable objects,—no fire-proof safes, no banks, no deposit-vaults. Security is best attained by concealment in unattractive and improbable receptacles, and by dividing and distributing the treasured objects. The owner, too, must learn to know his visitor quite well before he exhibits to him all, or the best, that he possesses. Hence the oriental method, though so peculiar to us, has been the best adapted to the conditions among those peoples.

Seed-pearls and gold; Chinese ornaments of the nineteenth century

Complete set of seed-pearl jewelry in original case
New York, 1860

As an illustration of the interest taken by Oriental potentates in the collection of jewels, we quote an instance from Marco Polo, who, centuries ago, wrote the following:[^[406]] “Several times every year the King of Maabar sends his proclamation through the realm that if any one who possesses a pearl or stone of great value will bring it to him, he will pay for it twice as much as it cost. Everybody is glad to do this, and thus the King gets all into his own hands, giving every man his price.”

Great quantities of pearls, the result of centuries of accumulation, and exceeding in splendor the collections of the present day, must have been garnered up in many cities of the Orient during the period of their prosperity. But these cities have disappeared, wrecked and ruined by fire and sword, and no vestige of their former wealth remains with them. Their treasures have been looted, hoarded, buried, or scattered to the four ends of the Orient, frequently finding their way in former times to Europe, but now more often to America, where fine gems always find a generous buyer.

In Syria, and some of the Oriental countries, until recently, and perhaps at the present time, it has been the custom, when a native wished to embark in the pearl business, for him to allow himself to drift gradually into a state of vagrancy, becoming a veritable tramp for fully a year. Then, with the money that he had himself or that which was supplied by his backer, he would visit the pearl fisheries and shrewdly acquire the gems to the best advantage, returning again as a vagrant; for if it were known at any point along the route that he carried with him sums of money his life would be in jeopardy, and he would probably never reach the fisheries; or, if he did, the chances are that he would never return. This may remind us of Marco Polo’s old coat, in which he had concealed some valuable gems, the gift of the Grand Khan. His wife heedlessly gave the coat to a beggar and it was only regained by a clever stratagem.

The product of the pearl fisheries, either that of entire fisheries where they are managed by a company, or the gatherings of merchants, or even the single gems which may be acquired by the smaller merchants, all these usually find their way to the great markets, although occasionally they change hands at once. In the East they are sent either to Bombay, Calcutta, Madras or Colombo; frequently they are intended for a higher market. Many of them remain in the East, for in the East to-day a fine pearl is as much prized as ever, and there are those who love pearls as much as did the King of Maabar in the time of Marco Polo. However, the world over, there is a feeling that if things are sent to the greatest market there will be an opportunity for disposing of them at the greatest price. Therefore, the larger number of parcels of exceptionally fine pearls are sent to the London market, a few of them going to Paris, the cable, often within a few days after their arrival, informing the sender of the acceptance or rejection of a parcel, or of a new offer which is often accepted. In this market they are acquired by the dealers, who frequently exhibit many times before the lot is purchased.

Pearls from a fishery are in many cases of mixed quality; that is to say, they are of different sizes and varying grades of perfection as regards skin, color, and orient. These parcels are often sold directly on offers to dealers, but generally they are sold by brokers who show the various parcels to the dealers, each of the latter in turn making his offer on that portion of the parcel which is of most value to him. Thus a single dealer may want one pearl, a dozen, or even twenty or more, to complete a great necklace, or else to add to, or improve the necklace, by better graduation or by increasing the evenness of the color. When the broker receives enough offers to give him the desired price for the entire parcel, the sale is consummated, and each one who has made an offer and who has sealed his particular parcel until his offer is accepted or rejected, receives his portion. Pearls do not grow in the form of necklaces, although they are frequently seen in this form only, and to create a large necklace means not only the use of the pearls of one fishery alone, but it often requires a selection from pearls of various sizes, the product of many fisheries.

It is needless to say that even the shrewdest dealers do not always succeed in their purchases of lots which are to be broken up when the proper number of bids are obtained.

When the pearl revival came in 1898 there was a sudden and rapid upward tendency in the prices, because at that time, in England, money could be borrowed upon a very low rate of interest—as low as 3 per cent.,—and it was a temptation to a number of young men to enter as dealers into the pearl trade. The result was that a number of new stocks were created, not for a regular, but for a speculative demand, and this tended to advance the price spasmodically, rather than gradually, as it would have risen by regular consumption. However, when the foreign market became higher, the demand for pearls was not as great as had been anticipated, and there was a sudden adjustment of prices and a readjustment of the pearl stocks, resulting in the elimination of a certain number of speculative dealers; and, notwithstanding the state of the fisheries, pearls have not advanced so rapidly in the past two years as they did from 1898 to 1905.

More than go per cent. of the pearls of commerce, whether they are round, perfect, half- or seed-pearls, are of oriental origin; that is, pearls from the true pearl-oyster. About 8 per cent. are probably from the fresh-water mussels, three fourths of which are from the United States.

American fresh-water pearls have had many prejudices to overcome, often because of the natural indifference in regard to anything that is found at home or is easily obtainable. It has been said that, in comparison with foreign pearls, they had less specific gravity; that they were not so hard, and that their luster was not as good. It is certain, however, that the skin is generally smooth, and although they may not have so peculiar an orient, their brilliancy equals that of any known pearls. Sometimes they are translucent and either pink or of a faintly bluish tint, like molten silver. More frequently their hue is white, rose, pale yellow, or pale copper, deepening to copper red until they resemble the most intense and highly polished copper button.

According to the estimates of the value of European fresh-water pearls given by seventeenth and eighteenth century writers, their worth was considered to be one half that of oriental pearls of approximately the same quality. Few European pearls, we feel sure, were ever found that possessed the wonderful beauty and brilliancy of the pearls found either in the Miami or the Mississippi and its many tributaries.

So great a quantity of the poorer quality of pearls have been found, principally in the Mississippi Valley, that a foreign dealer has bought 30,000 ounces of baroque pearls at $1 an ounce, and of the slightly better grades fully 100,000 dollars’ worth were obtained in the year 1906. The exportation was strictly limited to the poorer qualities. When pearls are worth from $1 to $6 a grain and upward, they are rarely sent abroad, as the regular pearls of this quality are much appreciated by Americans, and find a ready sale in the United States. The poor pearls above mentioned were principally sent to New York, either from the local fishermen, or else through the dealers in sweet-water shells, in lots of a fraction of an ounce, or in bags weighing a number of pounds. Thirty thousand ounces would equal 18,180,000 grains.

After all the fine pearls have been selected—buttons, baroques, turtle-backs, haystacks, wings, petals and other pearls that can be used in any way as a jewel on this side of the water—the balance of the material is sold by the ounce, varying in price from $1 to $5. These are shipped to Germany, France, and Austria, where they are again selected for cheaper forms of jewelry than are made in the United States. Of these pearls the baroques and slugs go mainly to Germany, while the somewhat finer ones are sent to France, where they are used in artistic but inexpensive work, such as flowers and other imitative forms, and in art nouveau jewelry. Some, again, are shipped to Algiers, Morocco, and Egypt, for the decoration of saddles, garments, etc., and quantities go to India to be used for medicinal purposes. In this way all the material is utilized and even the poorest is not wasted. No better proof can be required of the wide-spread appreciation of the pearl among all the races of mankind.

So extensive has become the finding of American pearls that great quantities have been gathered together of all varieties. At the time of this writing there are many large single lots of these pearls, slightly irregular, and not of fine quality, but yet of sufficient regularity of size to be termed baroques. At one time such quantities were gotten together that single papers of pearls, weighing one fourth, one half, one, two or three grains each, contained more than 10,000 grains, and quantities of the wing and dog-tooth varieties weighing as much as 20,000 grains were inclosed in a single paper.

So prolific has been the yield of these common American pearls that the markets of Europe and Asia have almost been flooded with them. In 1906, a single shipment of 3500 ounces, troy (equaling over 2,100,000 grains), were sent abroad, at prices varying from $1 to $15 per ounce, according to the quality. This alone would represent a worth of $30,000 at one time.

The turtleback is a form quite prevalent among American pearls, and they are often matched in pairs slightly resembling each other and weighing from 10 to 100 or more grains for each pair. Some of them are lustrous and many are of very good color and regular in form. Although differing but little in shape, they naturally are much less expensive than a finer formed pearl, and many of them have been sold for link buttons, and more especially for earscrews. Although they formerly sold for 50 cents a grain, they are now held at from $1 to $8 per grain.

In regard to the prices of some of the finer American pearls, one of 15 grains, of wonderful brilliancy, luster, and perfection, was sold for more than $2500–$166 a grain, or a base value of over $11 a grain. Two extraordinarily well-matched button pearls, weighing a trifle over 30 grains, were held at about $3500, or $115 a grain, a base value of about $8 a grain.

At the time of this writing there are for sale in the United States a pair of button earrings, almost round, not of absolutely perfect color, weighing about 140 grains, the price being $6000; a round, slightly ovate pearl, not of the finest color, weighing 85 grains, held at $3500; and a wonderful pearl with a rich, faintly pink luster, round, but slightly button on each side, weighing about 44 grains, and beautiful as are American pearls, is held at a fanciful valuation of over $6000.

The cupidity of many of the American pearl finders and pearl dealers cannot be exceeded even by that of the foreign pearl finder in any other land, and this is shown by the variety of materials that from time to time are sold to the unsuspecting public, or that are sent to pearl dealers in the large cities. This is surprising and suggests either that the sender believes the pearl dealers are not familiar with these deceptions, or else that he himself has been imposed upon, and is innocent in his commercial deceit. Among the notable examples are, first, spheres made out of the various shells, either from a good part of the material or from hinge-material, or else from the spot where the mussel is attached, these pieces of the shell being rounded and polished; such spheres vary in color from white to pink or yellow, just as the shell itself may have been colored. Second, the pupils of fish-eyes. Third, imitation pearls. Fourth, yellow or brown translucent or transparent masses of hinge-binding material having no greater hardness than horn, and about the same appearance. The most interesting, however, are the absolutely beautiful, smooth spheres of anthracite coal, which admits of a rich polish and has a peculiar luster; these they attempt to pass off as black pearls.

It is interesting to note that in Arkansas a negro sold a very valuable pearl for a few dollars, under the persuasion of a white man, who, it is said, resold the pearl for nearly a hundred times more than what he paid for it. The local authorities investigated the matter; the case was brought to court, and the negro received a large advance on the price that had originally been paid him.

If a list were kept of the thousand and one different methods of wrapping American pearls for shipment to the larger cities, it would show how much ingenuity is displayed in environments that frequently differ very much from each other. A box that has contained the pills that relieved him of fever, ague, and other ills due to swamps and damp climates, serves a secondary purpose for the fortunate finder of a pearl in forming a receptacle in which he can ship it to the greater market. Sometimes they are sewed in leather cut from gloves and shoes, or in strips of cloth, generally of the humbler varieties, such as calico or blue jean; in other cases they are wrapped in tissue-paper and newspaper; and occasionally they are packed in boxes made by hollowing out a bit of wood, a cover being nailed over the opening. In almost every instance they have been treated with a certain degree of care.

The majority of conch pearls which are carried by individuals to New York, London, or Paris, are generally brought in small papers or bits of cloth, each pearl being wrapped separately. Usually, there are a few white ones, a few yellow, a few pale pink, occasionally a few of a very beautiful rich pink, and once in a great while a fine, large pearl appears. Many of these pearls, commonly the inferior ones, are sold in the West Indies directly to the tourists who wish to purchase something in the country through which they are traveling, with the result that better prices are generally obtained than would have been secured if the pearls had been sent to the great markets.

The tariff on pearls at present operative in the United States is so indefinite as to have led to much serious misinterpretation and misunderstanding, as well as to an endless chain of lawsuits, often resulting in serious loss to the dealer or client who imports. As a consequence of the enforced outlay of large sums for unexpected and additional duties, the importer, who was both ready and willing to pay what seemed to him a just duty, often found that, where he had quoted a price to a customer, he was a loser by the transaction; and if, to escape this loss, he endeavors to dispute the payment of the duty, he becomes involved in an expensive and occasionally unsuccessful lawsuit. On the other hand, a private buyer who has paid all that he feels he can afford at the time for a necklace, expecting to pay a duty of 10 per cent. and interpreting the law to mean a duty of 10 per cent., may be called upon to pay a duty of 60 per cent., or have the notoriety of a public lawsuit, because the pearls have been strung, or because it is held that they had recently or at some former time been assembled as a necklace. In other words, if the pearls constituting such a necklace are bought at various times from various people, either here or in Europe, and not as a necklace, the duty is held to be 10 per cent., but if they are sent in one shipment, a duty of 60 per cent. is levied. As it is held that pearls assembled in the form of a necklace have a greater value than before they were so assembled, the purchaser might naturally expect to pay the 10 per cent. duty on this higher value, but instead of this a 60 per cent. duty is demanded on the higher assembled value.

The ambiguity of this clause of the tariff is such that a logical ruling should be made by some superior official such as the Secretary of the Treasury. As the law is now interpreted, a pearl worth $20,000 can be brought in with a duty of 10 per cent.; the addition of a simple gold wire makes it a piece of jewelry, with a duty of 60 per cent. It would seem that an amendment might be made to the tariff by which an importer, whether a private buyer or dealer, could be called upon to pay a 60 per cent. duty on a high valuation of the setting of the ring, brooch, or jewel, such as $20, $25 or $50; while the contents of the ring or ornament, whether a pearl, diamond, emerald, or a collection of stones, should pay a duty of only 10 per cent. This duty would sufficiently protect the jewelry industry, and would at the same time prevent the levying of an unjust and unexpected impost upon a fine pearl or gem of any kind.

It is eminently desirable that those residing in the United States who purchase pearls in foreign countries, should, if possible, consult with the United States consul in the city where they make their purchase, in case they wish to bring the pearls into the United States. In this way a proper declaration can be made, they will be correctly instructed as to the duties upon the pearls, whether unstrung, strung, or set, and they will thus avoid all complications when they reach the United States. Of course, this may not be necessary should the firm with which they are dealing be able to attend to the matter for them.

It must not be forgotten that the duty of 25 per cent. on precious stones, which was imposed during Cleveland’s administration, was enacted for the purpose of obtaining an increased revenue for the government, and there is no doubt but that the time was one of great financial stress. Yet even with the duty two and a half times as high as in the previous years, only a small fraction was added to the income of the Government. But one adequate explanation can be given of this remarkable decrease in the recorded imports, more especially when we consider that legitimate dealers could, at that time, buy precious stones in New York City for less than it cost them to purchase them abroad and pay the duty. It seems, therefore, that a 10 per cent. rate is calculated to produce the best and most satisfactory results in every way.

As examples of the difficulties encountered in the attempt to arrive at a proper classification of pearls we cite the following cases which have been the subjects of recent litigation: In 1901, two very valuable collections of pearls were brought to this country. One of these consisted of 45 drilled pearls weighing in all 672⅛ grains and entered at $60,734; the other, of 39 pearls, having an aggregate weight of 678¾ grains and entered at $63,070. At first a duty of 20 per cent. ad valorem was imposed upon these pearls under Section 6 of the Tariff Act, treating them as “unenumerated articles partly manufactured,” according to the rule that had been followed since the enactment of the present tariff. This was protested, and the case was brought before the Board of Appraisers.[^[407]] Subsequent to the protest, however, the collector reliquidated the entry of the 45 pearls and imposed upon them a duty of 60 per cent. ad valorem, as pearls set or strung. This was done in view of Judge Lacombe’s decision in another notable case which had been taken shortly before to the Circuit Court of Appeals.[^[408]] This decision was to the effect that pearls in any form not especially covered by paragraphs 434 or 436 of the Tariff Act should be referred to one or the other of those paragraphs, by similitude, according to the provisions of Section 7 of the Act.

The testimony taken before the Board of Appraisers revealed the fact that each of the collections of pearls had been inclosed in a handsome silk-lined morocco case, with a groove running through the center; in this groove the pearls were laid, the largest one in the middle and the others disposed on either side, graduated according to their size; the row or series having the effect of a necklace, although the pearls were unstrung. The importer testified that this arrangement was only made in order to enable him to judge of the size and quality of the pearls, and evidence was given showing that it was necessary to rebore some of them and to ream out the holes before any use could be made of the pearls in jewelry. Nevertheless, the appraisers adhered to their opinion that these gems had been selected especially to form a necklace, and that the time and labor requisite for the assembling of a carefully matched and graduated series of pearls suitable for a necklace constituted the main factor in its production, since the cost of stringing it was trifling; they, therefore, considered that such a series of pearls was dutiable, by similitude, under paragraph 434 of the Tariff Act as jewelry. An application was made to the Circuit Court of the Southern District of New York for a review of the appraisers’ ruling,[^[409]] the judge decided against the petitioner,[^[410]] and an appeal was then taken from his decision. On December 12, 1904, the Circuit Court of Appeals decided that the pearls were dutiable, by similitude, at 10 per cent. ad valorem, under Section 7, paragraph 436, and the excess of duty collected was refunded.

Another case has to do with a collection of 37 pearls, entered at $220,000, brought to New York in January, 1906. Duty to the amount of $22,000 (10 per cent. ad valorem) was paid by the importer, but the entry was liquidated at 60 per cent. and $110,000 additional duty demanded. This was paid and a protest was made to the Board of General Appraisers, who decided in favor of the petitioner. The Government appealed and the case[^[411]] was tried in the United States Circuit Court on February 24 of this year (1908). It was shown that the pearls had been worn several times in Paris as a necklace, but the defense held that, as they were loose when imported and were not worth more collectively than separately, this was not material. The judge decided for the Government and an appeal has been taken in June, 1908.

PERSIAN PRINCESS AND LADIES IN WAITING
From a Persian illuminated manuscript of the eighteenth century, in the library of Robert Hoe, Esq.

The proper classification of half-pearls has also been a matter of controversy. This question was brought before the Board of General Appraisers in New York on a protest[^[412]] entered in 1897 against the imposition of a duty of 20 per cent. on several lots of so-called half-pearls imported during that year. This duty was imposed under Section 6 of the Tariff Act, providing for a duty of 20 per cent. on “unenumerated partly manufactured articles.” The petitioner claimed that half-pearls were dutiable at 10 per cent. ad valorem, “either directly or by similitude or component of chief value, under paragraph 436, or as precious stones, under paragraph 435 of the Tariff Act.” After hearing the testimony of a number of competent and reliable experts connected with some of the leading houses dealing in precious stones and pearls, the appraisers decided that the evidence showed that pearls, being the product of animal secretion, could not properly be denominated stones, and that they were not in fact so designated commercially. At the same time, half-pearls could not be looked upon as “pearls in their natural state,” since time and labor had been expended in their production; it was, therefore, evident that paragraph 436 did not apply to them. For this reason the original ruling was reaffirmed.

In 1902 a duty of 60 per cent. was levied on an assorted lot of half-pearls under a new ruling which brought them by similitude under the provisions of paragraph 434 of the Tariff Act, providing a duty of 60 per cent. on “jewelry ... including ... pearls set or strung.” A protest was entered against this ruling also.[^[413]] In the meanwhile Judge Lacombe had given the opinion to which we have alluded above, and the Board of Appraisers upheld the duty of 60 per cent., basing their decision upon the fact that the material of half-pearls was similar to that of pearls in their natural state or of pearls set or strung, thus satisfying the requirements as to similitude of Section 7 of the Tariff Act. The same section provides that, in case two or more rates of duty shall be applicable to any imported article, it shall pay duty at the highest rate, and therefore the 60–per cent. rate applying to pearls set or strung was imposed, instead of the 10–per cent. rate on pearls in their natural state. In both of these cases an application for a review was made to the United States Circuit Court.[^[414]]

DUTIES ON PEARLS IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES, MARCH, 1908
	Basis.	Amount in money of the country.	U. S. currency.
Great Britain		Free
British India		Free
Australia		Free
New Zealand		Free
Canada, precious stones (pearls), polished but not set, pierced, or otherwise manufactured	ad val.	10%
Austro-Hungary, unset	100 kilogr.	60 kr.	$24.00
Belgium, unenumerated.
Bulgaria, precious stones (pearls) in the natural state, polished, cut, or engraved, but not mounted	kilogr.	75 lev (francs)	14.25
Denmark, unenumerated.
France		Free
Germany, wrought (smoothed, polished, perforated), unset	100 kilogr.	60 marks	14.40
Unset, but strung on textile threads or tape for the purpose of packing and transportation	100 kilogr.	100 marks	24.00
Greece		Free
Holland, unenumerated.
Italy, precious stones (pearls) wrought	hectogr.	14 lire	2.66
Montenegro, precious stones (pearls)	ad val.	{min. 10% {max. 15%
Norway, precious stones (pearls)	kilogr.	{min. 250 krone	.66
		{max. 3        „	.80
Portugal, unenumerated.
Portuguese S. E. Africa (Quilimane, Chinde and Zambesia) Export Duty	ad val.	6%
Portuguese India, real pearls or seed-pearls	ad val.	½%
Rumania	kilogr.	20 lei	3.80
Russia, loose or threaded	funt	10 rubles	5.00
Finland		Free
Servia, threaded for facilitating their preservation or sale	kilogr.	50 dinars	9.50
Threaded for special uses	kilogr.	70 dinars	15.30
Spain, loose or mounted	hectogr.	25 pesetas	4.75
Sweden, not set		Free
Switzerland, not mounted	100 kilogr.	50 francs	9.75
Turkey, unset	gramme	3 piasters (gold)
Egypt (on all imports)	ad val.	8%
China (on all unenumerated imports)	ad val.	5%
Japan	ad val.	60%
Persia, Export Duty	ad val.	5%
Import Duty, precious stones, rough or cut, including fine pearls	ad val.	25%
Morocco (on all imports)	ad val.	2½%
Guatemala, unenumerated.
Salvador, precious stones (pearls) unmounted	kilogr.	10 pesos, nom. val.	9.60
Nicaragua, precious stones (pearls)	kilogr.	100 pesos,  „   „	96.00
Honduras	½ kilogr.	5 pesos,    „   „	4.80
Costa Rica, unset	kilogr.	100 colones,  „   „	96.00
Panama	ad val.	15%
Mexico, unset	kilogr.	100 pesos,  „   „	96.00
United States, not strung, not set	ad val.	10%
Strung, set, or not, and split pearls sorted as to either size, quality, or shape	ad val.	60%
Philippine, unset	ad val.	15%
Argentine Republic, precious stones (pearls)	ad val.	5%
Bolivia	appraisal	3%
Brazil (natural)	ad val.	2%
Chili	ad val.	5%
Colombia, precious stones (pearls) set in jewelry	ad val.	10%
Ecuador, precious stones (pearls), set or not set	kilogr.	50 sucres, nom. val.	48.00
Paraguay, unset	ad val.	2%
Peru, unset	appraisal	3%
Uruguay	gramme	13% on eval of 1 peso	.12
Venezuela	kilogr.	10 bolivars	1.90
Cuba, not set	hectogr.	$7.50
	surtax of 25%
Dominican Republic	ounce	6 pesos, nom. val.	5.76

The only changes from the customs lists as they existed in the tariffs of 1896 are as follows:

	1896	1908
Portugal	3% ad val.	unenumerated
Mexico	50 pesos per carat	100 pesos per kilogram
Nicaragua	5 pesos per libra	100 pesos per kilogram
Haiti	20% ad val.	unenumerated
San Domingo	3.60 pesos per ounce	6 pesos per ounce
Argentina	36 pesos per gram	precious stones 5% ad val.
Austro-Hungary	24 florins per 100 kilogr.	60 kroner per 100 kilogr.

In the Parliament of 1727–1732, the duty on pearls and precious stones was abolished in England. We give facsimiles of the title-page and last leaf of the report of this enactment.

GEORGII II. REGIS Magnæ, Britanniæ, Franciæ, & Hiberniæ, SEXTO. At the Parliament Begun and Holden at Westminster, the Twenty third Day of January, Anno Dom. 1727. In the First Year of the Reign of our Sovereign Lord GEORGE the Second, by the Grace of God, of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, King, Defender of the Faith, &c. And from thence continued by several Prorogations to the Sixteenth Day of January, 1732, being the Sixth Session of this present Parliament. LONDON, Printed by John Baskett, Printer to the King’s most Excellent Majesty. 1732. 108 Anno Regni Sexto Georgii II. Regis. After 10 April, 1733, Diamonds and all other precious Stones may be imported or exported free from Duty. Diamonds, precious Stones, Jewels, and Pearls of all Sorts, shall pass outwards, without Warrant or Fee, may it therefore please your most Excellent Majesty that it may be enacted, and be enacted by the King’s most Excellent Majesty, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the Authority of the Same, That from and after the Tenth Day of April, which shall be in the Year of our Lord One thousand seven hundred and Thirty three, all Diamonds, Pearls, Rubies, Emeralds, and all other precious Stones and Jewels, shall pass inwards without Warrant or Fee, in the Manner as they now pass outwards, and free from the Payment of any Duty granted to his Majesty, his Heirs, or Successors; and it shall and may be lawful for any Person or Persons to import or export the same, in the Ship or Vessel whatsoever; and Law, Custom, or Usage to the contrary in any wise notwithstanding, subject nevertheless to the Proviso herein after contained. Proviso as to the East India Company. Provided always, That nothing herein contained shall extend to annul or make void the Duty granted to his Majesty for the Use of the united Company of Merchants of England trading to the East Indies, by an act passed in the Ninth and Tenth Years of the Reign of his late Majesty King William the Third, for such Pearls, Diamonds, and other precious Stones or Jewels, as shall be imported into this kingdom from any Place within the Limits of the Charter granted to the said Company, or to take away or alter any Privileges, Profits, or Advantages, granted to or now held or enjoyed by the said Company. FINIS.'

The total value of diamonds and precious stones imported into the United States during the period from 1867 to 1906 inclusive, was as follows:

Glaziers’ (except 1873–83)	$2,215,972
Dust	6,407,599
Rough or uncut (included with diamonds and other stones, 1891–96)	74,045,291
Set (not specified before 1897)	36,170
Unset (not specified before 1897)	124,615,662
Diamonds and other stones, not set	207,138,629
Set in gold or other metal	17,799
Pearls (from 1903)	7,809,261
Total	$422,286,383

CLASSIFIED STATEMENT OF THE IMPORTS OF PEARLS INTO THE UNITED STATES FROM 1891 TO 1907 INCLUSIVE
	Pearls	Pearls, including pearls strung but not set	Pearls in natural state, not strung or set	Pearls split etc.
Year	10%	10%	10%	20%
1891	$11,711
1892	32,023
1893	6,926
1894	12,978
1895		$283,018
1896		583,214
1897		392,867
1898			$491,060	$205,998
1899			1,412,952	389,899
1900			1,163,382	432,528
1901			929,247	1,173,339
1902			1,896,322	1,314,368
1903			2,835,936	7,220
1904			1,680,615	2,908
1905			1,626,476
1906			2,072,561	218
1907			1,593,498
	$63,638	$1,259,099	$15,702,049	$3,526,478
Note. Previous to 1891 pearls were classified with “jewelry and precious stones,” and it was not until 1895 that most of them were reported separately.

There are several things that are essential in pearl buying, and one of the most important of these is that the light in which the pearls are selected shall be absolutely pure daylight, with no reflections from the side or from above that can enhance or detract from the color of the pearl. This must be carefully considered, as it is not uncommon—more especially in certain parts of Europe—that jewelers have for their selling-offices rooms sumptuously fitted up with hangings of different colors, and sometimes with ground glass windows, provided with heavy silk hangings, so that artificial light becomes a necessity to make the article sold plainly visible. In absolutely pure daylight, more especially with an unclouded sky—on such days as are probably more frequent in the United States than in some of the European countries—it is possible to see the exact tint or color of the pearls; that is, whether it is really a pure white with a tinge of pink or an orient tending to cream-white, or whether it is more or less tinted with what is considered a crude or red color in a pearl. Besides this, in a pure light it is possible to see whether the pearl is brilliant, and to estimate the exact degree of its brilliancy; whether there are any cracks, scratches, or mars on the surface; and, lastly, whether the form is entirely regular. If one should select two necklaces, one absolutely perfect and the other having slight blemishes as to color or brilliancy, or with breaks, marks, or irregularities, these two necklaces would be scarcely distinguishable from each other in artificial light, or in daylight which had been partly confused with artificial light; although the differences between the two would signify that the former was worth two or three times as much as the latter.

At great receptions, large, and apparently magnificent pearls are frequently seen, which are really of inferior quality, and yet, owing to the absence of pure daylight, they can easily be mistaken for perfect specimens by any one not especially familiar with pearls. Indeed, if the royalties of Europe should wear all the pearls belonging to the crown jewels at the same time, in a palace or hall lighted with candles, gas, or even with some types of electric light, they would frequently seem to have a quality which many of them do not and never did possess. It is, therefore, essential for the buyer to use every precaution in reference to the light in which he examines his purchase. And we may add that it is just as essential that he should know the dealer from whom he buys; for, sometimes, after a few weeks or months, cracks or blemishes develop that were not apparent at first, more especially when the pearls have been “improved” for a prospective purchaser.

A test to ascertain the quality of pearls is quaintly expressed in a work published in 1778, as follows:

How to know good pearls. To discover the hidden Defects and Faults of a Pearl and to know whether she is speckled or broken or has any other imperfections, the best way is to make trial of it by the Reverberation of the Sun-beams; for by this means your eye will penetrate into the very Centre of the Pearl and discover the least defect it has; you will then see whether it be pure, or has any spots or not, and consequently you may the better guess its value.[^[415]]

If you can cause a ray of sunlight or of electric light to fall on a pearl, the light will penetrate it and show any specks, inclosed blemishes or impurities. This can probably best be done by wrapping about the pearl a dark cloth of velvet or other material and having the ray fall slantingly, whereby the defects are much more clearly shown than if the ray be allowed to fall directly upon the gem.

A pearl necklace valued at $200,000, shown at one of our recent great expositions, was to all appearances a remarkably beautiful collection, and it was only when the intending purchaser took them from their velvet bed and held them in his hands that he realized that there was not a perfect pearl in the entire collection. It must have taken more than a week of study for the clever dealer to arrange them so that the best part, sometimes the only good part of each pearl, should be where the eye would fall upon it. After they had been turned in the hands a few seconds, not one perfect specimen was visible.

The demand for pearls has been so great, and the enhancement of value so rapid, that the greatest ingenuity has been employed in presenting the best part of the gems to view, as well as in many other ways. The result is that when pearls are to be used as borders or as a gallery on a comb or brooch, they are pierced in such a way that only the best side shall be outward, so that the general effect produced is that of a perfect row of pearls; but a careful examination may show that two thirds or three fourths of them are irregular, and bear abrasion marks, indentations, or other imperfections.

Following the analogy of the well-known precious stones—the diamond, the ruby, the sapphire, the emerald and those of less importance—the pearl is equally potent in creating great and permanent values for itself in catering to the human love of adornment; and though these large values may be greatly in excess of the original price that it commanded in the native oriental market, yet the increased valuation gives profitable livelihood to hundreds of thousands of persons. These embrace the dealers who sell the original pearls in lots, those who clean and treat them, others who drill and string them, and others again who handle them in setting jewelry of all kinds, and also the large number of dealers throughout the entire world who sell either the jewelry or the unmounted pearls. Directly connected with the industry in localities where the fisheries are pursued are a sufficient number of persons to populate a city the size of Boston, and to these we may safely add an equal number as herein noted, aggregating about 1,000,000 people whose livelihood is directly dependent upon the production and traffic of the pearl industry, and who for lack of it would be forced to seek some other employment. Brought thus to a concrete form, one may readily grasp the important bearing which the pearl has in a comprehensive estimate of the complexity of the world’s civilization as we know it to-day.

XIV

TREATMENT AND CARE OF PEARLS

XIV
TREATMENT AND CARE OF PEARLS

The pearl is at the height of its perfection when taken from the shell; from that moment it never improves. When it is drawn from the depths of the ocean by the hand of man and given to the charmed gaze of the world, it is as complete and perfect in its way as the most beautiful work of art, and, whether as tiny as the point of a pin or as large as a marble, it is always a perfect, fully formed individual; it is always in its maturity.

Who found the first pearl? When did he discover it, and what were his emotions? Was it found by primitive man? Very likely it was discovered by chance in a mother-of-pearl shell cast up by the sea, or perhaps in a mussel in a brook. If this happened in an oriental country, the native must have already seen many equally remarkable objects, endowed with life, while the pearl could charm him only by its luster and purity. But, besides the impression produced by its beauty, it must have aroused in the soul of the discoverer the sensation of wonder which every new and lovely object excites when seen for the first time. That primitive man appreciated the pearl is evidenced by the fact that it is found in the mounds and graves of the American continent, from the State of Ohio to Peru in South America.

Almost all pearls are in perfect condition for setting when they are found; all that needs to be done is to rub them with a damp or moist cloth or with a powder of finely pulverized small or broken pearls, and they are then ready for the succeeding processes. If there are any blemishes, these can be removed by peeling or “faking,” although few fine pearls require any such treatment; and then the gems may be drilled, strung, and set, and all that is necessary for their preservation is due care and attention.

Pearls are frequently injured in opening the shells or in removal of the outer layers around the true pearly nacre. Both the Chinese and the Sulu fishermen are very clever in the art of pearl peeling and pearl improving. This method is called “faking,” although it is a perfectly legitimate operation. All it requires is a very sharp knife, a set of files, and a powder obtained by grinding pearls or pearl shells. This powder is placed upon a buffer of leather or cloth to polish such parts of a layer as may not have been entirely removed. The Chinese are unusual adepts in pearl peeling and have been frequently known to sell as true pearls scales that they have removed, after filling these scales or peelings with wax or shellac, and strengthening them by cementing them on a piece of mother-of-pearl. They are then set with the convex side up and the edges carefully covered so as to conceal the deception. The Chinese are also very expert in removing layers of mother-of-pearl from an encysted or buried pearl, taking off layer after layer with the greatest care, and with a delicacy of touch that enables them to realize the moment when the pearl itself has been reached, rarely injuring the latter, although the coating is almost as hard as the inclosed pearl.

Peeling is employed to remove a protuberance or acid stain, to smooth a surface broken by abrasion, or to take off a dead spot produced by careless wearing of the pearls and allowing them to rub against one another. There are many instances where, by careful peeling, a perfect layer and skin have been brought to light, and where irregular or broken pearls, or those with a blemish, have been rendered much more valuable by a good peeler. But in many other cases the pearl has not only been reduced in value, but even rendered altogether worthless, when it had a dead center or was pitted with clay or other impurities.

If a pearl has been injured by coming in contact with the acids frequently used in medicine, the surface may become roughened; or it may be scratched by being rubbed against a stone in case of a fall or other accident. If the surface only is injured, it can be restored to its original beauty with only a slight loss of weight by carefully peeling off the outer layers.

In skinning or peeling a pearl, a magnifying glass, or preferably a fixed lens, such as is used by engravers, is of great assistance, and a sharp knife, or, better still, the sharpened edge of a steel file, is a very essential instrument. Gloves are often worn by the peeler so that no perspiration shall reach the pearl and cause it to slip in the hand while it is being manipulated, and thus have a layer or more injured by the knife.

Drilling a pearl by means of the bow-drill

Thin layers of pearl removed by peeling (faking)

Examples of properly and poorly drilled pearls

Side view of same pearls

PEARL DRILLING

Streeter mentions a very interesting incident in regard to a genuine black pearl. This pearl, set with diamonds, was shown in a jeweler’s window; but after exposure in this way for some time to the sun’s rays, the brilliant black luster disappeared and gave place to a dull, grayish hue. When the pearl was removed from its setting, it was seen that the part which had not been exposed to the light was of as good color as when first removed from the shell. It was finally determined to skin off the outer layer, an operation which was performed with so much success that the original brilliant black hue was fully restored, proving that the action of the sunlight had only changed the color of the surface. We may add that the pearl, although it was shown in the sun, may never have had a good “skin” or layer exposed; or the layer which was not perfect may have been affected by an exudation of the wearer produced by illness or medicine.

When pearls are of a poor yellow or dull brown tint, unscrupulous dealers sometimes intrust them to an operator who drills them almost entirely through, cracks the skin slightly and impregnates them with a solution of nitrate of silver; this affects the outer layers of the pearls, and, after its decomposition, the metallic silver is deposited, and they become absolutely black. The effect is sometimes hastened by exposing them to the fumes of nitrate of silver. These pearls are then rubbed up or slightly polished and may retain a good appearance for a number of years. The upper layers, however, which have been injured by the chemicals used in the coloring, often scale off, and the poor and unattractive color beneath appears. This is sometimes not detected until years after and when the dealer from whom they were purchased has been forgotten. The breaks or cracks which have been made can readily be detected by means of a pocket lens, if the observer is at all experienced. In many cases the outer layer of the pearl has been colored a good black, although scarcely any crack is visible.

Frequently, when a small knob or protuberance appears in the pearl, or when it has adhered to another pearl or to the shell itself, this protuberance is polished off, and the pearl is drilled at this point. This portion of the surface, however carefully polished, will never have the true orient, but it is placed in the necklace in such a way that it is completely hidden. Often pearls become scratched through rough usage, or by the knife used in opening the shells. These are occasionally polished by means of pearl-powder, or else the entire outer layer is removed, the new skin beneath appearing absolutely bright and perfect. It sometimes happens that a pearl will have a good luster, but a slightly roughened skin. This is at times polished down; but an experienced eye easily detects that it has been tampered with. Yellowish pearls are sometimes bleached by means of strong bleaching substances such as chlorine or other powerful reagents, which, although they may whiten the pearl, cause it to become very friable, as the animal substance becomes more brittle. Pearls treated in this way frequently wear off, layer by layer, until fully one half of the pearl is worn out of the setting. When pearls are stained yellowish from the exudations of the skin, grease, or other impurities, they can be cleaned by putting them in moist caustic magnesia and allowing it to dry on them. When this is removed, the pearls will often be found much purer in color than before.

In various parts of the world certain dubious methods have been used for restoring the beauty of pearls which have grown dim. In India they are rubbed in boiled rice. Some persons have even fed them to a chicken fastened in a coop; after the lapse of an hour or two the chicken is killed, and the pearls rescued from their temporary lodging-place, where they have been somewhat restored by the digestive juices of the fowl.

Some curious tests applied to pearls are given us in a Hindu treatise on gems by Buddhabhatta. For instance, we read: “If the purchaser conceives a doubt as to the genuineness of a pearl, let him place it during one night in a mixture of water and oil with salt, and heat it. Or let him wrap it in a dry cloth and rub it with grains of rice; if it do not become discolored, it should be regarded as genuine.”[^[416]] It is needless to state that these tests would be either useless or injurious.

If the reader is the owner of a pearl or of a pearl necklace and feels that the pearls need treatment, any attempt to follow the directions given by many ancient writers would infallibly result in their injury or destruction.

Pearl drilling is a most delicate operation. It is necessary that the drill points should have the proper shape,—that is, should not be too tapering, but slightly blunt at the end, and turning somewhat in a V-shape,—it is also important that the drill should be revolved with perfect regularity, so as not to jar or jolt the pearl, as this is likely to lead to the cracking of the pearl or to the breaking of the drill. This latter happens not infrequently, and is due either to the structure of the pearl, the clogging of the drill, or to encountering a hard grain of sand inclosed in the pearl. Should the drill break in the pearl, it can best be removed by drilling from a point directly opposite, and slowly forcing the broken drill outward. This process requires great care in the regulation of the speed, and great exactness of direction in order to meet the broken drill accurately.

Pearl drilling was formerly a laborious process, and it was scarcely possible for a driller to perforate more than from forty to fifty pearls per day by means of the bow-drill operated by hand. Now, by the use of a modern machine, 1500 pearls of average size can be drilled without any difficulty in the same time.

Some of the most successful drilling of fine pearls is done by means of the bow- or fiddle-drill. The arm of this is made either of steel or of wood, with a strong cord stretched across it in the style of an archer’s bow. The drill is inserted in the end of a brass circular disk with a V-shaped groove on its edge, to admit of the string being passed entirely around it like a pulley, so that when the drill is placed on anything and held at the other side, and the bow is moved up and down, the wheel with the drill-end rotates rapidly.

If the pearl is not properly secured, if the drill point is too irregular, if it is not properly centered, or if it is too rapidly rotated at the start, one or more layers of the pearl are likely to be broken, giving an irregular, ragged appearance. If, again, the drill is rotated too rapidly as it is leaving the other side of the pearl, one or more layers are occasionally forced off, and this in turn will produce a break on the pearl. It happens not infrequently that pearls are broken away on the surfaces at both drill holes if the workman is careless.

As pearls have become more valuable, only the most efficient workmen are employed in drilling them. Whereas formerly a drill hole would be half a millimeter in diameter, at present it is much smaller, and such drilling requires the greatest skill in manipulation. The use of these very fine drill holes is due principally to the fact that pearls have become so valuable that the slightest loss, even the fraction of a grain, would amount to a considerable sum in a necklace of large pearls.

When a pearl has been perforated with a very fine drill hole, the hole may be enlarged somewhat by using a slender copper wire, the fineness of the drill hole itself, charged with either diamond-dust, emery, or sand. When the wire thus charged is drawn in and out, the drill hole can be enlarged to any desired size.

A large pearl is held in the hand or secured in a wooden block, or else it is held in a small pair of forceps with a rounded, cup-shaped receptacle at the end, which is usually lined with chamois leather and is pierced with a hole through the center. This hole serves as a guide for the drill, directing it while the pearl is being perforated. Adjustable cups or forceps with cup-like ends of every size are necessary, according to the size of the pearl; and in order that it may be properly seen, it is requisite that the pearl should always be larger than the cup in which it is placed.

The poorest part or spot is selected to form the beginning of the drill hole. The pearl is placed in a pair of calipers with a circular disk, one end of the caliper being placed on the spot to be pierced, the other end naturally touching exactly opposite, the pearl absolutely centering it. As these caliper ends have been rubbed with either rouge, lampblack, or some colored substance that will readily rub off, these two spots of color remain on the pearl and serve as a guide for the driller. The drill end is then placed on the pearl, and the bow moved up and down; and so rapid is this work that five pearls weighing fifteen grains each can be drilled with the greatest care in less than one hour’s time. Of small pearls, weighing about one grain, as many as fifty have been drilled in less than one hour by the hand-drill method.

Many of the thinnest and best drills are made out of thin steel needles. These are ground flat by means of a small carborundum wheel, so as to have two flat sides. They are then thin pointed, and with a V-shaped edge. These prevent the drill from clogging up, allowing the fine dust to pass upward and outward readily, and the hard steel almost invariably penetrates the central core of the pearl, no matter how hard or tough this may be. The needle-drill is then secured in a small chuck attached to the brass revolving wheel. Some recommend lubricating a drill with milk when it is employed for piercing a pearl, but a well-made drill, that allows the dust to escape as it is formed, does not require this treatment. The drill should always be made to revolve quite slowly so that no unnecessary heat may be generated by friction to injure the color of the pearl and also to avoid the possibility of the drill becoming clogged by the pearl-dust.

By means of centering calipers or markers, the driller, especially in the drilling of a large pearl, will generally drill first from one end, and then reverse the pearl and drill from the other end, meeting absolutely in the center. This prevents the breaking of the outer layer of the pearl. A skilful workman can, by turning the pearl, so operate the calipers that the true center can be obtained, even if the pearl is not absolutely round, and the drill holes so centered that the irregularity of the pearl is less apparent.

When the pearl has been half drilled through from one side, considerable caution is necessary in drilling from the other, that when the two drill holes are about meeting the drill be not revolved too rapidly, as the clogging is likely to crack the pearl or break the drill. If the pearl is only to be drilled one fourth or one half through, the depth can always be gaged by watching the drill-end, first, by measuring the drill-end itself, and, secondly, by noting to what part of it pearl-powder adheres.

Pearls are more easily manipulated than any other gems. They are also more easily damaged. Still, when properly treated by the workman, there is no material that offers him more satisfactory results than the pearl, if good judgment be used.

Drillers occasionally find that when the drill reaches the center of the pearl, there is a sharp click, the pearl often breaking at this point. This is evidently due to the fact that a harder kernel may exist in the center, such as a tiny grain of sand, which can turn the drill point; or else the resistance may cause the tiny drill to break.

When a pearl is cracked by a blow or by some accident, it is customary to drill it at the end of the largest crack; this method prevents the crack from extending in that direction. These fissures are sometimes partly filled by means of a solution, and may not be visible at the time when the pearl is bought, but they are liable to appear later.

To illustrate the difference in the care used in drilling, we have selected eight pearls from a paper of poor ones, and reproduce two views of them, one to show the irregularity of the pearls, and the other to show the varying size of the drill holes. Those on the left were drilled by an artist, while those on the right show the work of an inexperienced driller.

At present pendant pearls are never drilled entirely through, and rarely more than half way. But in the Orient, and even in Europe from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century, they were often entirely pierced; even pear-shaped pearls were entirely drilled through, with a metal edge projected below for safety. Frequently old pearls, and more especially oriental pearls, have been entirely drilled through, as are often large oriental rubies, diamonds, and sapphires. When these are set, the holes are either plugged with pearl shell and polished smooth, or a tiny ruby or diamond is set in a metal rim fitting entirely into the drill hole or only slightly projecting. This is well instanced in the portrait of Marguerite of France (1553–1615), in which the artist Delpech shows all the pear-shaped pearls worn by the French queen entirely pierced.

Frequently, where pearls have been drilled by oriental workmen, the drill holes are exceedingly large, five or six times the width of the silk string; in fact often from one to two millimeters in diameter. In the search to supply the great demand, many oriental pearls have been secured which formerly were strung to an oriental jewel by means of a thick wire; it is necessary to close this aperture, as the pearl would lie unevenly on the string. This is done by introducing a mother-of-pearl plug, through which a new drill hole is made. Unless the pearls are unstrung, this is rarely visible; but not infrequently the plug drops out. In other cases the pearl has been drilled not only from end to end, but also from the side, and this third hole is filled with a plug of mother-of-pearl and polished over so as to hide the blemish from the buyer. It is also no uncommon thing for a purchaser to find, after a year, that cracks begin to develop where none apparently existed at the time of his purchase, or they were so minute as to be considered of no consequence.

One of the earliest references to drilling pearls was made by Rugerus, a monk who lived in the eleventh century. He says:

Pearls are found in the sea-shell and shells of other waters; these are perforated with a fine steeled instrument which is fixed in wood, having a small wheel of lead, also another wood in which it may be turned, to which a strap must be placed by which it may be revolved. But should it be necessary that the aperture of any pearl be made larger, a wire may be placed in the opening with a little fine sand, one end of which may be held in the teeth, the other in the left hand, and by the right the pearl is conducted upwards and downwards, and in the meantime sand is applied, that the apertures may become wider. Sea-shells are also cut into pieces and are filed as pearls, sufficiently useful upon gold, and they are polished as above.[^[417]]

In “The Toy Cart,” a Hindu drama by Sudrake, who lived about the beginning of the Christian era, there is a description of a jeweler’s workshop attached to the house of a courtezan. He says: “Some set rubies in gold, some string gold beads on colored thread, some string pearls, some grind lapis lazuli, some cut shells and some grind and pierce coral.”[^[418]]

The Chinese and Korean method of drilling pearls differs materially from that of the Occident. A pear-shaped pearl is frequently drilled horizontally and secured by wire or silk, and not drilled perpendicularly, as with us, to have a metal wire or peg fastened into it. If the orientals drill a pearl perpendicularly, the hole is generally carried entirely through it, and a gold knot, which is used as a bead, is placed at the lower end, and sometimes a tiny gem is set in this peg, or else the pearl is secured either by some projection below, or by means of a bit of enamel, or some other object may be attached to the gold or wire below it. Button pearls, especially those of the abalone, are drilled horizontally through the base and secured to the ornament, or to the silk or other material on which they are sewed, by means of a thread or wire; or else they may be drilled from below by means of two sloping holes forming a V, the thread or wire being passed upward until it strikes the angle, and then passed outward again through the other branch of the hole. Many fine, round, and pear-shaped pearls of oriental origin may be seen with this end closed either with a speck of pearl, a diamond, or a ruby.

A most interesting and careful description of the methods of drilling pearls was given by James Cordiner in his valuable volume, “A Description of Ceylon,” published in London in 1807, pages 64–66.

Scraping ends of silk threads for stringing pearl necklace

Stringing a pearl collar in sections; cleaning and reaming out a pearl

Sliding a pearl along the string in pearl stringing

Tying a knot between pearls in pearl stringing

PEARL STRINGING

The next operation which claims attention is the drilling of the pearls. I neglected to inspect this part of the business; but have been informed that much admiration is excited, both by the dexterity of the artist, and the rude simplicity of the machinery which he employs. A block of wood, of the form of an inverted cone, is raised upon three feet about twelve inches from the ground. Small holes or pits of various sizes are cut in the upper flat surface, for the reception of the pearls. The driller sits on his haunches close to this machine, which is called a vadeagrum. The pearls are driven steady into their sockets by a piece of iron with flat sides, about one inch and a half in length. A well tempered needle is fixed in a reed five inches long, with an iron point at the other end, formed to play in the socket of a cocoanut shell, which presses on the forehead of the driller. A bow is formed of a piece of bamboo and a string. The workman brings his right knee in a line with the vadeagrum, and places on it a small cup, formed of part of a cocoanut shell, which is filled with water to moderate the heat of friction. He bends his head over the machine, and applying the point of the needle to a pearl sunk in one of the pits, drills with great facility, every now and then dexterously dipping the little finger of his right hand in the water, and applying it to the needle, without impeding the operation. In this manner he bores a pearl in the space of two or three minutes; and in the course of a day perforates three hundred small or six hundred large pearls. The needle is frequently sharpened with oil on a stone slab, and sometimes, before the operation is performed, is heated in the flame of a lamp.

The large pearls are generally drilled first, in order to bring the hand in to work with more ease on those of a smaller size; and pearls less than a grain of mustard-seed are pierced with little difficulty.

After the pearls have been drilled, they must be immediately washed in salt and water, to prevent the stains which would otherwise be occasioned by the perforating instrument.

A quaint description of pearl drilling was given by Anselmus de Boot in 1609.[^[419]]

Since all are not aware of the manner in which pearls are perforated, I wish here to give an account of the method. The handle. A, is held with the left hand, and then the handle, B, of the bow is pushed back and forth with the right hand, so that there is a reciprocal movement of the lance AC. The extreme end, C, has a needle, not so sharp as to come to a point, but slightly blunted. The needle is placed on the pearl which is to be perforated. If the pearls are too small to be held, they are fastened in the case, D, with a small hammer of soft wood, lest they should slip. The board is inclosed on every side by strips of wood so that the water which comes from the pearls shall not flow off. The bow being moved, the needle penetrates and pierces the pearl and it is not corroded by the water.

A mythical story, but a pleasant one, is told of a great pearl collector who had owned a wonderful pear-shaped pearl for many years and had absolutely failed to find any match for it. After years of fruitless search he was at last rewarded by finding an absolutely perfect mate. He took this to his favorite jeweler in one of the great capitals of Europe, and ordered the new gem to be pierced to match the other so that both could be set. The jeweler called a small German boy from an adjoining workshop, simply saying, “Jakey, drill this pearl to match the other.” The collector was dumfounded that no caution should be given to the boy when so important a piece of work was intrusted to his care. Scarcely had the boy left the room when the collector inquired of the jeweler, almost in consternation, “How can you trust so valuable a pearl to so small a boy without a word of caution?” To this the dealer replied: “Jakey is the most careful pearl driller I have ever known. I know that there will be no failure in the drilling. I have never cautioned him about such work. He never has drilled a pearl wrong. Had I warned him of the value of the gem or told him how important a piece of work he was doing, he probably would have become nervous and, as a result, your pearl would have been cracked.” The conversation had scarcely been completed before Jakey returned with the pearl as beautifully drilled as the original one which it matched.

In the Orient and elsewhere, when it is considered desirable to mount a pearl so that it shall not turn, especially when only one part of the pearl is perfect and that is to remain outside, the drill hole is sometimes made square, that is to say, drilled round and then reamed out with a small saw until it becomes square, when a square wire is inserted; or else the pearl is first drilled with a tiny round hole and this is then reamed out until it is triangular, when a triangular wire is introduced. This method is sometimes used for studs or ring-settings.

In setting pearls with points or claws on the wire or band of a ring, the pearls are drilled only half way through. A gold pin is then inserted, and sometimes a thread is cut into the pearl itself; it is secured by means of gum mastic or some other strong gum. Occasionally, to add greater strength, a side pin is put in, so that the pearl is drilled with two bits of metal, which penetrate the one side in a perfectly straight line and the other at an angle of about twenty-five or thirty degrees (this is called side-pegging). This gives more strength and firmness to the pearl itself, and prevents it from twisting or twining and becoming loose. Sometimes the pearl hole is drilled so that the opening is that of a screw-thread, in order to hold it to the earring, the stud, or the ring. The gold pin which is inserted to attach the pearl to the ring or stud has a screw-thread also, and the peg or pin is screwed on as well as secured.

An ingenious method, termed “keying,” for securing the peg in pearls to be set on rings or studs, consists in drilling a hole half through the pearl and then two smaller holes or grooves on each side of the first. Cutting tools of a T-shape are now introduced into the aperture and worked about until the pearl is undercut all around, so that when a peg with a cross-piece is inserted, the latter can be turned within the pearl until it sets at right angles with the widest part of the aperture. In this way the peg is permanently secured and cannot slip out.

The fact that in recent years more pearls have appeared in necklaces that are irregularly bored, that the bore holes are so large that they are plugged with mother-of-pearl, or that one meets with pearls in which a plug has been placed in the side immediately in the center between the two drill holes, is due to the fact that the great demand has resulted in the destruction of many oriental ornaments in which the pearls were drilled in various ways, as well as in the destruction of the different Magyar and other semi-official jewels of eastern Europe.

The most primitive known drills were the flint drills, made by the North American Indians by chipping chert or flint-like minerals to a fine point. With these rude instruments a large, irregular hole was made, which generally measured several times the diameter of the fine drill hole made by a modern pearl driller with an improved drill. The Indians are also said to have used hot copper drills for boring holes.

The earliest, and still a very general and perhaps the best way of drilling pearls, is by means of the bow- or fiddle-drill. This method has been used in a more or less perfected form by all the aboriginal peoples of the New World from Iceland to Tierra del Fuego. But as none of these peoples were familiar with fine, hard steel, they scarcely ever succeeded in making drill holes as fine as those that can be produced by the use of tempered steel. By the latter means, pearls half an inch in diameter are often drilled entirely through with an aperture no larger than a thin bit of straw.

The largest and finest pearls are frequently drilled with the smallest holes, as the slightest loss in weight means a diminution in value. Then, too, a pearl with a small drill hole is not so liable to shift on the string, and thus is less likely to cut the silk thread which holds the pearls together.

It would be difficult to enumerate all the tricks to which some jewelers now resort in order to utilize every fragment of a pearl they can lay their hands on. Some of them are wonderfully clever at reconstruction, but to the woman who loves pearls, nothing can take the place of the soft, beautiful, round gem, with its natural surface.

In sorting pearls for the smaller necklaces, it is customary to open up a number of dozen bunches of the East Indian pearls as they are sent from the East, strung, the ends fastened together in bunches, and then sealed. These pearls are placed on a table and are first arranged according to color and luster on the sorting board. They are then grouped according to size and graduation, the greatest care being exercised in the selection for color, luster, and form. In this way ten necklaces may be re-strung into ten others, the necklaces probably being improved as regards selection, or else better arranged for the uses to which the jeweler wishes to put them.

In the case of the larger necklaces, it frequently requires many years of selection and arrangement before one becomes perfect enough to pass the criticism or suit the fancy of the jeweler.

We have no record as to when the first pearl necklace was strung, nor have we a definite record of the first use of silk for stringing a necklace. The earliest illustration that we have been able to obtain of the use of pearls in the form of a necklace is the one from Susa, in which the pearls were secured with gold. A Syrian necklace, dating about one or two centuries before Christ, was strung by means of a bronze wire. We will endeavor to give a few facts on the interesting process of preparing pearls for wearing.

Pearl stringing is an art, easy as the process may seem, and it is interesting to note the precision, care, and delicacy with which the pearl stringer performs his task. The first step is to grade the pearls according to their size and color, so that they may produce the best possible effect. The largest and finest pearl is placed in the center; alongside of this, on each side, are laid the two pearls next in size which are the most nearly alike in form and hue; and so on to the end of the necklace. This grouping requires both experience and judgment, and is of great importance, since the value of the pearls is often considerably enhanced by a proper arrangement. A skilful stringer is able to grade them so cleverly that only a trifling difference will be found in the weight of the two halves of a necklace.

The stringing process consists in securing the end pearl by a knot to the diamond, pearl, or other clasp which may be used. When a necklace is being strung, the thread is passed through the metal eye, or pearl, or other object that serves as a clasp. It is then tied with one knot, passed through the next pearl, and knotted between that and the second pearl, and sometimes between the second and the third, thus making the joint doubly secure. The other pearls are then strung in their order, a knot being placed after each fifth, fourth, third, or second pearl, or, should there not be enough to give a proper length to the necklace, between each single pearl. The deftness with which the knot is tied so as not to hold the pearl too tightly, and risk the breaking of the thread, and the precision with which forty, fifty, and even sometimes several hundred knots are made on a single string, is a pleasing operation to witness, and requires the greatest care and nicety of touch. If knots are made frequently between the pearls, there is less danger of losing them should the thread break, as only one or two can fall off; sometimes, indeed, when the drill holes are very small, the silk thread, waxed or unwaxed, fits so closely that the pearl does not become detached even when the thread breaks.

The thread used is invariably of silk of the highest standard of purity, strength, and texture, undyed, and not containing any chemicals. Two or three of these threads are held together, then with a knife the edges are very carefully scraped till the combined material of the three threads is less than the thickness of one. Some use a needle to scrape or fray to a sharp point. Then this point is stiffened by means of “white glue,” the best material of this kind being pure gum arabic dissolved in water. A little of this is rubbed on the pointed threads. It stiffens in a moment, then the pearls are passed on, one after the other. If the pearls to be strung are already on a necklace, this process is simplified by the unknotting of the end of the necklace to be re-strung; two or three of the pearls are slid on to the new string, the ends or points of the new necklace thread are twisted together with the old ends and the pearls are simply transferred.

Frequently the holes have been drilled so as to leave the rims rather sharp; in this way the thread may be frayed out or even cut. This sharp edge can easily be removed by careful reaming. Silk of pure quality is the best material known for stringing pearls. A series of experiments were made with every available fiber of sufficient durability from every quarter of the globe, but silk alone was found to possess the strength, the flexibility, and the smoothness necessary to permit a very fine set of threads to pass through an opening as small as the drill hole of a pearl. In the case of a long chain or sautoire, more than three hundred pearls will be strung on a single row, one of over eighty inches in length containing over three hundred pearls, and it requires a degree of neatness and patience that few possess to do this in exactly the right way, so that the thread may not be cut, that the pearls may not be too tightly strung, and that the ends shall be carefully attached at the clasp, so that the necklace may hang well and there may be no danger of the ends breaking loose.

According to the frequency with which it is worn, a necklace should be re-strung every three, six, or twelve months. The proper time for re-stringing can generally be determined by the stretching of the thread so that it can be seen either between the pearls or at either end, giving the impression that one or more pearls are missing. A newly strung necklace is taut.

Where a collar is from thirteen to fourteen inches in length, there are frequently twenty-three rows of pearls, kept straight by four jeweled bars, and sometimes from ten to twenty-five pearls in a section between a bar. This would mean that there are more than two thousand pearls in a collar of small pearls. When one considers that at each bar and at the catch and clasp of the collar it is necessary to make a knotting, it is not surprising that it requires from three to four days’ time of a very expert pearl stringer to string or re-string such a pearl collar. A splendid example of such a twenty-three-row collar is that belonging to Señora Diaz, wife of the President of the Republic of Mexico.[^[420]]

Frequent stringing may sometimes serve as a protection for pearls, as, if wax is used, the drill hole is likely to become coated with wax from the thread, and this prevents the absorption by the pearl of perspiration or moisture of any kind through the thread. Indeed, the thread itself, when waxed, does not readily absorb moisture, and as the interior of the pearl also becomes waxed, this serves to protect it from the absorption of humidity of any kind.

In making pearl necklets or muff-chains, a piece of gold wire of the proper strength and pliability is taken. This wire is passed through the hole of the pearl and then cleverly bent into a loop on each side and firmly soldered. It is important that the wire should be very slightly smaller than the dimension of the hole in the pearl so that it may fit closely. Sometimes, instead of this method, a ring is soldered to one end of the wire before this is passed through the pearl, the other end being then secured in the manner described above. Still another method is occasionally employed; in this a piece of the wire is bent into a ring, but not quite closed, the aperture being just large enough to admit the wire that has traversed the pearl; in this way the wire can be introduced into the opening in the ring, which grips it tightly, and is then soldered to it. In many cases two small rings are strung on the wire on each side of the pearl before the loops are made, so that they interpose between the latter and the pearl itself. This serves to protect the sides of the pearl, as there is otherwise some danger that the hole may become chipped or ragged; the same result can be obtained if small caps, closely fitting the pearl, are used instead of the rings. This is, however, only possible when the pearl is quite round, and in this case the effect produced is often very attractive.

NECKLACE OF SEED-PEARLS. UNITED STATES. CIVIL WAR PERIOD.

Many of the pearls set as rings and studs are no longer set in points, but are set upon a peg, or are “pegged,” as it is termed. Setting a pearl in claws generally hides more than one half of the entire sphere. But if the pearl is not properly secured upon the peg, it will occasionally fall off. However, this can be obviated to a great extent by attaching the pearl to a double peg which keeps it from turning and also prevents its falling off. Pearls have occasionally been damaged with the shellac used, or when the gold peg on which the pearl is placed was too hot.

In mounting very small pearls as link chains so as to form a continuous pearly rope without any break in the way of gold links, occasionally V-shaped cavities are drilled into each end of the pearl, and the setting itself is hidden in this V-shaped cavity. This is only done where the pearls are small and not of great value.

The jeweler, in setting pearls, must use the greatest possible care, first, in cutting away the settings, as they are fastened to the pearl, not to scratch or mar it; and then, when he files the settings, not to allow the file to touch the pearl, as both the steel tool and the file would injure it. He must particularly avoid placing the pearl too close to a diamond, ruby, or other precious stone; for, even if the pearl only slightly touches the gem against which it is set, a knock of the hand may mar the pearl’s surface. More especially, as pearls are set at present, “pegged” and without points, it is of the greatest importance that they be worn in such a way that they may not touch the unexposed edges of any precious stones, as this also would injure the pearls. For lack of this precaution fine pearls have frequently been harmed.

A large jewelry firm has under consideration the following pearl order: Any workman who in any way mutilates a pearl by filing, imperfect drilling or shaping, or in any way affects the shape of a pearl, without the authority of the foreman, will be called upon to pay for the same.

As pearls are natural objects, any change of the same to fit the setting, or for attachment to any gold object, mutilates the gem and greatly affects its value. If belonging to a customer, this frequently means its replacement, often at a great cost to the jeweler.

Pearl “blisters” frequently have the appearance of being empty; they are generally filled with a fluid, either water or the product of animal and vegetable decomposition. These contents usually emit a peculiar and unpleasant odor. As the exterior of the inclosure gradually wears away and disappears, the contents of the blister are slowly absorbed by the shell itself, and any organic or insoluble substances are deposited on its inner surface.

Thus, when a shell shows any protuberance on this surface, the peeler will cut or scrape away a portion of the decaying shell behind the spot. Should he discover the hole of a borer, he lays the shell aside; but if he finds it to be perfect at this spot, it is evident that the inclusion came from within, and frequently it turns out to be an included pearl. This is removed by breaking the shell, or by cutting around the protuberance very near to its edge, and then breaking away the shell. The pearl is often visible, and layer after layer of the covering mass is removed with the greatest care by the peeler, who is rewarded by bringing to light pearls of various qualities, and frequently those of great value.

An instance in which, by opening a pearl blister, the speculator received a good reward is given by Streeter, who says: “The Harriet had the good luck to find, in 1882, a pearl 103 grains in weight, which was inclosed in a huge blister. It was a fine bouton, of splendid color in the upper portion, but a trifle chalky below. This was attributed to the admission of salt water into the shell through a hole made by a borer which happened to pierce the shell just where the pearl lay, and had penetrated the latter for almost a quarter of an inch.”

Sometimes pearl masses are hollow. Barbot[^[421]] mentions that a French merchant residing in Mexico, having bought one of these pieces from a fisherman at a low price, resolved to satisfy his curiosity by finding out what was inside. He split it in two parts and was agreeably surprised to find a pearl weighing 14¼ carats (57 grains), so round, of such good water, and such fine orient, that he sold it in Paris for nearly 5000 francs ($1000) in 1850.

Seed-pearl work was introduced into the United States, about seventy years ago, by Henry Dubosq, who had studied the methods employed in Europe and has been succeeded in this industry by his son, Augustus Dubosq. The father bought a large quantity of English seed-pearl jewelry, brought it to this country, and hired a number of girls to take it apart carefully and re-string it with white horsehair, to learn how it was made. With no more teaching, he established an industry that has already lasted for three score and ten years.

Seed-pearl jewelry was most in vogue from the year 1840 to 1860. It was generally sold in sets, in a case consisting of a collar, two bracelets, two earrings, a small brooch, and a large spray or corsage ornament. If the object was almost round, occasionally there was a larger central pearl, weighing from one to five grains, usually a button pearl; or, if the ornament was elongated, there were generally three larger pearls. These sometimes possessed a fairly good luster. Seed-pearl jewelry was at one time so popular, and the values were so small in this country, that a $1000 seed-pearl set formed a principal feature of the Tiffany exhibit at the International Exposition held at the Crystal Palace, New York, in 1855.

MOTHER-OF-PEARL SHELL FROM TAHITI
Illustration of a mother-of-pearl shell, showing where a blister has been cut out. In this instance a large pear-shaped pearly blister appeared almost in the center of the shell. A dealer removed this by means of a saw, and was surprised to find that the mother-of-pearl, instead of remaining intact, parted in two pieces. Between these two pieces was a mass of green and white calcareous matter. The two upper figures show the pearly side and the outside of the shell whence the blister was cut. The figures below show the inside and outside of each half of the blister and the earthy matter inclosed.
A is the pearl sawn from the shell.
B is the piece of pearl that parted from the back of this pearly mass.
C and F are two views of the included calcareous matter.
D is the reverse of A, showing the cavity.
E is the reverse of B; originally A rested on B.
There was no indication of any hollow space, or that the mass was not perfect.

Seed-pearl tiaras sell for from $75 to $200 or $300 each. The work is almost entirely done by girls, either German or of German origin. As labor is higher and pearls have advanced in price, none of the old work could now be duplicated for the amount it cost twenty or thirty years ago. The stringing of the pearls on the English scroll means probably twelve hours of continuous work. An efficient pearl worker receives $3.50 a day, which consists of not more than eight hours, as, owing to the very trying character of the work, clear daylight is necessary to see the holes in the small pearls and in the mother-of-pearl shell.

The foundation of all seed-pearl work is mother-of-pearl. The shell is brought in thin plates, measuring from one and one half to two and one half inches square. One of the most popular and attractive patterns is the English scroll. If a design is to be repeated, a brass figure is made. For the fabrication of a brooch, for instance, a design is first made by drawing on a paper or cardboard; then a brass plate or pattern is cut out, leaving spaces wherever there are to be no pearls. After this a slab of stock mother-of-pearl, nearest the size of the brass plate, is selected, and is sawn out, using the brass plate as a guide for the outlines. The mother-of-pearl is then pierced wherever a pearl is to be secured, and the pearls for its embellishment are chosen, and are strung onto the mother-of-pearl outlines with a special horsehair thread. All the work that remains for the jeweler is the addition of a pin or catch on the back. A representation is given of the designs, the brass plate, the mother-of-pearl, the horsehair, the pearls, and the completed brooch made by this model.

Fine horsehair is used for stringing seed-pearls, because the holes drilled in them are usually too small to admit of the use of silk, and it is very important that what is known as pulled hair, taken from a living horse, should be used, as otherwise the hair is too brittle. This hair, in bunches of from eight to fourteen inches in length, is sold at an average price of $1.50 a pound, and frequently only one ounce is selected for use from the entire pound.

All the pearls used by the seed-pearl workers are purchased in strings and bunches; the finest are those known as the Chinese seed-pearls; they are drilled and strung in bunches, weighing three ounces, and are worth $40 an ounce. They are drilled with so fine an aperture that silk will not pass through the pearl, and only horsehair can be used. The Indian Madras pearls, however, have a larger drill hole and can be strung with silk; they are at present worth from eight to fifteen cents a grain, that is, $48 to $90 per ounce.

Immense quantities of these very minute pearls are also used in bunches or strings, sometimes as many as twenty or thirty strings being grouped together and either bound straight or else twisted into veritable ropes of pearls.

Seed-pearls are sold by the ounce, a single ounce frequently containing as many as 9000,—that is, fifteen pearls to the pearl grain or sixty to the carat,—selling for from $48 to $60 an ounce. Naturally, some of these pearls are even smaller than this, but the average is maintained by those that are a little larger.

Pearls as small as 100 to a diamond carat are drilled and used in seed-pearl work. Diamonds, rubies, and even sapphires, however, are cut in brilliant form when they are as small as 250 to 300 to the carat, or 45,000 to the ounce. The price of these small pearls, however, is only from eight to fifteen cents per carat, whereas diamonds of this size are worth from $200 to $300, their value being three times that of those weighing one sixteenth to one eighth carat each. This is due to the fact that the labor expended in cutting the smaller diamonds is much greater than that bestowed upon the pearls, which simply require drilling and not cutting.

“Half-pearl,” as we have mentioned, is the name given to such pearls as are round and spherically domed and are either somewhat flat or almost the shape of one half of a whole pearl of the same diameter. They are produced in two ways: some are cut away as hemispheres from the inner surface of the shell of the pearl-mussel, but more usually they are the better portions of defective whole pearls which are sawn or split by hand into two “halves” with a minute saw, the defective part being rejected altogether or classified as inferior half-pearl, while the better half is classified as a I or II quality half-pearl. Frequently a fine specimen is obtained from an elongated pearl, and sometimes two, three, or even four half-pearls are secured from the various bright parts of a round pearl. In splitting half-pearls, the pearl to be operated upon is held by hand in a kind of grooved vice or pincers and sawn through with a very fine saw; this process is at once simple, rapid, and of insignificant cost.

Only pearls which cannot be cut are filed. In this process the poorer side of the pearl in question is laid upon the file, and the operator takes a piece of ordinary hard wood, so formed that he can grasp it firmly in his hand, presses it down upon the pearl, and rubs the latter on the file, removing all but the good side. In this way a half-pearl is produced.

The smaller half-pearls are from .5 to .75 millimeters in diameter, and an ordinary ounce of half-pearl material will number 18,000. Of the manufactured half-pearls there are, on an average, 20,528 to an ounce.

The half-pearl industry is largely carried on in Idar, on the Nahe River, and in Oberstein, in the Duchy of Oldenburg, Germany. The pearls are usually purchased from London or Paris houses in lots valued up to $12,000 or more, although some of the firms buy directly from India. In Idar about one hundred people are employed in this industry. Frequently it is pursued m the home of the manufacturer, who may employ from one to a dozen or more workers. These generally include a sorter or arranger, and a marker to indicate the part of the pearl which should be sawn off. There is also a trimmer or one who finally adjusts the pearls.

An unusually clever bit of deception was practised by an American pearl fisher who had found two pearl blisters of almost identical size. Both of these blisters were hollow, and were alike in form. The pearl dealer very cleverly polished down both sides, rounded off the edges, cemented the two backs together, and except for a tiny edge they had all the appearance of a drop pearl that was fairly perfect on both sides. It required but a little heating to separate the parts and show the deception.

In setting half-pearls, they are generally selected from large lots with great care as to their being of uniform size. A circular place for the setting is often drilled with a steel drill, either for several or for a single one. The half-pearl is frequently placed on one or more tiny disks of paper, to give it the exact height in the setting, and the edge of gold is rubbed up against the pearl, which is thus secured in its place; or else tiny edges of gold are left projecting between each pearl. These are pressed down after the pearl is in place. This process requires great delicacy and skill and is frequently employed in the decoration of pearl lockets and watches. In some of the cheaper work, the half-pearls are cemented into the shallow disks that were drilled for them, but frequently they are secured by metal points skilfully raised out of the disks in which the pearls are set, and then pressed down to hold the latter in place. Although apparently frailly set, it is surprising that half-pearl ornaments have been owned for more than a century, scarcely a pearl dropping out; and even if one or two pearls should be lost from the piece of jewelry, the expense of replacing them is not very great. They are often not as safely set when they are mounted with diamonds, rubies, or other stones, more especially in rounded rings or bracelets.

In drilling gold for the setting of half-pearls, where the hole must not be carried right through the metal, a so-called “pearl drill” is used. This is designed to cut a hole with a flat base in comparatively thin layers of metal without disfiguring the opposite side, a task that can easily be accomplished if care be taken not to drill deeper than is strictly necessary for the safe adjustment of the pearl. For the construction of this drill a piece of round steel wire of suitable size is chosen; this is hammered flat at one end and then filed away at each side, leaving a small spike standing in the center, which projects a little beyond the cutting edges and acts as a pivot on which the drill revolves. The steel on both sides of this spike is filed down to a fine edge, care being taken to preserve the horizontal line, so that when the spike is embedded in the metal both cutting edges come into play simultaneously. If the drill is in good condition, it does its work very rapidly, since it is used in an upright drill-stock, whose weight gives a uniform and constant pressure. A good range of sizes of this drill should be kept ready for use, so that one may be found to suit the dimensions of any given pearl. This is essential in order to make an opening just large enough to hold the gem, so that it may fit tightly, without the necessity of reaming out the hole.

Half-pearls were frequently used with the most pleasing effect in the decoration of antique watches. A number of remarkable examples of this type are among the collection of antique watches of Henry Walters of Baltimore. This collection had been acquired by Tiffany & Co. after the sale of the San Donato Palace, the watches having been withdrawn from the prince’s collection by his sister sometime before the sale.

In mounting pearls on gold, a white paste is sometimes employed in half-pearl mounting, which is called by the French jewelers gouache. This substance contains white lead, and its use is liable to be injurious to the workmen, cases of lead colic having been recently recognized as thus produced. This subject has lately (1907) been brought forward at the Société Médicale des Hôpitaux in Paris. The cases were at first mistaken for appendicitis, but proved to be well-marked cases of lead poisoning. They had not been reported previously, and are evidently not frequent, those noted being confined to instances in which the employees had carelessly been in the habit of removing an excess of the paste with the tongue.

Pearls that are constantly worn with judicious care do not seem to deteriorate in any way. By judicious care we mean that pearls should not be dropped or thrown down violently or placed on any substance which is likely to act injuriously on the surface of the pearl itself.

Strings of pearls should never be dipped into water or solutions of any kind, because the string which passes through them is likely to absorb and to draw the liquid into the pearl, and as the pearl is made up of many concentric layers, it is quite possible that, through capillary action, some liquid, either pure, or stained with a foreign substance, might be brought into the pearl, which would in this way eventually become discolored. Rings and brooches containing half-pearls frequently change color from this cause; but contact with the skin, or with lace, or with fabrics which are not stained with certain chemical solutions, seems to have no injurious effect upon pearls.

Ladies’ sewing case and scissors inlaid with half-pearls
Eighteenth Century

Watch incrusted with half-pearls
Paris Exposition, 1900

Snuff-box, ivory inlaid with fresh-water pearls
Eighteenth Century. Collection, Metropolitan Museum of Art

Watch incrusted with half-pearls
Paris Exposition, 1900

Miniature of Catherine Emilie Peake, by Richard Cosway. Gold frame, surrounded by half-pearls. Eighteenth Century

Watch incrusted with half-pearls
Paris Exposition, 1900

It is quite possible that in some instances where pearls which have been inherited are thought to have changed and lost their beauty, this belief has been owing to an exaggerated opinion of their quality on the part of those who expected to inherit them and who never had the opportunity to examine them carefully. In other words, in many cases where pearls are believed to have lost their luster, to have died, or partly died, there seems, from the personal observation of the writer, to be little doubt that they never were really fine pearls, and that no change had actually taken place in them. That pearls change but slightly is evidenced by the fact that a splendid necklace belonging to the Empress Eugenie, which was purchased about the year 1860, is in as good condition to-day as when it first passed into the hands of the unfortunate empress of the Second Empire. Many of the pearls in the royal treasury in Vienna that belonged to Maria Theresa, and those that were disposed of at the sale of the French crown jewels in 1886, as well as the pearls that are in the imperial collection at St. Petersburg, do not seem to show any appreciable evidence of age.

The pearl is of a lower hardness than any of the precious or semiprecious stones, and almost as soft as malachite, though not so friable or liable to break as is that mineral; nevertheless, it is in many ways one of the most indestructible of natural objects of the low hardness. Still, pearls, and especially fine pearls, require some care; but, if the same attention is accorded them as would be given to a fine piece of lace, velvet, or other fabric, or to a fine jewel, they will last for a number of generations. If, however, pearls are worn at all times without removal, if they are worn in the bath, if they are thrown on a dressing-table, dropped on the floor, or otherwise ill-treated, if they are worn on dusty automobile rides, in bicycle riding, or during other gymnastic or violent exercise, it is inevitable that their sides will rub together and wear one another away. If they are worn in the bath or in swimming, the silk string which holds them, should it become soaked, may draw some of the water, accompanied perhaps with dust and perspiration, through the drill hole into the center of the pearl, and this is likely to be absorbed in turn by the various layers of the pearl, in some instances undoubtedly affecting the color, changing it to a yellow or a gray. It would be well not to wear pearls under the exceptional conditions above mentioned; and, if they are carefully wiped at times, so as to remove any perspiration or dust, their color is not likely to be affected for a long period of time.

Dr. George Harley writes in the “Proceedings of the Royal Society,” March 1, 1888, p. 463:

On one occasion being desirous to crush into powder a split-pea sized pearl, we folded it between two plies of note-paper, turned up the corner of the carpet, and placing it on the hard, bare floor, stood upon it with all our weight. Yet, notwithstanding that we weigh over twelve stone, we failed to make any impression whatever upon the pearl, and even stamping upon it with the heel of our boot did not suffice so much as to fracture it. It was accordingly given to the servant to break with a hammer, and on his return he informed us that on attempting to break it with the hammer against the pantry table, all he succeeded in doing was to make the pearl pierce through the paper and sink into the wooden table, just as if it had been the top part of an iron nail, and that it was not until he had given it a hard blow with the hammer against the bottom of a flat-iron that he succeeded in breaking it.

As the foregoing and other notes had appeared on this subject, the author was led to observe that pearls are possessed of greater durability than is generally supposed. In order to demonstrate this satisfactorily, he took a number of American pearls and placed them upon different kinds of woods, such as white and yellow pine, white oak, teak, ash, cherry, chestnut, and rosewood. He then stood upon them, thus bringing a weight of more than two hundred pounds to bear upon them by means of his heel. The pearls were driven into the different woods, with the single exception of the rosewood, which offered greater resistance so that the pearl only entered partly. In but one instance did a pearl suffer by a slight scaling off. This shows the strength of the many concentric layers, both mineral and vegetable.

This does not signify that pearls should be stepped upon, trodden upon, or thrown about, as it is not unlikely that a pearl would crack if it should fall from some height upon a hardwood or stone floor.

It is believed by many that wrapping pearls in dyed velvets or in fatty woolen materials, and locking them up in safe-deposit vaults, may slightly change them. On the other hand, there is no doubt that sunlight will bleach a pearl, and hence it is that wearing them in the light and air cannot injuriously affect them.

For cleaning pearls, first rub them with a cloth dipped in alcohol diluted with warm (not hot) water, or in a weak solution of soap and water, then dip another cloth in clean water and rub the pearls until they are dry. Be careful not to leave them wet. Either salt, rice, pearl-powder, or some exceedingly soft substance may aid in cleaning them, but no abrasive such as ground pumice, electro-silicon, or any powder that is sold as a polishing powder, should be used.

EVOLUTION OF A SEED-PEARL BROOCH

Mother-of-pearl plate	Brass model	Pearl brooch completed
Design of brooch		Mother-of-pearl sawn out

Seed-pearls, Indian strings

White horsehair for stringing

There are many things that will cause injury to pearls. Occasionally they are affected by the wearer having exudations from the skin induced by some disease or else by acids which pass out through the pores with the perspiration. A smoky atmosphere in which a sulphuric acid is present owing to sulphur in the coal, violent usage such as knocking severely, or dropping—all of these will in time cause more or less injury to a pearl, more especially to one of the whiter varieties; but it is believed that those of a yellowish cast are not so susceptible. Diderot mentioned this as early as 1765.

The “life” of a pearl is said to be fifty, one hundred, and perhaps even one hundred and fifty years; they certainly last for several generations. It has been asserted, without any particular authority, that pearls from the Pacific Ocean and those from Mexico do not last as long as those from the Orient, but this statement is questionable.

If there be any foundation for the belief that it is not well to lock pearls in a safe-deposit box, this is probably owing to the fact that the absolute exclusion from the air may cause the drying out of the organic constituent of the pearl. This may be obviated by putting the pearls in a piece of linen absolutely free from any chemical, at the same time placing with them a bit of blotting-paper or fiber-paper saturated with water; the whole should then be wrapped up in paraffin paper, which will prevent the evaporation of the moisture.

Many sentimental recitals have appeared in the press during the last ten years in regard to the dying of pearls. In connection with this there is a beautiful though mythical story to the effect that Carlotta, wife of the ill-fated Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico, was the possessor of a large collection of pearls which had died, and that these pearls had been placed in a casket and sunk in the depths of the Adriatic, opposite the beautiful but unhappy palace home, Miramar, in the hope that the salt water would revive and restore their original luster. When, however, the time came to bring up the pearls from the sea, it was found that the casket had, in some way, broken loose from the chains, and all trace of it was lost. It is needless to state that there was absolutely no foundation for this romantic tale; indeed, these very pearls were afterward sold. Furthermore, pearls have never lived, and hence they can never die. They do, however, decay, if exposed to influences which destroy either the calcareous or the animal layer of the pearl itself. This is due to many causes: first, overheating, sometimes through the inexperience of a pearl driller; secondly, undue exposure to heat in the washing of a pearl necklace; thirdly, exposure to acids or acid fumes. Apparently there seems to be some foundation for the belief that if they are confined in safe-deposit boxes, probably in contact with wool or with the colored velvets of jewel-cases, the skin of the pearl may be more or less affected. There is no question that in the oriental fisheries so-called dead pearls have been found in the shell itself, probably owing to some disease of the pearl-oyster; and they have also appeared in the fresh-water pearl fisheries of the United States, where the pearls have been too long boiled in the opening of the shell, or where they have been swallowed and have passed through the body of some ruminant, such as a hog, etc.

Facsimile letter of M. Gaston Mogeaud, Director of the Louvre, Paris, stating that the Madame Thiers’ pearls are in perfect condition, and have never been in better health.

MADAME THIERS’S PEARL NECKLACE, BEQUEATHED TO THE LOUVRE MUSEUM, PARIS

Probably about no necklace has more been printed than about the famous necklace of Madame Thiers, now in the Louvre Museum of Paris. Article after article has gone over the face of the earth, stating that the pearls in this necklace were dying, and that a record was being kept of the slow death that was overtaking them. Through the courtesy of the director of the museum, M. Gaston Mogeaud, we are permitted to reproduce the following statement from a letter, showing very clearly that there is absolutely no truth in the assertion, and that this necklace has in no way suffered, or is likely to suffer, for many years to come.

“The necklace of Madame Thiers has caused much ink to flow, to such an extent that, a few months ago, the minister ordered an examination to be made by three expert jewelers, who have found that the pearls are in perfect condition, and have never been in better health.”

For assuring the safety of jewels there are the primitive methods such as are used in the East Indies, of hiding pearls in out-of-the-way places, where they often escape detection; or else they may be protected by means of an armored room, like the gem-room that contained the wonderful collection of the Duke of Brunswick when he resided in Paris. Decoy necklaces have even been made to represent the original, and so placed that they were taken away by the highwayman or stolen by the burglar under the belief that he was stealing the jewels; while in other cases the pearls have been carried in receptacles that would not be taken for jewel-caskets, a device resorted to by some travelers.

A word in regard to the former system of strong boxes or small safes for the home. These protect from fire and from the ordinary thief, but they have sometimes not proved so invulnerable to the expert cracksman. Quite recently a jewel chest has been devised which can be placed in a trunk and carried from city to city by the owner. It is provided with an exceedingly sensitive electrical apparatus, by means of which a loud burglar alarm is set off should the chest be lifted even one thirty-second of an inch or jarred ever so slightly. This alarm is set automatically when the owner turns the key, and if once started, it will ring for a couple of hours, stopping only when the box is unlocked, thus preventing the carrying away of what is otherwise a portable box.

Lastly, there are the more advanced methods, in use during the past two centuries, such as taking the jewels to a banker and allowing him to place them in his vault, where they are guarded as well as are his own belongings, but not always with the security of the modern safe-deposit vaults, where the gems are absolutely under the control of the owner, and can frequently be obtained at any hour of the day; or as safely kept as they are when deposited in the safe deposit of the jeweler, in whose establishment they can be cleaned, repaired, added to, or changed without risking their removal to another building.

XV

PEARLS AS USED IN ORNAMENTS AND DECORATION

XV
PEARLS AS USED IN ORNAMENTS AND DECORATION

And the necklace,

An India in itself, yet dazzling not.

Byron, Marino Faliero.

The brilliant diamond and the love of its possession has captivated many to such a degree that it has often been the cause of intrigue and bloodshed; and national history has been influenced by its acquisition or retention. The pearl, however, though the most quiet of gems, has, in its own way, found favor in the sight of emperors and empresses, kings and queens, generals, nobles, and priests; and even savages have admired its quiet, stately dignity.

The following pages are devoted to a description of the various ornamental uses of the pearl in different times and countries. Naturally, many of the famous pearls in the following chapter, if considered purely as ornaments, might have found a place here.

The Egyptians of olden times do not appear to have used fine pearls, although they probably knew of them on account of the proximity of the Red Sea. M. J. de Morgan, the explorer, says: “In the tombs of Dashour I have never seen any; the only ones that I know of in Egyptian jewelry belong to the Ptolemaic period and are mounted in Greek style.”[^[422]]

This statement is confirmed by Dr. William F. Petrie, the well-known Egyptologist, who writes under date of July 26, 1907: “The pearl was often used in Roman jewelry in Egypt, but I do not know of any instance of it in pure Egyptian work. The Romans pierced it and hung it by gold wire on earrings. They also made glass, pearl-like beads, called luli by the modern natives. These beads are made by silvering glass beads and then flashing over them another coat of glass.”

Among specimens of the late Egyptian work we may note here some objects in the Louvre:

A pleasing decoration on gold wire is a necklace in the collection of the Egyptian Gallery. In this very small pearls are used as a connective decoration for the points of leaves, and to hold the leaves and ornaments is a gold wire which is secured by bending. This piece comprises 104 pearls, a greater number than is contained in any other object of antiquity found in Egypt.

An Egyptian pendant of unknown origin is also shown in this collection. At the lower end is a bull’s head, caparisoned, and the tip of each horn is fitted with a ball like the embolados toros of the Spanish bull-fights. The rein is double, and above this there are two rondelles of an unidentified material; then comes a rondelle of lapis lazuli, and after this a rondelle of gold. The whole is strung with twisted gold wire. The center stone is an hexagonal amethyst, evidently a crystal, the two faces of which had been polished and incised. One of these faces represents a priest with a staff of office, and the other a priest holding an incense-burner with the hieroglyph of the altar. With one hand he is offering the two sacrifices, the mineral and the vegetable; in the other he holds a garland of flowers or leaves. Above this is an Oriental pearl somewhat worn and abraded. All these are secured by a twisted gold wire, to which four tiny gold beads of graduated size are affixed at the top of the pendant.

There are six other pendants and earrings in the Egyptian Gallery, all of which contain pearls, and in most instances these pearls have been drilled and suspended by metal wires, unless they are used as an ornament facing outward. In four instances they are secured by a peg of gold.

The Assyrian and Persian bas-reliefs show that the sovereigns and great personages of those countries adorned themselves profusely with pearls. They wore them not only in their jewelry, but also on their garments and even in their beards![^[423]] The coins of the Persian kings also bear testimony to the use of the gem in ancient Persia, since the sovereigns are represented wearing tiaras ornamented with triple rows of pearls.[^[424]] The same may be said of the imperial Roman diadem from the time of Caracalla (188–217 A.D.).

One of the most interesting of all ancient pearl necklaces,[^[425]] containing more pearls than any other that has been found, and in a better state of preservation, is the Susa necklace now in the Persian Gallery of the Louvre Museum. It consists of three rows, each containing 72 pearls, so that there are 216 in all. Ten gold bars, formed of three small disks, each about five millimeters in diameter, divide the necklace into nine equal sections; at each end there is a disk, ten millimeters in diameter, to which the three strands are secured. If there was any other setting, it has evidently disappeared, although it is quite possible that there may only have been a string at each end, as in the East Indian necklaces.

ANTIQUE ORNAMENTS OF PEARLS
No. 1. Gold pin from Paphos, Island of Cyprus, mounted with large marine and small fresh-water pearl, now in British Museum.
Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Gold earrings and pins set with pearls, now in the Egyptian Gallery of the Louvre, Paris.
No. 9. Pearl and gold necklace found at Susa, Persia, now in the Louvre, Paris.

This ornament was found on the site of the ancient Susa or Shushan by M. J. de Morgan, February 10, 1901, in a bronze sarcophagus, which contained the skeleton of a woman, adorned with a great number of gold ornaments set and incrusted with precious stones. M. de Morgan gives circa 350 B.C. as the probable date of these objects. The pearls were much deteriorated. About 238 were found, but many of them crumbled away when they were touched. M. de Morgan considers that the necklace was of the type of the “dog-collar” of to-day, and he believes that it originally comprised from 400 to 500 pearls.

According to a personal communication from M. P. Cavvadias, of the Société Archéologique d’Athènes, there are no pearls on the ancient ornaments preserved in the National Museum at Athens. This is hardly surprising in view of the fact that the greater part of these ornaments belong to the archaic period of Greek art; that is to say, to a time when the pearl was evidently unknown to the Greeks.

The fact that we do not find more evidence of the use of pearls in Greece at a later period need cause no surprise, when we consider how many of the treasures of Greek art have disappeared in the course of more than twenty centuries. There can be no question that they were known and used as ornaments at an early time, as we can infer from the description of them by Theophrastus and later Greek authors.

Dr. Edward Robinson of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and other authorities on Greek art and archæology, maintain that the Arethusa necklace, and other ornaments of that time, depicted on coins, etc., were meant to represent gold ornaments, as it is believed by many that pearls were unknown in Greece at that period.

One of the most interesting specimens showing the use of a pearl in ancient times is a very beautiful pearl pin from Paphos, on the Island of Cyprus, which is mounted with a large marine pearl, probably the largest antique pearl ever found, measuring fourteen millimeters in diameter, and weighing about 70 grains. This, unfortunately, has been very much abraded and worn away, although more than half of the pearl is still present. It is surmounted by a small fresh-water pearl, four millimeters in diameter, weighing about two grains and in a much better state of preservation. This unusually interesting example of prehistoric pearl is in the Greek and Roman department of the British Museum, and we are able to show it by the courtesy of the keeper of that department, Dr. Charles Hercules Read.

In excavations made last spring (1907), in the Hauran district in Syria, Azeez Khayat found a number of loose pearls which had formed a necklace. The tomb in which they were discovered was cut in the rock, and appeared to be of Roman origin. The pearls were still attached to the old bronze wire with which they had been strung. Mr. Khayat also mentions the finding of a pearl pin, and a single earring bearing a pearl, in a rock-tomb at Cæsarea, in Syria. Rock-cut tombs from ten to twelve feet in depth are frequently discovered, and they probably date from the beginning of the Christian era.

The habit was so common of using pearls as a base to throw up the brilliance of other gems, that we may, perhaps, believe even in Caligula’s slippers of pearls, with rubies and emeralds set upon them like flowers.

The Roman ladies had a special favor for pearls as earrings, and it was one of their consuming ambitions to possess exceptionally fine specimens for this purpose. They preferred pear-shaped pearls, and often wore two or three of them strung together. They jingled gently as they moved about—a fitting accompaniment, it may be said, to their graceful movements—and from this jingling the name crotalia, or “rattles,” was applied to them.

The description given by Pliny of the pearl ornaments of Lollia Paulina is the principal claim which the wife of Caligula has on our interest.

I myselfe have seen Lollia Paulina when she was dressed ... so beset and bedeckt all over with hemeraulds and pearles, disposed in rewes, ranks, and courses one by another; round about the attire of her head, her cawle, her borders, her perruke of hair, her bongrace and chaplet; at her ears pendant, about her neck in a carcanet, upon her wrest in bracelets, & on her fingers in rings; that she glittered and shone againe like the sun as she went. The value of these ornaments she esteemed and rated at forty million Sestertij[^[426]] and offered openly to prove it out of hand by her bookes of accounts and reckonings. Yet were not these jewels the gifts and presents of the prodigall prince her husband, but the goods and ornaments from her owne house, fallen to her by way of inheritance from her grandfather, which he had gotten together even by the robbing and spoiling of whole provinces. See what the issue and end was of those extortions and outrageous exactions of his: this was it. That M. Lollius, slandered and defamed for receiving bribes and presents of the kings in the East; and being out of favor with C. Cæsar, sonne of Augustus, and having lost his amitie, dranke a cup of poison, and prevented his judiciall triall: that forsooth his neece Lollia, all to be hanged with jewels of 400 hundred thousand Sestertij, should be seene glittering, and looked at of every man by candle-light all a supper time.[^[427]]

TYSZKIEWICZ BRONZE STATUETTE OF APHRODITE, SHOWING EARRINGS OF PEARL AND GOLD OF EARLY GREEK PERIOD
Now in Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Mass.

And the taste of the Roman ladies for pearls has perpetuated itself in Italy, though other of the luxurious habits which in their case accompanied it, have long since died out. The women of Florence even now are not content if they do not possess a necklet of pearls, and this generally forms the marriage portion of the middle-class women. It is thought, just as it was in ancient Rome, that this gives an air of respectability, and forms a sure protection from insult in the street or elsewhere.

One of the earliest illustrations showing a pearl earring is the one in the ear of Julia, the daughter of Titus, incised on a splendid aquamarine in the Bibliothèque Nationale. This gem was formerly in the Treasury of St. Denis, and is considered to belong to the Carlovingian period.[^[428]]

So large and heavy were the earrings worn in Rome that there were women known as auriculæ ornatrices, special doctresses whose sole occupation was the healing of ear tumors and of injured or infected ears. In a similar way, at the present day, we have the ear piercer, whose vocation, however, is rapidly becoming useless because of the ingenious modern devices for holding the pearls to unpierced ears; and we must consider this eminently desirable when we think of the ear-piercing outfits of the former jeweler, who never disinfected his apparatus, and when we recall the fact that it was always expected that the ear would swell, first, from the crude awl that was used, and, secondly, from the unsterilized instruments.

That the Romans believed in decorating the statues of their goddesses with pearls and dedicating them as offerings, is evidenced by the gift of Cleopatra’s pearl, which was cut in halves to make earrings for the Venus of the Pantheon; and by the buckler of British pearls for the statue of Venus Genetrix, given by Julius Cæsar. Quite a number of statues and busts of the Roman period, and some of an earlier time, have the ears pierced for the reception of earrings, and it is highly probable that pearls were used for this decoration. Among these are the busts of Pallas and Juno Lanuvina in the Vatican; that of Eirene, a marble copy of a work of Cephisdotus, in the Glyptothek, Munich, and the Venus de Medici in the Uffizi, Florence.

Pottier[^[429]] mentions several other Greek statues which show that earrings were used for their adornment; as, for example, the winged Victory of Archernos, in Delos; the head of one of the caryatids found at Delphi, a cast of which is in the Louvre; the archaic Aphrodite of the Villa Ludovisi; the Athena from the frieze of the temple at Ægina; the Venus of Milo, etc. In other instances the ornament was simply painted on the ear as is shown in the Aphrodite in white marble which has been found in Marseilles. This may also have been the case in the frieze at Olympia. The earrings used in these statues were usually metal disks entirely covering the lobe of the ear. We have, however, many representations of pearl earrings in the paintings at Pompeii, and on cameos and coins. These show us several of the types mentioned by Pliny and other authors; still, they are smaller and more unpretentious than we might expect in view of the well-known luxury of the Roman ladies in this respect. The greater part of the earrings represented show a pearl suspended from a single wire; there are some, however, with three pearls, one above the other,[^[430]] and a few bearing several pearls loosely hung together, answering to the description of the crotalia. Others, again, bear pear-shaped pearls or elenchi.[^[431]] It is a singular fact that scarcely any of the busts of Roman women are ornamented with earrings, but it is quite possible that the cause for this must be sought in the desire of the artist to dispense with unimportant details which might detract from the general effect he wished to produce. We may note, however, four female figures in the Gallerie des Empereurs in the Louvre Museum, with the ears pierced for the reception of earrings (Nos. 1195, 1202, 1230, and 1269).

Pearl earrings from Herculaneum and Pompeii

Many numismatists, among them Dr. F. Louis Comparette,[^[432]] believe that the necklaces and earrings represented on Greek coins from the fifth century B.C. are intended to represent pearl ornaments, since the personages depicted are in all cases female divinities, goddesses, or nymphs, held in great veneration in the city where the coins were minted, and it is almost certain that the artist intended to portray the choicest and most beautiful of gems as an adornment for the beautiful head of the city’s patron.

The Syracusan coins, by Euvenetus, minted in the early part of the fifth century B.C., and bearing the head of Arethusa, seem to be the earliest coins showing a neck and ear ornament. This was later imitated on the Greek and Greco-Roman coins. A coin of Sulla shows a double necklace, one strand consisting of round beads and the other of pendants. The later coins almost always represent the goddesses with neck and ear ornaments. Some of the latter, however, resembling amphoræ, are neither round nor pear-shaped.

In view of the great fondness of the Romans for pearls, it is not surprising that many of these gems have been found in the excavations at Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Capodimonte. The collection of earrings preserved in the Naples Museum is especially noteworthy. Here we can see earrings consisting of a simple golden hoop, from which hangs a wire bearing a single pearl; others in which a cross-bar is attached to the hoop, and at each end of this bar is a loosely hung wire with a pearl at its extremity, this earring suggesting the crotalia mentioned by Pliny (see Fig. A); and still others wherein the pearls are strung directly on the hoop. The cross-bars are of various designs, sometimes entirely smooth, and again shaped like a cornice or a pediment; in other cases we have an earring with two pearls on a wire, then a pierced transparent stone, and beneath that, two pearls terminating the large drop. A few of the earrings are more elaborate, as, for example, one represented in Fig. B which was found in Pompeii, March 8, 1870. Here there is an emerald in the center, surrounded by gold rays, between which were set eight pearls, two of which are now missing; above is a small pearl. The single earring shown in Fig. D came from Herculaneum, and bears a circlet of thirteen pearls, alternating with rubies and other stones; beneath there is a link from which depends a pearl about seven and a fifth millimeters in diameter, and weighing nearly twelve grains. The fact that we know the latest date to which these pearls can be assigned, namely, 79 A.D., renders them peculiarly interesting and valuable from a historical point of view. Naturally, many of them are calcined or otherwise damaged, but others are fairly well preserved as to form, although the luster has departed from them. There are twenty-seven earrings in the collection, and the pearls number about one hundred. No great pearls were found.

In the Roman excavations, and in those of other early remains, many objects are found in which there may be a sapphire, an emerald, or several other stones, pierced, and pendant on a gold wire, with a blank space between, showing that something was there originally. This object has apparently decomposed and fallen away. We may reasonably suppose that it was either a pearl or a glass bead, and it is unlikely that glass would be used in connection with the more precious materials. This pearl or glass may have been affected by the organic acids or the acids resulting from the decomposition of the body with which the ornament was buried for a score of centuries.

Among the ancient jewels containing pearls which are preserved in the Hermitage at St. Petersburg, we may mention a broken gold ring with a roughly cut turquoise and two pendants, each set with two pearls separated by a garnet. This object was found in southern Siberia during the reign of Peter the Great, and may belong to the second century before Christ. Also may be noted a pair of gold earrings, with an engraved six-rayed star, in the center of which a pearl is set, while below hang three pendant sticks, two of which have a pearl at the extremity. These earrings were found in 1892 in a tomb situated close to the site of the ancient town of Chersonesus, in the Crimea. As a coin of the Emperor Gordianus III (224–244 A.D.) was discovered in the same tomb, we may assign the earrings to the first half of the third century A.D.

Beside another pair of earrings, one of which is set with a pearl, and two pearl-headed pins, all from the neighborhood of Tiflis, in the Crimea, we may especially refer to an earring made of a plain, thick, golden wire, on which seven pearls are threaded; one of these occupies the center and the others are grouped around it. This earring was purchased in 1903 by the Russian Imperial Archæological Commission from a collector residing at Odessa; it is said to have been found on the site of the ancient Greek colony of Olbia, but we have no definite external or internal evidence to sustain this view.

We may also note the gold necklace and earrings[^[433]] containing pearls found near the site of Olbia during the reign of Napoleon III, and now in the collection of the Roman, Campana. These objects are especially interesting owing to the fact that the pearls are drilled and a gold cap is set on each side.

A pair of pearl earrings were found in a tomb on Mount Mithridates, near Kertch, in the Crimea. These earrings probably belong to the third or fourth century of our era. Of the four pearls which originally adorned the cross-bars, only one has been preserved. Another pair of earrings was discovered in the same place. It is probable that they were ornamented with pearls in a similar way, but the latter have entirely disappeared.

ANTIQUE PEARL ORNAMENTS
No. 1. Gold earring with turquoise top. Two pearls, two garnets, and two pearls. Found in southern Siberia in 1726; believed to be of the second century, A.D.
No. 2. Brass earring with one pearl and glass beads. Fourth century, A.D.
No. 3. Brass dress pin. Sphere of amber, surmounted by a pearl. Found near village of Mzchet Caucasus. Fourth century, A.D.
No. 4. Carnelian dress pins with pearl tops. Early Christian.
No. 5. Gold earring, hook and eye type. From Olbia, the site of an ancient Greek colony. Fourth century, A.D.
Nos. 1 to 5 are from the collection of the Imperial Hermitage in St. Petersburg.
Nos. 6–8–9. Pearl and gold earrings, Greek, from the Island of Cyprus. Second century, A.D.
No. 7. Roman brooch (pearls and gold), found in the river Thames, England. Ninth century, A.D.

Gabriele Bremond states in his “Viaggi di Egitto,” Lib. I, c. 30, that it was a Mohammedan custom to embroider baldachins and carpets of precious metals with pearls. This use is especially typified in a baldachin of gold embroidered with pearls which is over the sepulcher of Mohammed at Mecca.[^[434]]

When the Mohammedans captured the Persian city Ctesiphon, in 637, they collected an immense booty. Each of the 60,000 soldiers received the value of 12,000 dirhems ($1560), a total of $93,600,000. Among the treasures sent to Caliph Omar (581–644), in Medina, was a crown, perhaps that of Khusrau I (499–579), which Tabari says was studded with 1000 pearls each as large as a bird’s egg.[^[435]] There was also a wonderful carpet 450 feet long and 90 broad, with a border of emeralds, rubies, sapphires, and pearls, representing luxuriant foliage and beautiful flowers. Tabari states that it was called the “Winter Carpet,” because “the Persian kings used it in winter when there was no longer verdure or flowers, for whoever was seated on this carpet thought he looked out upon a garden or a green field.”[^[436]]

On the occasion of the marriage of the Caliph Al-Mamun (786–833) with the daughter of Hassan Sahal, all the grandees of Al-Mamun received slaves of both sexes as presents from the bride’s father. The preliminary negotiations were held at Fomal Saleh, and the road traversed by the bride and bridegroom to reach Bagdad, a distance of one hundred miles, was covered with mats of cloth of gold and silver. We are told that the bride wore on her head-dress a thousand pearls, each of which is said to have been of enormous value.[^[437]]

Describing the birthday festival of Kublai Khan (circa 1275 A.D.), Marco Polo says: “The Great Kaan dresses in the best of his robes, all wrought with beaten gold; and full 12,000 Barons and Knights on that day came forth dressed in robes of the same colour, and precisely like those of the Great Kaan, except that they are not so costly; but still they are all of the same colour as his, and are also of silk and gold. Every man so clothed has a girdle of gold; and this as well as the dress is given him by the Sovereign. And I will aver that there are some of these suits decked with so many pearls and precious stones that a single suit shall be worth full 10,000 golden bezants [about $25,000].”[^[438]]

In the Kan period, in China, the dead bodies of the emperors were embalmed and wrapped in a garment ornamented with pearls. They were then inclosed in a case of jade.[^[439]]

Speaking of the jewels of the King of Maabar, or what is now known as the Coromandel Coast, Marco Polo tells us: “It is a fact that the king goes as bare as the rest, only round his loins he has a piece of fine cloth and round his neck he has a necklace entirely of precious stones,—rubies, sapphires, emeralds, and the like, insomuch that this collar is of great value. He wears also hanging in front of his chest from the neck downwards, a fine silk thread strung with 104 large pearls and rubies of great price. The reason why he wears this cord with the 104 great pearls is (according to what they tell) that every day, morning and evening, he has to say 104 prayers to his idols. Such is their religion and custom; and thus did all the kings his ancestors before him, and they bequeathed the string of pearls to him that he should do the like.”[^[440]]

A favorite East Indian amulet is known as the “Nao-ratna” or “Nao-ratan,” and consists of “nine gems”: in former times the pearl, ruby, topaz, diamond, emerald, lapis lazuli, coral, sapphire, and a stone, not identified, called the gomeda. At the present time these stones are generally the coral, topaz, sapphire, ruby, flat diamond, cut diamond, emerald, hyacinth, and carbuncle. This talisman may suggest the Urim and Thummin or sacred oracle of the Jews, which was said to have been taken from Jerusalem in 615 A.D. by Khusrau II, the Sassanian Persian king.

The East Indian custom for persons of quality was to wear a pearl between two colored stones in each ear, that is, either between two rubies or two emeralds; and Tavernier noted, about 1670, that there was no person of any consideration in those regions who did not wear, in each ear, a pearl set between two colored stones. Another favorite ornament for women in India is a girdle elegantly embroidered, bearing a large pendant pearl in front, where it is fastened.[^[441]]

A necklace of twenty-seven pearls bears in India the name of nakshatra mālā, nakshatras (originally “stars”) being the name of the twenty-seven divisions of the Hindu zodiac.[^[442]]

In the Indian jewels often a small spot of enamel is fastened or melted on to a gold wire, and then one or several pearls are hung upon it; or beads of some gems, as sapphire, ruby, emerald, or even glass, may be added or alternated with pearls. Then the enamel stop-piece is turned down and the other end of the gold wire is twisted on to the setting, loosely, in such a manner as to swing freely. It is the effect of these dozens or even hundreds of swinging drops that add such grace and elegance to East Indian jewelry.

EAST INDIAN NECKLACE OF PEARLS, TABLE DIAMONDS, GLASS BEADS, GOLD AND ENAMEL
Property of an American lady

In China, such precious stones as the ruby, sapphire—both blue and yellow—the emerald, and the pink tourmaline, are not facetted, as with us, but are generally polished in conformity to the shape of the bead or other ornament, and never have a lathe-turned or cut appearance; they are either set in cabochon or as beads, rounded, oval, or elongated. All these forms, and the colors used by the Chinese, lend themselves well to combinations with pearls; and hence pearls are often found in Chinese jewelry, especially in those ornaments which are flexible and graceful, in which the pearls and gems are strung on wire and allowed to swing freely with a gentle tinkle when the wearer moves. This is not unlike the setting of such gems in ancient Roman times. An admirable example is shown and described in Bushell’s “Chinese Art” (Vol. II, plate 108, page 90). In this head-dress of a Manchu lady, there are combined with the pearls, jadeite, amethyst, amber, and coral, on a gilt silver openwork, with blue kingfisher feathers. This great cap of state is an admirable example of pure Chinese design and workmanship. The pendant strings of pearls are occasionally relieved by a bit of carved jade, carnelian or coral, especially the latter. Another example, the “cap of state” has silver-gilt openwork and immortelles (Taoist symbols), and is much enhanced in beauty by a decoration or inlay of plates of the beautiful blue feathers of the kingfisher, which are used so extensively and effectively in Chinese jewelry. The pearls are scattered at intervals over the cap, and ten strings of them hang from the sides of it. This is believed to be of Manchu origin by Dr. Stephen W. Bushell, the great Chinese scholar, to whom we are indebted for the use of the illustration. We are also told that young ladies in China wear a sort of crown constructed of pasteboard, covered with silk. This is adorned with pearls, diamonds, and other jewels.[^[443]]

The pearls on many Chinese ornaments were generally strung upon silk, often with half a dozen or a dozen seed-pearls above and below the large pearl, to hold the latter in place, and also to add a softness to the whole jewel. The end pendant pearl, even if pear-shaped, was usually pierced entirely through, and a wire that was worked through it was flattened out, and this gold head was again ornamented in some way. A Chinese pendant from the China-Japan war-loot offers an excellent illustration of this kind of pearl-setting. This was preserved in a double box of finely carved gold.

The rosaries containing 104 pearls, which are used to-day, were mentioned centuries ago by Marco Polo, and an excellent pearl string of this kind has been in the Russian Treasury at Moscow for over two hundred years. Dr. Stewart Culin, the archæologist, who has paid much attention to Chinese customs, informs us that the black and white counters made for use in games by the Chinese are called black and white pearls.

Dr. T. Nishikawa writes us in 1908 that pearls were used in Japan for ornamental purposes more than a thousand years ago. Large abalone pearls are found in images of Buddha made in 300 A.D. Fresh-water pearls, usually from Dipsas and Unio, were also used. A beautiful color-print was made by Hoku’ai of the first pearl, called “tide-jewel” by the Japanese.

Most interesting pearls are those in a brooch in the British Museum, which was discovered in 1839 while excavating a sewer opposite Ludgate Hill in Thames Street, at the depth of about nine feet, in a dark-colored artificial stratum of earth, unaccompanied by any remains that could aid in throwing light upon its history. It is four inches and a half in circumference, and is composed of a circular compartment an inch and a quarter in diameter, set with variegated enamel, representing a full-faced head and bust, with a crown on the head, and the drapery of a mantle, formed of threads of gold effectively arranged so as to mark the features of the face and the folds of the drapery; this is inclosed in a border of rich gold filigree work, set at equal distances with four pearls.[^[444]] Dr. Charles Roach Smith attributes this brooch to the time of King Alfred, and supposes it to have been executed in England by a foreign artist. He only ventures a conjecture that the head might be that of King Alfred.

Crowns, both ancient and modern, are richly ornamented with pearls. We shall treat of the crown of the Holy Roman Empire and of the imperial Austrian crown in the following chapter. One of the most interesting and ancient is the famous crown of Khusrau II (reigned 590–638), made in the latter part of the sixth century, which was brought to light by Shah Abbas after a thousand years of concealment in an obscure fortress among the mountains of Lauristan. It does not contain diamonds among its ornaments, but is incrusted with pearls and rubies.[^[445]]

From the representation given on the cup of Khusrau, the throne of the Sassanian Persian kings appears to have been as large as a couch; it was supported by four winged animals, whose model had been borrowed by the Sassanians from their ancestors, and it was covered with an embroidered stuff thrown over mattresses and cushions. If we may believe Tabari (“Chronicles,” trans. by Zotenberg, Vol. II, p. 304), this throne was of gold, enriched with precious stones, and surmounted by a crown of gold and pearls, so heavy that the sovereign could not wear it, and therefore had it suspended above his head.[^[446]]

One of the crowns in the Hermitage at St. Petersburg was discovered in 1864 in a tumulus near Novo-Tcherkask, with many other valuable objects, all of which had apparently been buried with some important personage. This crown resembles somewhat that of Reccesvinthus in the treasure of Guerrazar, although some portions of it seem to belong to the period of the Roman empire. The conjecture has been made that the crown may have been worn by a queen since it is decorated with a finely executed bust of a woman in amethyst. The crown itself is of pure gold, and was bordered with two rows of pearls, which have disappeared, leaving only the small disks to which they were attached; besides these, it was ornamented with a number of uncut precious stones. The date of this object cannot be exactly determined, although the consensus of opinion is that it belongs to about the third century after Christ. Possibly the bust and some other portions, which appear to be of Greco-Roman workmanship, are of this period, while the rest of the crown was executed one or two centuries later; it is about seven inches in diameter and two in height.[^[447]]

Toward the end of the year 1858 a French officer who lived in Spain, while making some excavations on a property he owned there, discovered fourteen small gold crowns. They were taken to the Spanish mint and are said to have been melted for bullion. New excavations on the same spot brought to light eight other crowns of considerable weight, of the finest workmanship, and incrusted with precious stones, pearls, etc. There is no doubt that these crowns were buried in the early years of the eighth century, when the Arabs, led by Tarik, invaded Spain and forced the Gothic dynasty to take refuge in the north of Europe. The importance of this discovery is very great, since it gives us positive evidence of the development of the goldsmith’s art in Spain at that early period. An inscription proves that one of the crowns was dedicated in the second half of the seventh century, and it is one of the few authentic memorials we possess of that epoch. In February, 1859, the eight crowns were purchased by the French government and placed in the Musée de Cluny. Two other crowns found in the same place were added in 1860, and complete the collection.

The largest of these crowns is that of the Gothic king, Reccesvinthus, who was King of Spain from 649 to 672. It is composed of a wide band of solid gold, ten centimeters wide and twenty-one centimeters in diameter (about four and eight inches respectively). This band, which opens by means of a hinge, is surrounded by two borders of gold set with the red stones of Caria, called “gemmae alabandenses,” and the band itself is studded with thirty large oriental sapphires of the greatest beauty. Thirty fine pearls of appropriate size alternate with the sapphires on a ground incrusted with the red stones above mentioned. From twenty-three small gold chains depend large letters in cloisonné, and also incrusted, forming the sentence: RECCESVINTHUS REX OFFERET. Each letter has a gold pendant with a pearl from which hangs a pear-shaped sapphire.

The crown is suspended from four chains, converging to a double floral ornament of solid gold, adorned with twelve sapphire pendants. This ornament, the leaves of which are open, is surmounted by a capital of rock crystal, then comes a ball of the same material, and the whole is terminated by the gold center to which the four chains are attached.

The cross, which is suspended underneath the crown by a gold chain, is remarkable for its elegance and its richness. It is of solid gold and is inlaid with six very fine sapphires and eight large pearls, each of which is mounted in relief with claws. At the back, the cross still bears the wire by which it was attached to the royal mantle. The inside of the crown is quite smooth; the outside is composed of elegant fleurettes in openwork, the leaves being filled with the same species of red carnelian mentioned above. There are thirty sapphires, all of the finest water, and a few of them show the natural facetted crystallization; the two principal ones, placed in the center of the band, are thirty millimeters in diameter. The pearls are of an exceptional size, and only a few of them have been injured by time. The total number on the crown, cross, and top ornament, is seventy, thirty of which are unusually large. The chains are each composed of five openwork ornaments with an enamel paste inlaid in the gold edge. A close examination of the crown shows that it had been worn before the king presented it to some church.

The royal Hungarian crown given to St. Stephen by the pope in the year 1000 A.D., when Hungary became an empire, is one of the most ancient crowns in existence. It contains 320 pearls and was procured in Byzantium. It was pledged to the emperor, Frederick IV, by Queen Elizabeth of Hungary, probably about 1440.

CROWN OF RECCESVINTHUS AND OTHER GOTHIC CROWNS OF THE SEVENTH CENTURY
From the treasure of Guarrazar, near Toledo
Musée de Cluny, Paris

In the cathedral of Prague (the metropolitan church of St. Vitus) there may be seen the crown which was made by the order of Charles IV (1378) out of four pounds, ten and a quarter ounces of gold. It is adorned with twenty-nine pearls, forty-seven rubies, twenty sapphires, and twenty-five emeralds. The value of the gold and gems was estimated at $10,000 in 1898, which is probably less than it would be worth to-day. The sacred crown worn by St. Wenceslaus was inserted within the crown of Charles IV at the instance of Queen Blanca. The golden scepter and the golden orb are of very beautiful workmanship. The scepter has six rubies, eight sapphires, and thirty-one pearls. There may also be seen in the treasury a gilded monstrance, in the style of the Renaissance, studded with pearls and precious stones, a gift of the princely family of Schwarzenberg. Within the same cathedral, in the tabernacle of the chapel of St. Ludmilla, wife of the first Duke of Bohemia, is the head of that saint, bearing a crown studded with 1800 pearls.[^[448]]

The crown of Vladimir, with its singular and thoroughly Russian form, is preserved in the treasury of the Kremlin at Moscow, and has been used at the coronation of all the Russian emperors. It has borne the name of the crown or cap of Monomachus from the reign of Ivan IV. Although, to judge from this designation, the crown was probably executed in the twelfth or thirteenth century, there is a legend to the effect that it was sent, in 988, from Byzantium by the ruler as a gift to St. Vladimir. It is executed in filigree work, and is surmounted by a plain cross with four pearls at the extremities; between these pearls are set a topaz, a sapphire, and a ruby. The crown itself is ornamented with four emeralds, four rubies, and twenty-five pearls from Ormus, set in gold. The cap has a bordering of sable fur, and is lined with red satin. (See Maskell, “Russian Art,” London, 1884, p. 125.)

The imperial state crown of her Majesty Queen Victoria, was made in the year 1838 by Messrs. Rondell and Bridge, with jewels taken from old crowns, and others furnished by command of her Majesty. It consisted of diamonds, pearls, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds, set in silver and gold. It had a crimson velvet cap with ermine border, and was lined with white silk. Its gross weight was thirty-nine ounces five pennyweights troy. The lower part of the band above the ermine border consisted of a row of 129 pearls, and the upper part of a row of 112 pearls; between these rows, in the front of the crown, was a large sapphire (partly drilled) purchased for the crown by his Majesty George IV. In the front of the crown, and in the center of a diamond Maltese cross, was the famous ruby said to have been given to Edward, Prince of Wales (the Black Prince), by Don Pedro, King of Castile, after the battle of Nájera, near Vittoria, 1367 A.D. This ruby was worn in the helmet of Henry V at the battle of Agincourt, 1415 A.D. It was pierced quite through, after the eastern custom, the upper part of the piercing being filled up by a small ruby. From the Maltese cross issued four imperial arches composed of oak leaves and acorns, thirty-two pearls forming the acorns. From the upper part of the arches were suspended four large pendant, pear-shaped pearls with rose diamond cups.[^[449]] Writing in 1850, Barbot, the French jeweler, placed the value of this crown at $600,000.

The crown of St. Edward, the official crown of England, is used at each coronation.[^[450]] The original crown of this name was destroyed by the republicans in 1649, but at the time of the coronation of Charles II, another crown was made to take its place, under the direction of Sir Robert Viner. As far as can be known, this crown was an exact copy of the older one, which was worn by Edward the Confessor, and perhaps even by King Alfred. The crown in use at present is of gold, richly studded with pearls and precious stones of various kinds: diamonds, rubies, emeralds, and sapphires. There is a mound of gold on top, and on this a cross of gold ornamented with very large oval pearls, one attached to the top and the two others pendant from the ends of the cross. The present arrangement of the jewels cannot date back earlier than 1689, as the crown was found to be despoiled of them at the time of the accession of William and Mary. Those now in the crown are acknowledged to be inferior to the former ones.

The orb or mound which is placed in the king’s hand immediately after his coronation, is a ball of gold, six inches in diameter, surrounded by a band of the same metal ornamented with roses of diamonds set around other precious stones, and bordered with pearls. It is surmounted by a cross, embellished with four larger pearls at the angles near its center, and three others at the ends. The orb, including the cross, is eleven inches high, and it is figured on the coins of many of the English kings, who are represented holding it in their left hands.

The regalia of Scotland,[^[451]] consisting of the crown, scepter, and sword of state, are preserved in the castle of Edinburgh. It is not certainly known at what time this crown was executed. At the coronation of Robert Bruce (1274–1329) a simple circlet of gold was used; this fell into the hands of the English after the battle of Methven in 1306. In 1307 Edward I issued a pardon at the request of his “beloved Queen Margarate,” to a certain Galfredus de Coigniers, who was said to have concealed and kept “a certain coronet of gold with which Robert the Bruce, enemy and rebel of the King, had caused himself to be crowned in our own Kingdom of Scotland.”

Photograph by W. & D. Downey, London
HER MAJESTY, QUEEN ALEXANDRA OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, EMPRESS OF INDIA

Sir Walter Scott, in his account of the regalia, gives it as his opinion that the present crown was probably made for Robert Bruce at a later date, and that it was used at the coronation of his son, David II (1324–1376). The style of workmanship indicates a fourteenth-century origin. The crown was originally open and was arched over by James V (1512–1542). As Scott notes, this was done to many royal crowns in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, in order to assimilate them to the type of the old imperial crowns.

The following description is slightly abridged from that given by Sir Walter Scott:

The lower part consists of two circles, the undermost much broader than that which rises over it; both are of the purest gold and the uppermost is surmounted by a range of fleur-de-lis interchanged with crosses fleurées, and with knobs or pinnacles of gold topped with large pearls; this produces a very rich effect. The under and broader circle is adorned with twenty-two precious stones, betwixt each of which is interposed an oriental pearl. The stones are topazes, amethysts, emeralds, rubies and jacinths; they are not polished by the lapidary, or cut into facets in the more modern fashion, but are set plain, in the ancient style of jewellers’ work. The smaller circle is adorned with small diamonds and sapphires alternately. These two circles, thus ornamented, seem to have formed the original Diadem or Crown of Scotland, until the reign of James V, who added two imperial arches rising from the circle, and crossing each other, closing at the top in a mound of gold, which again is surmounted by a large cross patée ornamented with pearls and bearing the characters J.R.V. These additional arches are attached to the original crown by tacks of gold, and there is some inferiority in the quality of the metal.

The bonnet or tiara worn under the crown was anciently of purple, but is now of crimson velvet, turned up with ermine—a change first adopted in the year 1695. The tiara is adorned with four superb pearls set in gold, and fastened in the velvet which appears between the arches. The crown measures about nine inches in diameter, twenty-seven in circumference, and about six and a half in height from the bottom of the lower circle to the top of the cross.

The scepter, made by order of James V at the time he added the arches to the crown, is a slender silver rod about thirty-nine inches long. An antique capital of embossed leaves supports three small figures representing the Virgin Mary, St. Andrew, and St. James, above which is a crystal ball, surmounted by an oriental pearl.

The regalia have passed through many vicissitudes. After the execution of Charles I, his son Charles II was crowned King of Scotland at Scone on January 1, 1651. On the advance of the parliamentary army into Scotland, the regalia were placed in the care of the Earl Mareschal who preserved them in his castle of Dunrottar, and here they were kept until the castle was besieged and on the point of falling into the hands of the English. In this extremity, they were rescued by Christian Fletcher, wife of the Rev. James Granger, minister of Kinneff. She obtained permission from the English general to pay a visit to the Lady Mareschal and succeeded in carrying off the regalia. Her husband buried them in the church of Kinneff, just in front of the pulpit. When they were brought to light again after the Restoration, an Act of Parliament was passed which, after reciting Christian Fletcher’s services in the matter, stated: “Therefore, the King’s Majestie, with advice of his estates in Parliament, doe appoint Two Thousand Merks Scots to be forthwith paid unto her by his Majestie’s thresaurer, out of the readiest of his Majestie’s rents, as a testimony of their sense of her service.”

In 1707, after the union of England and Scotland, it was considered wiser to remove the regalia from public view, since they were calculated to arouse memories of the old Scotch monarchy. These precious objects were therefore inclosed in a chest, which was their usual receptacle, and locked up in the crown-room, a strong vaulted apartment in Edinburgh Castle. There the regalia remained until 1817, when, as doubts had been expressed as to their existence, a commission of investigation was appointed, one of the members being Sir Walter Scott. The chest—which had probably been the jewel-safe of the Stuarts—was forced open, and the regalia were found within, just as they had been deposited in 1707.

An imperial German crown does not exist; a design has been made and accepted, but at the present date, 1907, it has not yet been executed. On festive occasions, when the imperial insignia are necessary, the Prussian insignia are used, especially the Prussian royal crown. This consists of a circlet of gold set with thirteen diamonds. On this are five leaves, each composed of three larger diamonds and a smaller one, and four prongs, each bearing a diamond and above it a large pearl. From the five leaves start the same number of semicircular arches, tapering toward the central point, where they unite. Each of these is set with ten diamonds of decreasing size. On the center rests an imperial globe. It consists of a large Indian-cut sapphire,—the counterpart of the one on the Austrian imperial crown, evidently dating from the time of the Crusades,—and above it rises a chaplet ornamented with diamonds. The crown has a lining of purple velvet reaching to the arches. Between the arches are eight pearl pendants of an average weight of 80 grains; they are 25 millimeters in length, and have a fine, brilliant white color, although they are not perfectly regular in form.

In addition there belongs to the regalia a pearl necklace of three rows; the first consists of thirty-seven pearls averaging 28 grains each; the second of thirty-nine pearls averaging 34 grains, and the third of forty-five pearls averaging 39 grains. There is also a guard chain of 114 pearls, averaging 20 grains, making a total of 2280 grains for the chain. These pearls are also of irregular form.[^[452]]

The crown jewels of the Sultan Abdul-Aziz (1830–1876) were of immense richness and value. At the exhibition in Vienna, 1873, many of these were exhibited in a building created specially for the purposes of display and protection. They were in five compartments, in what might be termed five impregnable fire-proof safes of a peculiar construction. Among other interesting objects was the armor of Sultan Murad I (1319–1389), the founder of the Ottoman empire in Europe. This armor is of the most delicate oriental workmanship. Diamonds, pearls, and rubies are worked broadcast over it with exquisite taste.[^[453]]

In Germany and Austro-Hungary there are many valuable ecclesiastical ornaments, some of which possess great interest for the history of early German art. They also serve to show the appreciation of the pearl even in the Dark Ages and the Early Renaissance period.

One of the most curious productions of early German art is a reliquary in the form of a sack, which is from Enger near Herford, and is exhibited in the Kunstgewerbe Museum in Berlin. It is set with cameos and pearls; several of the latter have dropped out; a few, however, remain in their setting. According to a very probable tradition, this reliquary was given by Charlemagne to the Saxon duke, Wittekind, on the occasion of his baptism in 785. It is of very rude and primitive workmanship and, if we accept the tradition, it is not unlikely that it was executed at Aix-la-Chapelle.[^[454]]

An interesting example of German art, from the time of Archbishop Egbert of Treves (977–993), is a frame now in the Beuth-Schinkel Museum, at Charlottenburg. This was probably the framework of a portable altar. It is decorated with a simple geometrical design in the three primary colors, and has four polished stones and four pearls on the outer border of gold filigree. Another example of the art of Treves at the time of Archbishop Egbert is the Echternacher Codex. The gold-plated cover is a worthy product of the school: ivory, enamel, and mosaic are combined in its decoration with rows of pearls. Among the representations of many saints, appears the figure of the Empress Theophanu, daughter of the Greek emperor, Romanos II, with the inscription “Theophaniu imp.” Opposite is a youthful figure, probably that of her son, Otho III. It seems likely that the work was executed, at the command of the empress, between 983 and 991.[^[455]]

In the cathedral of Treves is the portable altar known as the altar of St. Andrew. This was primarily a reliquary and secondarily an altar. In memory of the relic of the sandal of St. Andrew, which was greatly prized by Archbishop Egbert, this altar bears the representation of a foot executed in wood and covered with plates of gold. The front of the case is divided into three fields; that in the middle containing a Byzantine lion in gold relief, and the others the symbols of the four evangelists in enamel work. The border is formed of rectangular pieces of enamel and smaller ones of gold, and it is set with round stones alternating with half-pearls; the ends are covered with filigree and enamel work wherein are embedded strings of pearls. A coin of Justinian II is set in the middle of the back of the case and is surrounded by a wreath of larger pearls.[^[456]]

A gold cross, the work of Rogkerus Theophilus, is in the Kunstgewerbe Museum in Berlin, and comes from Herford. The frame, which is of wood, is covered with plates of gold; at the extremities and in the center are groups of precious stones surrounded by pearls; at the base is a fine Augustan cameo with a wreath of pearls; the entire cross is covered with filigree work and decorated with pearls in groups of threes. The arrangement of the precious stones, and the enhancement of their beauty by means of the circles of pearls, are highly artistic. As a work of Rogkerus, this cross must have been executed at the very end of the eleventh century and it may be regarded as one of the finest examples of the art of this period.[^[457]]

A very rich collection of ecclesiastical ornaments is contained in the treasury of the cathedral of Gran in Hungary.[^[458]] One of the most interesting objects is a reliquary in the form of a Latin cross, which is of great historical and artistic value. An inventory made after 1528 describes it briefly: “crux aurea continens lignum vitae” (a gold cross containing the wood of life). Although this reliquary probably belongs to the end of the twelfth century, the inventory of 1659 describes it as a gift of King Stephen, and proceeds to say that the kings of Hungary took their coronation oath upon it. This custom has been preserved to the present day, and Emperor Francis Joseph, on the occasion of his coronation as King of Hungary, June 8, 1867, swore, upon this cross, to uphold the constitution and the laws of the land. The cross is decorated with plates of gold in filigree design, and has four en cabochon cut sapphires and eighteen oriental pearls.

The greatest treasure of the collection is known as the cross of Corvinus, King of Hungary, and is decorated with a great number of pearls.[^[459]] It is a remarkable example of early Italian Renaissance art. The entire structure is about twenty-eight inches high; the pedestal is triangular and ornamented with pearls and precious stones; three sphinxes bearing shields with the arms of Corvinus support a disk from which springs a triangular support sloping outward; on the three sides are mythological figures. Upon this base rests the chapel, a light Gothic structure with the figure of the Saviour bound to a pillar in the center, and the busts of three prophets in the niches outside. Above all is the crucifix, on each side of which are figures of the Blessed Virgin and of St. John. Around the base and about each division of this elaborate design is a row of pearls; the Gothic chapel is surmounted by a close-set row, and each of its six pinnacles terminates in an oval pearl. The cross itself has fifteen large pearls disposed in twos and threes, and many smaller ones. There are at least two hundred pearls on the whole structure.

Another cross, with the arms of the primate, George Szolepchényi, and bearing the date 1667, is of pure design and richly decorated with pearls and precious stones.[^[460]] It is quite possible that this cross, which seems to belong to a better period, was bought by the archbishop, who afterward added his arms. There are thirteen oriental pearls, three at the top, three at the end of each of the arms, and four at the intersection. This cross was used as an “instrumentum pacis,” for the kiss of peace, on solemn occasions such as coronations.

We may also note the pendant with the image of the Virgin Mary as patroness of Hungary, which is of gold enamel and has two pendant pearls and a sapphire, and likewise the pectoral cross of the primate, Emerich Losy; this is of gold, decorated with green, blue, and black enamel, and has three pendant pear-shaped pearls, one quite large, as well as thirty-four smaller round pearls.

Among the many valuable and interesting objects in the treasury of the house and chapel of Maria Loretto am Hradschin,[^[461]] at Prague, there is a monstrance of silver-gilt, thirty-seven and a half inches high and fifteen and three quarter inches wide. It dates from the beginning of the eighteenth century, and is not a harmonious whole, but only a combination of different ornaments of precious stones, corals, and several hundred pearls of various sizes. All these are the devotional offerings of now unknown givers, and many of the pieces are of artistic workmanship. This monstrance owes its origin to Josef von Bilin, who was a monk of the Capuchin order and a sacristan of Maria Loretto. On account of the many pearls which adorn it, it is known by the name of the “Pearl Monstrance.”

Another monstrance of Arabic gold, of the year 1680, is twenty inches high and is studded with fifty-one pearls, of which twenty-nine surround the disk, while the remainder are on the plate and the base. There are also two crowns of silver-gilt for the statues of the Virgin and of the Infant Jesus. The larger of these crowns has eighteen diamonds, a ruby, and 102 pearls set in two rows; while the smaller has nineteen diamonds and a great number of pearls; both crowns are made up of the offerings of the faithful.

In a historic description of the pearls in the treasury of the Kremlin, Margeret, a Burgundian captain (“Estat de l’empire de Russie,” 1649), says that the treasury was “full of all kinds of jewels, principally pearls, for they are worn in Russia more than in the rest of Europe. I have seen fifty changes of raiment for the emperors around each of which there were jewels for a bordering, and the robes were entirely bordered with pearls, some with a border of pearls measuring a foot, half a foot, or four inches in width. I have seen dozens of bed-coverings embroidered with pearls.”[^[462]]

In the treasury of the celebrated Troiza Monastery near Moscow, there is an immense collection of ornamental objects for ecclesiastical use, the value of which has been estimated at many millions of rubles. Here may be seen miters and bishops’ crooks—many of them of solid gold and set with precious stones—Bibles and missals in golden bindings, priestly vestments, altar-cloths, etc., all literally covered with pearls. There is also a dish filled with large pearls of enormous value.[^[463]]

The use of fresh-water pearls in one of the most interesting ecclesiastical objects of antiquity is shown in the “Shrine of St. Patrick’s Gospels,” which is in the Dublin Museum. It was purchased by the Irish Royal Academy in 1845 for £300 ($1500). This shrine, known as the “domnach airgid,” is of Irish manufacture and was perhaps made in the eleventh or twelfth century. It was found in the neighborhood of Clones, in County Monaghan, and is ornamented with three bosses which contained uncut crystals, and are decorated with figures of grotesque animals and traceries enameled in blue paste; between these may be seen representations of four horsemen. On each of the four corners there was a fresh-water pearl, one of which still remains in its setting. According to George Petrie, LL.D., in his “Christian Inscriptions in the Irish Language,” the shrine bears an inscription to the effect that it was made by John O’Barrdan at the instance of John O’Carbry, Abbot of Clones, who died in 1353.

CROWN OF ST. EDWARD
The official crown of England

Dr. R. F. Scharff informs us that there is also in the Dublin Museum a modern Celtic gold brooch, presented to Queen Victoria on the occasion of her visit to Ireland in 1849, and containing a pearl of beautiful luster, discovered in Lough Esk, which is in the western part of Ireland. Dr. Scharff says that this pearl is undoubtedly from the Margaritifera margaritifera.

Mr. W. Forbes Howie of Dublin writes that the shrine of O’Donnel, made in 1084, originally contained pearls. It still retains some pieces of amber and coral. Mr. Howie believes that fresh-water pearls were freely used in the decoration of ancient Irish shrines.

The inventories of jewels and ornaments belonging to the kings and queens of France, to the nobility, and to the treasures of the Sainte-Chapelle, in Paris, and of the abbey and church of St. Denis, all mention a large number of objects decorated with pearls.[^[464]] The more important of these are given below.

The following ornaments decorated with pearls are mentioned in the inventory of Louis, Duke of Anjou, which was made circa 1360:[^[465]]

A large silver-gilt foot for a vase or chalice, resting upon six lions couchant, and set with groups of four pearls with a garnet in the middle.

A half girdle of gold with a hinge bearing two ornaments, one a balas set between two eagles. Between the ornaments is a gold bar set with eight pearls in two rows. In front is a clasp with a large sapphire in the middle, surrounded by two balases and two sapphires alternating with pearls.

A gold brooch having a balas-ruby in the middle, and at each side four sapphires and four clusters each of five quite large pearls.

A gold brooch of a very pretty design, with five balas-rubies, two sapphires, and eight very round pearls weighing about four carats each. At each end of the brooch is a flat pearl weighing about five carats.

There is in the Bibliothèque Nationale[^[466]] in Paris, the original record of the execution of the testament of the Comte de Montpensier, son of the Duc de Berri. This document was written in 1398, and it mentions that the sale of the jewels and plate of the count produced the sum of “2390 livres tournois 11 sols 3 deniers [about $8265].” In the record we have a description of “a large gold cup, weighing 5 marcs, 7 ounces, 1 gros [nearly 3 lbs.], whereon there is a crown of precious stones.” The decoration of the cup comprised thirty large pearls, six balas-rubies, and four sapphires, and we are told that the Duc de Berri retained it for his own use.

An early mention of the use of pearls in rings occurs in the inventory of the Duc de Berri,[^[467]] to whom we have just referred. This inventory, which was made in 1416, notes a gold ring with black enamel, set with a pearl called “the great pearl of Berri.”

The inventory of the personal property of Marguerite, Countess of Flanders, the mother of the Duke of Burgundy, was made in 1405.[^[468]] In this inventory we have a list of an immense number of ornamental objects of every sort and kind, and everything, from the ducal crown to the smallest trinket, is garnished with pearls. In most cases the number of pearls is given, and we find that no less than 4494 are enumerated. Evidently the duchess was ever ready to honor the precious gem to which she owed her name, and fully recognized its poetical significance. The following are a few of the more noteworthy ornaments in the inventory:

The circlet of the great crown, composed of eight sections; four of which each comprise sixteen pearls, four diamonds, and four balas-rubies, with a sapphire in the center; the four others contain sixteen pearls, four diamonds, and four sapphires, with a balas-ruby in the center; beside this there are two pearls in each section. Also, eight large fleurons of the great crown, four of which bear each twenty-three pearls, five diamonds, three balas-rubies and a sapphire, and the other four each twenty-three pearls, five diamonds, four sapphires, and a balas-ruby; and eight small fleurons of the said crown garnished each with a pearl, a sapphire, and a balas-ruby. The whole is valued at 8724 florins ($22,682).

A gold cap with ten large ornaments fashioned like brooches, five of which are each of six pearls and a balas-ruby, and the other five each of five pearls and two balas-rubies, and between each ornament there is a balas-ruby. This is appraised at 2159 florins ($5613).

A head-dress garnished with balas-rubies and sapphires and tassels of large pearls, each of six pearls, and with a row of larger balas-rubies, larger sapphires and larger pearls. This was estimated at 2030 florins ($5278).

A gold necklace, enameled white and green, garnished with nine rubies, thirteen diamonds and thirteen pearls, with a clasp of three small rubies, and three large pearls with one large diamond in the center. The worth of this necklace is given as 1923 florins ($5000).

The jewels and ornamental objects in this inventory are appraised at the sum of 56,129 florins,—about $145,000,—equivalent to a much larger sum to-day in consideration of the greater purchasing power of money in the fifteenth century.

In 1480, during the reign of Louis XI, an inventory was made of the objects preserved in the treasury of the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris.[^[469]] We select the following items from this inventory:

A very beautiful cross, covered with gold, bearing on one side a crystal reliquary which contained a piece of the True Cross. On supports attached to the cross were images of the Virgin Mary and of St. John, each holding a reliquary. The cross itself rested on a square silver-gilt base bearing the images of the four evangelists. The ornamentation consisted of fifty large Scotch pearls and 142 small ones, intermixed with garnets and emeralds; there were also many balas-rubies and sapphires of different sizes. The inventory says: “The goldsmith Nicholas Roet declares that the stones are genuine and that the pearls are from Scotland.”

Another gold cross, resting on a silver-gilt base which bore the arms of France and Burgundy, was decorated with fourteen sapphires, twenty balas-rubies, and twenty-four Scotch pearls. On the base were the figures of St. Louis and of the queen, kneeling in prayer.

Still another cross, covered with gold and of Venetian workmanship, bore thirty-nine pearls, twenty-seven balas-rubies, and four sapphires. A clasp attached to this cross was set with four large perforated pearls surrounded by small emeralds and sapphires.

A silver-gilt ornament, consisting of a golden image of St. Louis seated on a silver throne and holding in his hand a reliquary decorated with twelve pearls, six emeralds, and six Alexandrian rubies. The crown of the image was set with four large oriental pearls, three balas-rubies, etc.

An ivory image of the Virgin Mary, supported by a silver-gilt base with the arms of France. This base was borne by four lions. On the head of the Virgin was a crown of gold adorned with eight large, round, oriental pearls and four small ones, as well as four emeralds and four balas-rubies. On the breast of the image was a very large, square emerald.

A splendid miter studded with good-sized pearls and decorated with emeralds, rubies, sapphires, and balas-rubies. The pendants were covered with seed-pearls and precious stones.

A fine chasuble of Indian satin lined with crimson taffeta and covered with lilies, birds, unicorns, etc., embroidered in gold and pearls. It was also adorned with small clusters of pearls and with two shields bearing the arms of France and Navarre, quartered.

A beautiful copy of the gospels with covers of gold, ornamented with fourteen large sapphires, thirteen balas-rubies, two cameos, and eighty-nine good-sized pearls.

The following items are taken from the inventory of the treasury of the abbey of St. Denis, made in 1534, during the reign of Francis I. This record is in the Bibliothèque Nationale, in Paris:[^[470]]

A crown of gold, with four fleurons, garnished with several balas-rubies, emeralds, sapphires, and pearls; valued at 59,980 crowns (about $135,000).

A golden cross and within it a piece of the True Cross which belonged to “Jeanne d’Evreux, royne de France et de Navarre,” valued, with the pearls that decorate it, at 345 crowns ($776).

A wooden chest containing eleven cases in which were many precious stones and large and small pearls, both oriental and Scotch; valued at 1858 crowns ($4180).

A number of priestly vestments embroidered with seed-pearls are inventoried at 1200 crowns ($2700).

A blue satin chasuble bordered with pearls is valued at 350 crowns ($787).

An altar-table, set in the “grand altar,” is described as elaborately decorated with “arches and pillars and images of gold” in low relief, and garnished with precious stones and pearls. The value is given as 1203 crowns ($2700).

Another altar-table similarly ornamented is valued at 2645 crowns ($5850). Above this table was a great cross of gold with a silver border, called the “cross of St. Eloysius” (the patron saint of goldsmiths); this was valued at 2291 crowns ($5154).

Over the sarcophagus containing the body of St. Denis, there was “a large tabernacle of wood-work resembling a church, with a lofty nave and low arches.” In this nave and in the transepts there were three representations of sarcophagi; the whole was covered with gold, precious stones, and pearls, and was valued at 7275 crowns ($16,368).

The head of St. Denis, incased in gold, was borne by two silver-gilt angels, while a third held a small shrine containing a portion of the jaw-bone of the saint. All these objects were studded with precious stones and pearls, and were valued at 5622 crowns ($12,650).

There were also in the treasury several miters covered with “ounce-pearls” and decorated with gold and silver bands; on this field several larger pearls were set. One of these miters is valued at 964 crowns ($2169) and another at 509 crowns ($1135).

The total value of the articles inventoried is 185,500 crowns (at least $417,375).

Inventories of the property of the dukes of Lorraine, dated 1544, 1552, and 1614, mention a number of pearl ornaments. In the inventory of 1544, made about the time of the accession of Francis I of Lorraine, we read of “a very fine case of silver-gilt around which are thirteen personages in gold, and on the lock three balases and five pearls.” The inventory of 1552, made while Charles II was duke, mentions “a cap of crimson velvet whereon there are large pearls,” and another cap “entirely covered with pearls.” It is, however, in the inventory of 1614, made a few years after the accession of Henry II of Lorraine, that we find the greatest number of items relating to pearls. An estimate of the value of the rings and jewels was “faicte du commandement de son Altèze par jouailliers et Lapidaires et Espertz dudit ars.” All these jewels were to remain forever the property of the Duchy of Lorraine. Among the items relating to pearls, the following are worthy of note:

A gold collar with seven settings, each containing one large diamond and two large pearls. The diamond in the center was believed to weigh fifteen carats, and the collar was valued at 35,000 crowns (about $70,000).

Another collar contained seven diamonds and sixteen pearls set in pairs, and was considered to be worth 19,750 crowns (about $40,000).

A collection of one hundred large pearls, some weighing twenty grains, some twenty-four, some twenty-eight, and a few thirty-two grains, were estimated at 12,000 crowns ($24,000).

A large pearl, very nearly pear-shaped and almost as large as a pigeon’s egg, was set down at 2000 crowns ($4000).

A very fine pear-shaped pearl weighing forty-eight grains was valued at 800 crowns ($1600).

Another pear-shaped pearl weighing about thirty-two grains was placed at 500 crowns ($1000).

Four other pear-shaped pearls, nearly as large as the one above mentioned, were estimated at 300 crowns ($600), while a round “pearl of Seville” was valued at only fifty crowns ($100).

Six clusters of pearls, each containing two of fourteen grains, and four of eight grains, were thought to be worth 700 crowns ($1400).

A large chalice was decorated with seven large oriental emeralds and eight clusters, each composed of fourteen fine, round pearls, six of twelve grains and eight of eight grains; the whole valued at 2400 crowns ($4800).

A hat ornament composed of eleven fine rubies and ten large, round pearls, each weighing twelve grains, was estimated at 800 crowns ($1600).

A similar ornament, composed of thirteen rubies and fourteen pearls, partly flat and partly round, was placed at 2000 crowns ($4000).

A collar set with seven fine rubies and the same number of round pearls, each weighing twelve grains, and with seven other pendant pearls, was valued at 550 crowns ($1100).

There was also a bed called the “bed of pearls,” which was elaborately decorated with ornamentation in gold and richly studded with pearls.

The inventory made in 1634 of the ornaments, etc., contained in the abbey of St. Denis, offers some new material and a fuller description of a few of the objects mentioned in the inventory of 1534. The most noteworthy entries are given below:

A golden scepter upon a staff of wood. The scepter bears the figure of Charlemagne seated upon a throne; at the corners are two lions and two eagles (one of the latter was lacking in 1634). The figure holds a scepter in its right hand, and a globe surmounted by a cross in its left; on its head is a crown with a large, round, oriental pearl valued at 200 livres ($135). The throne rested on a fleur-de-lys, beneath which was a ball of gold ornamented with eight oriental pearls. Around the throne was the inscription: “Sanctus Carolus Magnus Italia Roma Gallia Germania,” and three clusters of three pearls each. The value of this scepter was given at 3300 livres, or about $2200.

The reliquary of the hand of St. Thomas. Two angels, resting on a silver-gilt base, bore the crystal receptacle containing the relic. The ornamentation consisted of eight clusters of four large pearls each, with a small diamond in the center. On the hand was a gold band bearing the inscription: “Hic est manus beati Thomae apti. quam misit in latus domini nostri Jesu Christi.” On the hand was a pontifical ring set with a large sapphire. The reliquary also bore the images of St. John the Baptist, of St. Thomas, and of the Virgin Mary. It was valued at 5590 livres, or about $3700.

A vessel made of a porphyry resembling jasper and embellished with forty-six pearls; estimated at 1500 livres ($1000).

A cope given by Anne of Bretagne, Queen of France, and bearing six scenes from the life of the Virgin Mary embroidered in gold and pearls; the whole bordered with pearls and gold of Cyprus. On the cope were the letters A and S, and the words “plutost mourir.” There were two ounces of pearls. Valued at 2000 livres ($1350).

A vase of rock crystal, of antique workmanship, with a cover and base of silver-gilt; the top decorated with a band of amethysts, garnets, and sapphires, alternating with Scotch and oriental pearls. On the base are various precious stones and twenty-three Scotch and oriental pearls, and the inscription “Hoc vas sponsa dedit Anor. regi Ludovico.” This vase was given by Eleanor of Aquitaine to her husband, Louis VII of France (1137–1180), by whom it was bestowed upon Suger, Abbot of St. Denis (1082–1152). The goldsmith work and decoration belong to the time of Suger. The vase is now in the Louvre.

A chalice of agate, with two handles, and engraved with the figures of men, animals, and birds. It stood on a foot of gold adorned with sixteen sapphires, forty-four pearls, and twenty-two clusters of fourteen pearls each. This chalice rested upon a paten of porphyry decorated with seven fishes inlaid in gold, and with a bordering of pearls and precious stones disposed around the edge. Both together valued at 25,000 livres (about $16,000).

THE EMPRESS DOWAGER OF CHINA
From a portrait painted by Miss Katharine A. Carl

A vase of agate with a foot of silver-gilt, and furnished with a cover and a spout in the form of a serpent, both of silver-gilt. Around the base an inscription: “Dum libare deo gemmis debemus et auro, Hoc ego Sugerus offero vas domino” (Since we should pour libations to God out of gems and gold, I, Suger, offer this vessel to the Lord). This vase, which is now in the Louvre and is of sardonyx, was enriched with many precious stones and with nineteen Scotch and oriental pearls. The value given was 1500 livres (about $1000).

A book beginning: “Kyrie Eleison,” with covers of wood, one overlaid with gold and the other with silver. On the golden cover was an ivory crucifix, and images, in ivory, of the Virgin Mary and of St. John. The cross was bordered with seed-pearls, as were the diadems of the images. The cover was also decorated with an engraved crysolite, an engraved peridot, and with sapphires, emeralds, and garnets.[^[471]]

A curious item regarding the use of pearls in embroidery is contained in one of the inventories of the dukes of Burgundy, made in 1414; this reads as follows:

The sum of 276 livres 7 sols 6 deniers tournois (about $960), the price of 960 pearls destined to ornament a dress; along the sleeves are embroidered the words of the song “Madame, je suis joyeulx,” and the notes are also marked along the sleeves. On each sleeve are 264 pearls which help in forming the notes of the said song, numbering 142; that is to say, a square made of four pearls for each note.[^[472]]

Mention is made in two old French documents of the use of pearls from Compiegne in ornamentation. In the “Inventaire de la royne Clémence,” in 1328, we read of “a cock covered with precious stones and bearing a pearl of Compiègne”; and in the “Comptes Royaux,” under date of 1353, appears this item: “For four pearls, oriental, Scotch and of Compiègne, for the said arm-chair, 48 crowns.” As these pearls could not have been found in Compiègne, we may suppose that there was a market for their sale in that place, which gave rise to the designation.[^[473]]

The English authority and writer on early English silver, F. Alfred Jones, communicated, under date of September, 1907, that pearls were rarely used in old English plate; in fact, any such embellishments were of exceedingly infrequent occurrence. They are, however, frequently mentioned in the inventory of the marvelous collection of gold plate dispersed by Charles I of England, which may have dated from the time of the looting of the churches and monasteries by Henry VIII.

The following items are from the inventories of Philip II of Spain and of Margarita, wife of Philip III. The original documents are in the Austrian archives.

A golden cup which came from England. Around the foot was a wreath of fifteen fleurons, each containing pearls, and also four St. Andrew’s crosses comprising eighteen pearls each. The interior of the cup showed scenes from the life of St. George and was studded with pearls, while thirty-one pearl pendants hung from the edge. 11,897 reals (about $1700).[^[474]]

Some curious jewels, belonging to Queen Margarita, wife of Philip III of Spain, were entered in an inventory made in 1611.

An imperial eagle, full of diamonds, that came from England, with two pendants of two pearls, which could be unhooked from the said eagle and were worn by her Majesty at two masks as earrings. Valued at 77,000 reals (about $11,000).

Gold earrings, enameled in various colors, with seven diamonds in each one and three pendant pearls, two small ones of equal size and the other shaped like a pear. Valued at 1320 reals ($188).[^[475]]

In the older Spanish jewelry pearls were frequently entirely pierced through, as if they had been worn in necklaces; and if hung as drops of one to three or more, they were strung on a wire, the upper end usually forming an ornament, and they were kept from falling off below by flattening the lower end of the wire, this flattening acting as a stop. These styles have a marked resemblance to the oriental methods elsewhere described, and suggest the derivation of the early Spanish pearl mounting from the Moorish occupation of the country. If they were set singly on any part of the jewel, they were put on a wire peg fastened to it, and then the end of the wire which projected was hammered flat to keep the pearl in place. Excellent examples of these styles are the Spanish earrings in the collection of the Hispano-American Museum of New York. The same method was used in Transylvania in the seventeenth century with remarkably artistic effect.

The pearls of the Virgin of the Rosary in the church of St. Domingo, Lima, were famous. It is believed that they were sold in the war of independence. Those of the monstrance in the sanctuary of the cathedral of Lima were sold during the last war with Chile. The monstrance of the cathedral of Cuzco still shows pearls and emeralds, but they are of small size.

A lady who left a great fortune in pearls to the church of Nazareno and the House of the Poor of the church of St. Peter, Lima, was Doña Maria Fernandez de Córdoba, from the family of Borda, grandmother to the minister of Peru in Washington. She was a descendant of Hernan Cortés and of Pizarro by her ancestor Carmen Cortés.

The pearls of Lima figure prominently in the history of the Peruvian families. The war of independence, which ended in 1822, was followed by the suppression of the entailed estates; this forced a division of the family fortunes, and it became necessary to sell the family jewels in Europe. Thither went all the famous pearls of the Peruvian aristocracy, whose luxury is proven by the fact that in 1780 there were in Lima no less than two thousand private carriages.

One of the most remarkable uses of Bohemian pearls was that of a large triptych owned by Count Moritz of Lobkowitz and Duke of Raudnitz. It measured six or more feet in height. The entire borders were ornamented with pearls. The center of the triptych represented the ascension of Christ on a chariot drawn by lambs. In the panel to the right was the Angel Gabriel, and to the left the Virgin Mary praying. The borders and lettering were magnificently embroidered and decorated in Bohemian pearls. This object probably dated from the sixteenth or early part of the seventeenth century. It was estimated by one of the authors to contain at least one hundred thousand pearls.

Madame Zelie Nuttal, the great Maya scholar, personally writes that pearls are not mentioned either as articles of tribute or of decoration in ancient Mexican codices; possibly a lack of fine, hard instruments with which to drill holes in pearls may have caused them to be comparatively little used in personal adornment. Neither do they appear to have been found incrusted in prehistoric objects, and we have no written evidence of their having been used in this way. We do not know of any instances of the wearing of pearls by the Indian women, but the women of the higher classes used to wear them profusely, more especially drop-earrings and pendants. Madame Nuttal also communicates as follows:

Bernadino de Sahagun states: “There are also pearls in New Spain, and they are familiar to everybody. They are named epyollotti,[^[476]] which means the heart of the shell, because they are formed in the shell of the oyster.” In Molina’s dictionary “seed-pearls” are named “piciltic epyollotti,” which means “water-stars,” a poetical name, composed of the word a = att = water, and cittallin = star. The latter name leads us to infer the possibility that the “star-skirt, or skirt of, or with stars,” the “cittallin icue” of the living image of the goddess “Tlamateculitti” was decorated with pearls, although it is only described (Book II, chap. 36) as being “of leather, cut into strips at the bottom (forming a fringe), at the end of each of which hung a small shell named ‘cueclitti’ which reproduced a sound when she walked.” As it is stated that this “star-skirt” was worn over “a white one” it seems as though it must have been of the kind, represented in codices and sculptures, made of openwork and netlike, and studded with round objects—possibly pearls—at the crossings or in the centers of the open spaces.

Oil-paintings of the madonnas represent them with robes richly embroidered with pearls, and wearing “ropes of pearls.” The Virgin of the Rosario, in the church at Santo Domingo, Mexico, was noted for her pearls, and there is a small oil-painting of this virgin, in which she is depicted with a wealth of pearls.

In the Bohemian National Exposition, held at Prague in 1891, Count Schwarzenberg exhibited four embroideries, each fourteen by eight inches. They were embroidered with Bohemian pearls found on his domains a century or more previous, and contained many thousands of pearls.

In Hungary pearls have always been the favorite jewels, especially among the aristocracy, and they have served to adorn the national costume of both men and women. A century ago nearly every family of distinction owned a necklace, but most of the pearls were small and of indifferent quality. Since that time fine pearls have become more usual, and many wealthy Hungarian families have acquired beautiful pearls of good size and excellent quality, and many splendid necklaces can now be seen in Hungary. The following are some of the finest:

A necklace of three large rows, owned by the Archduke Joseph and valued at one million francs.

A still larger necklace in the possession of Prince Nicholas Esterhazy; this, however, is an entailed heirloom, and may not be parted with without the king’s permission.

A very fine necklace of five rows, also an entailed heirloom, owned by Count Maurice Esterhazy.

A large necklace, possessed by Countess Alois Karoly, wife of the late ambassador in London. This is another entailed heirloom; its value is at least a million and a half francs.

An unusually large necklace of four rows, such as one rarely sees, owned by the Countess Wenkheim. The pearls are white, and have a good shape, but not much brilliancy. The average size of these pearls is approximately twenty-four grains.

An equally large necklace consisting of a single row, averaging twenty-six grains, in the possession of Countess Louis Batthyani.

There are a great many other necklaces of fine quality, worth from 300,000 francs down to 100,000 francs, belonging to families such as those of Count Joseph Hunyadi, Countess Festetics-Hamilton, Count Landor Nako, Peer Leo Lanczi, Count Albert Apponyi, Mr. Eugene Dreher, Madame Emma de Bachrach, etc., etc. Indeed, almost every wealthy family of the better class owns a necklace worth up to 100,000 francs and over.

PEARL ORNAMENTS OF THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES

Hungarian Aigret	Earring, Hungary
Earrings, Nijni-Novgorod	Spanish earring

The portraits of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries afford us many interesting evidences regarding the various forms of jewelry in which pearls were used. Indeed, had we no other records, these pictures alone would prove the great popularity of the gem as an ornament.

In the finely executed portrait of the Duchess Anne de France, she wears a coronet with three pearls at each point. It seems to be made up of three large pearls, set on a row of pearls circling the entire top of her head, beneath which is a row of great emeralds, and then another row of pearls. Flaring downward and entirely covering the side of her head near the ear, are two rows of pearls with a row of fine emeralds between them, the rows of pearls deflecting slightly downward until the chin line is reached, and then turning back and slightly upward, meeting at the back. As in the crown cap, the same severe decoration in pearls is the main feature, and is repeated on each side of the robe, the front of which is of ermine. Beginning on a line with the shoulder is a broad band of pearls and emeralds set in gold which extends below her waist. At the top of this are six pearls set in a straight line. Then from the end of this line, dropping straight down, is a row on each side. Between the two rows is a gem, then two great pearls and another gem, then two more pearls, this being repeated to below the waist. The ermine is held at her waist by a trefoil reversed; that is, two pearls above and one below a great gem, and then a trefoil reversed below this. This portrait is dated 1498 and is on a triptych in the cathedral of Moulins.

Quite unique is the pearl decoration in a picture of St. Barbara, painted by an artist of the French school, and dated 1520, which is in the National Museum of Budapest. This artist uses pearls with the utmost severity of taste and richness. Beginning a trifle above the center of her forehead is an emerald ornament, and on each side there extend to the back of her head three rows of pearls, not placed exactly one row above the other, but the rows intertwined with each other. The whole is enriched by a great string of pearls about her neck. The effect produced is extremely artistic and beautiful.

Catharine de’ Medici wore two rows of pearls on her bonnet, and a quaint necklace in sections of two rows of four pearls, with a large pearl between; a pear-shaped pendant on a Renaissance jewel; a row of pearls around her low-cut bodice, and a girdle of jewels alternating with pearls, which extended to the lower end of her gown. In addition to all this, she wore a bracelet of jewels with a pearl set between each ornament. This artistic combination is best shown in her portrait in the Uffizi, Florence (No. 726), painted by an unknown artist.

One of the most unique, rich, and chic collections of pearls, and one worn with unusual grace, is that of the Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia, shown in the fine portrait of her by Coello Sanchez. In this portrait her hat shows the plumes embroidered with slanting rows of three, four, and five pearls. In the center of the hat is an ornament shaped like a flower, with seven large pearl petals surrounding a great pearl center. The hat is tilted to one side showing her hair on the left, while a little to the right of the center of her forehead, and touching it, there hangs from her hair a great pear-shaped pearl, which adds a wonderful amount of character to the jeweling of her head. Around her neck is a high fluted ruff; below which is a collar of large gems relieved by an ornament of two pearls placed between each gem. The same interesting motive is carried out in a girdle of gems which comes down very low to her waist, terminating in a large jeweled heart ornament. The painting shows sixteen remarkable pearls in the collar, and thirty-six pearls in the jeweled girdle.

A very interesting collection of portraits was exhibited last spring (1907) at the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. The pictures are contained, in some instances, in old illuminated manuscripts, while in others they are contemporary crayon sketches. Many pearl decorations are represented, and we give a few of the most important.

The portrait of Anne de Bretagne (1476–1514), wife of Louis XII, from the “Heures d’Anne de Bretagne,” illuminated by Jean Bourdichon, represents the queen kneeling; she wears a collar ornamented with groups of four pearls alternating with precious stones.

A crayon sketch of Françoise de Foix, Comtesse de Châteaubriant (1490–1537), who became the mistress of Francis I, shows her wearing a hood or coif ornamented with forty oval pearls. She also wears a necklace of sixty fine round pearls.

Diane de Poitiers (1499–1566), granddaughter of Charles VII and Agnes Sorel, is represented with a head-dress similar to that worn by the Comtesse de Châteaubriant . It has a border of sixty round pearls. This crayon is of the time of Jean Clouet.

A portrait of Philip Strozzi (1541–1582) who, although an Italian, had the rank of colonel-général in the French army, is interesting as an illustration of the wearing of earrings by the men of this period. The fine round pearl which hangs from his ear strikes us now as a curious ornament for a warrior.

A crayon sketch of Gabrielle d’Estrées (d. 1599), mistress of Henri IV, is attributed to the hand of Daniel Dumonstier. Here may be seen a splendid pearl necklace, which apparently consists of six sections, each comprising three rows of eight round pearls, the sections being connected with each other by a large oval pearl. The necklace, which hangs down over the bosom, is fastened by a clasp in the form of a four-leaved clover, from which depend two other sections similar to those described above, and terminating in an oval pearl pendant.

The portrait of the Duchesse de Montpensier (1627–1693), the “Grande Mademoiselle” of Mme. de Sévigné’s letters, is from the “Maximes de nostre salut,” dedicated to the duchess by the author, M. de la Serre, and is attributed to Nicolas Jarry. It represents the duchess wearing a beautiful necklace of round pearls and a large pear-shaped pearl earring, while another pear-shaped pearl depends from a clasp which serves to loop up her fichu on the shoulder.

A fine example of the Renaissance style existing in the sixteenth century is that of a gold and enamel necklace of Italian workmanship, embellished with pearls. This necklace was presented to the Louvre Museum by Don A. de Rotschildt. The two-pearl motive is carried out exquisitely, two pearls appearing in a small connecting ornament between two larger enameled and engraved gold plaques, which represent scenes from the life of our Saviour.

At the exposition of 1900 there was shown in the Russian Pavilion, a most interesting collection of jewelry of decidedly oriental character, dating from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century. These jewels were said to have belonged to the Emir of Bokhara. They differed slightly from the East Indian in character, and generally consisted of combinations of pearls, rubies, and emeralds, the three colors of these gems predominating. One of the most interesting of the necklaces, acquired by J. Gelatley, Esq., shows an arrangement of the pearls which is peculiarly attractive and decorative.

The heraldic significance of pearls has at times been very important. While in the eighteenth century the crowns of the French nobles were surmounted with silver points, it appears that in the sixteenth century they were provided with pearl points. According to Rudolphus,[^[477]] the dukes wore a leaf crown of eight leaves, with or without as many commingled pearl points; the marquises a crown of four leaves with twelve pearl points, or with four groups of three pearls set one over the other; and the counts, a pearl crown which sometimes had four pearls in each corner, one above the other. The viscounts wore a gold ring set with four pearls, and the barons a gold ring entwined with pearls.

The same is true of the English coronets. Instead of the pearls which they bore at an earlier period, silver balls are now used on those of the English barons, viscounts, earls, and marquises. This change probably owed its origin to the desire on the part of the sovereigns to confine the official use of pearls and other precious stones to themselves. The rules at the coronation of Edward VII forbade the use of pearls except as a special royal privilege. The earl’s coronet has eight balls raised on points, with gold strawberry leaves between the points. The marquis wears one with four gold strawberry leaves and four silver balls alternating, the latter raised above the rim.[^[478]]

A pearl and gold ring, formerly belonging to Washington, is now in the possession of Vice-Chancellor E. B. Learning, of Camden, N. J. It bears in the center a lock of Washington’s hair under a conical glass, around which is a setting of blue and white enamel with a square of red at each corner. The whole is surrounded by a circle of thirteen pearls. This ring was presented by Washington to Lieutenant Richard Somers prior to the latter’s departure on the expedition against the Algerine pirates in Tripoli, in the course of which he lost his life. Before his departure he left the ring with his sister, Sarah Keen. Vice-Chancellor Leaming’s paternal grandmother inherited it as heir to Somers’s estate, and from her it descended successively to her son and grandson. The lock of Washington’s hair is admitted to be one of only three now existing, of the other two, one is at Washington’s headquarters at Newburg and the other in the museum at Boston. The ring was exhibited at the Centennial Exposition in 1876.

And what a wealth of pearls was seen at the marriage of the late Emperor Frederick III of Germany with Princess Victoria, in 1858! The wedding gift of the bridegroom consisted of a necklace of thirty-six enormous pearls, three superb ones in the middle, and graduated in size toward the ends. From her mother, Queen Victoria, the bride received a diamond necklace and three massive brooches set with unusually large pearls; and from Prince Albert, a magnificent hair-net of pearls, diamonds, and emeralds. The king and queen of Prussia presented a diadem of brilliants surrounded with a splendid circlet of pearls. On the day of her entry into Berlin, the queen bestowed on the bride a costly brooch of pearls and diamonds, representing a bouquet, the leaves of which consisted of diamonds, while the flowers themselves were of pear-shaped pearls of large size, one weighing 160 grains, and fourteen of them weighing 600 grains together.

One of the most splendid and best known collection of pearls, and one worn with as much grace as any in Europe, consists of those owned by the dowager Queen Margherita of Italy, whose name signifies pearl, and who has always been fond of the ocean jewel. Her husband, King Humbert, made her many presents of this regal gem. A photograph, signed by the queen and sent to us for this volume by her gracious courtesy, shows her wearing her magnificent twelve strings of pearls, a pearl bracelet, and a pearl tiara with pear-shaped pearl tips.

MARGHERITA, DOWAGER QUEEN OF ITALY

At the coronation of Edward VII and Queen Alexandra, beside her coronation crown, the latter wore many of her richest and most beautiful jewels. These consisted of seven immense rows of pearls, each twenty-four to thirty inches in length, hanging below five large neck circlets of diamonds and a great corsage ornament which covered her entire bodice; and beneath part of this was a splendid ornament of diamonds with large, pear-shaped pearls.

A careful study of the decorations conferred by potentates and governments shows that the pearl is rarely used in the ornamentation of these marks of distinction. A notable exception is that given by the Siamese government. This decoration is known as the nine-jewel Siamese decoration, and bears a large center pearl. It is only conferred on nine members of the royal Siamese family, including his Majesty the King of Siam. The central pearl represents the king and the eight other jewels surrounding it the members of his family. It is strange that Siam should find so much significance in white, as is illustrated by the white elephant, and also by the use of the white pearl for this order.

The Order of Christ, the chief Portuguese order, has a long cross enameled in bright red surcharged with a white cross and bordered with fine pearls. The effect is both striking and beautiful.

The order of the crown of India is a jeweled badge with a device composed of the imperial cipher, E. R. and I., in diamonds, pearls, and turquoises, set within a border of pearls and surmounted by the imperial crown.[^[479]]

A remarkable pearl necklace was recently the subject of litigation in England. It was the property of the late Duchess of Sermonata, an Englishwoman who married an Italian. She was a daughter of the late Lord Howard de Walden, one of the wealthiest of the English nobility. The duchess was in the habit of investing all her spare cash in pearls, and it seems that she chose a very good form of investment, since pearls have increased in value to a greater extent even than diamonds during the same period. Of the ten rows of which this necklace consisted, six were deposited for safekeeping in a London bank and the other four were in Florence at the time of the death of the duchess. She had bequeathed the gems at the bank to her niece, Miss Henrietta Ellis, and had left directions that, if her pearl necklace was in London when she died, it should be sent to her Italian executors. All the jewels are now claimed by these executors, while Miss Ellis contends that it was the intention of the duchess to leave to her the pearls in the hands of the London bankers. The necklace consisted at one time of ten rows; the first, thirteen and a half inches long, comprised forty-one pearls; the second, fourteen inches in length, thirty-nine pearls; the third, fourteen and a half inches, forty-three pearls; the fourth, seventeen inches, forty-seven pearls; the fifth, seventeen and a half inches, forty-nine pearls; the sixth, nineteen and a half inches, fifty-five pearls; the seventh, twenty-one inches, sixty-six pearls; the eighth, twenty-three and a half inches, seventy pearls; the ninth, twenty-six inches, eighty-two pearls; the tenth, twenty-nine and a half inches, ninety-one pearls. The total number of pearls is 583, and the necklace is valued at $150,000.

A widely advertised necklace of large size was shown in the English section of the Paris Exposition of 1900. This necklace consisted of forty-six pearls weighing 1596 grains, and was valued at $450,000. It was loaned by an English gentleman now dead, and was returned to him at the close of the exposition and later dispersed.

In regard to the possession of pearls by families in the United States, we may safely say that there is not a letter in the alphabet under which we cannot find the names of from one to a dozen families, owning single strings or collections from the value of $10,000 to $200,000, or even more. If one is a wearer of jewels, pearls are an absolute necessity; indeed, they are as essential and indispensable for the wealthy as are houses, horses, and automobiles. At no period in the world’s history have pearls been more widely distributed; and some of those of to-day are finer in quality and orient, and also more carefully matched, than those in the great collections of the past. Of course there are exceptions, where royal personages have been careful observers and have used good taste, but it is a question whether there have ever been more critical or better buyers, as far as selection is concerned, than are many American men and women who have purchased this gem.

One of the largest pearl necklaces in the United States is in the possession of an American lady. There are perhaps thirty pearls in the necklace, weighing in all about 1400 grains; the largest pearl weighs nearly 120 grains. There is also one of 75 grains and one of 70 grains, the others graduating down to 20 grains.

COLLECTION OF BLACK PEARLS BELONGING TO AN AMERICAN LADY

With increasing wealth, and a demand for rich rather than gaudy or showy jewelry, there is nothing that commends itself so highly as the pearl, which acts as a foil to the diamond, emerald, ruby, and sapphire, and at the same time harmonizes with them and in fact with all the colored stones. The true pearl, as it increases in size and beauty, becomes proportionately more rare and costly; and yet it differs from other jewels in the fact that they are mined in the depths of the earth, and their existing quantity is speculative, while the home of the pearl is much more accessible, and it is possible to make an estimate of the number of pearls in course of growth. Pearls, however, are forming all the time, while other gems are perhaps to-day as they were ages before the advent of man. Nevertheless, even if pearls were cultivated as they should be, and people cared for the mollusks as the oyster-gatherer does for his crop—by planting it, guarding it and gathering it systematically—still, the ever-increasing demand would more than balance the greater supply. As we have said, at no time since pearls were worn have they enjoyed such favor; and while they have always increased in value, this increase has never been so rapid as in the past ten years. They are jewels which can be worn by young or old, and which adapt themselves to every fabric that man or woman can use for attire; whether they are white, gray, or black, they are never obtrusive, but always have a refining effect. Round as the globe upon which we live, they will probably be worn and appreciated as long as life exists upon this sphere.

It is interesting to note the change of taste and the difference of opinion, at various epochs, in regard to the respective merits of pear-shaped and round pearls. In the Roman period the pear-shaped pearls were more highly valued; in the eighteenth century round pearls were esteemed the more valuable, while at the present day they are both on about the same basis.

With the progressive twentieth century taste for independence in fashion, our modern ladies take from every epoch what they think will best suit their superrefined beauty. Therefore we are not surprised to find in their jewel-cases the long earrings and large brooches adorned with seed-pearls, similar to those worn by their grandmothers of the early Victorian period. Although these jewels cannot be considered very beautiful according to the artistic standard of to-day, they, nevertheless, lend to their wearers a certain quaint dignity and piquancy which is very attractive.

As an instance of modern pearl-wearing by a lady of the present century, we may note a portrait in which there is a simple necklace of large pearls; over this a collar of twenty-three rows of pearls with a diamond centerpiece, and to relieve the severity, a sautoir, which is made up of alternate pearls and diamonds, and pearl earrings. No better illustration can be given than the portrait of Señora Carmen Romero Rubio de Diaz, wife of President Porfirio Diaz of Mexico, which, by her courtesy, we are able to figure.

The gathering of a great necklace is not the work of a day; it often requires many years. Such necklaces are frequently held for a long time by dealers or by a number of people who are interested in their sale, and whenever one or more pearls can be purchased which form a better graduation or which are of better color or more perfect, they are usually purchased to improve the necklace if the price is a proper one.

In the early sixties, when most American women aspired to owning a pair of diamond earrings, it was not uncommon for ladies to start with a hundred, two hundred, five hundred, or a thousand-dollar pair, and, for a dozen years to come, to add an annual sum of one hundred, two hundred or five hundred dollars to increasing the size of these by exchanging them with the dealer at the cost price and paying the difference between the value of the pair that had been purchased and that of the new pair. In this way ladies who never would have thought of spending five thousand dollars for a pair of earrings, virtually made a savings-bank of the jewels. This is frequently done with pearls. A small necklace or a few pearls will be purchased; these are added to annually or at such times as the owner may have spare savings or gifts to invest. It is not uncommon for a family to buy a pearl for a daughter on her first birthday, and each succeeding year add one pearl to this, so that she may first wear one pearl, then two, then three, and by the time the young lady makes her début in society, a good start has been made toward a pearl necklace. It was the custom of King Humbert of Italy to present his queen, Margherita, with one fine pearl every year, and with this succession of annual gifts she possessed one of the finest collections in Europe.

In the portraits of the four daughters of the present Czarina of Russia, the Grand Duchesses Tatiana, Olga, Maria, and Anastasia, we can see that their pearl necklaces were built up gradually, as that of the eldest daughter is notably longer than those of her younger sisters. These pearls were annual gifts from the Czar and Czarina and from others of the imperial family.

There are few ornaments worn by man or woman that have not at one time or another been bepearled, either with large or small pearls, with one pearl or many pearls, with pearls of high or low degree, and no object is ever made the less rich by the addition of the peerless gem of the ocean depths.

As the prices of pearls have increased, naturally the single objects containing them have also become more costly. It is not unusual to see rings with pearls each costing from $5000 to $10,000, $20,000, and even $30,000 and over, the pearls not infrequently being in button form.

Rings are occasionally made up of one white and one black oriental pearl, and if a pink one is combined with these, it is either a fresh-water or a conch pearl. Such rings sell for $5000, $8000, $10,000 and $15,000 each.

Pendant pearls, either round, ovate, drop, or pear-shaped, sell from $5000 to $10,000, $20,000, $50,000, and even $100,000.

The prices for one or two choice pearls worn for the adornment of a man’s shirt-front are $2000, $3000, $5000, and even $10,000.

SENORA CARMEN ROMERO RUBIO DE DIAZ, WIFE OF PRESIDENT PORFIRIO DIAZ OF MEXICO

In link buttons, slightly ovate, button or round pearls are used, the link being made up of one white and one black pearl, costing $2000, $3000, $5000, and even $20,000 a set.

It is not unusual for a man to wear a scarf-pin set with a round, ovate, or pear-shaped pearl costing $2000, $5000, $10,000, $15,000, and even $30,000.

For men’s scarf-pins, a variety of colors are frequently selected, such as a white oriental, a pink American, a pink conch, or a gray and black oriental pearl.

Single pearl necklaces sell for $1000, $2000, $5000, $8000, $10,000, $15,000, $20,000, $50,000, $100,000, $250,000, and $500,000 necklaces are not unknown.

Tiaras sell for $10,000, $20,000, $50,000, and $100,000.

Waistcoat buttons, sometimes made up of baroque pearls, cost from $200 to $500; sometimes, however, when fine pearls are used, the price paid for a set of five or six buttons is as high as $10,000.

It is scarcely possible to mention all the various forms in which the pearl has been worn: whether as a spray of many small pearls or a few large ones, either round, ovate, or pear-shaped for aigrets; in points on crowns, used either for ornamental or heraldic purposes; for the decoration of the orbs, scepters, and crowns of kings and emperors; for forming an edging on bonnets, caps, fillets, or diadems; in pendant form, usually consisting of one, although sometimes of three or four pendants in rows and lines to ornament the side of the face; or one, two, three, or a bunch together to adorn the ear; as a single pearl on a wire or a group of them, as worn in the nose of the East Indian beauty; as a single, two, three, or many-rowed necklace to grace the lady, the queen, and the empress; or else in six, ten, to twenty or more rows with a tiny gold jeweled bar, or a large diamond center, in the form of collars; as a long chain from four to ten feet long to hang from the neck to the waist, or else to be worn once, twice, or thrice around the neck, hanging down and then encircling the waist in the form of a sautoir; either as a single drop, consisting of an ovate or pear-shaped pearl or a number of them together in the form of a pendant combined with diamonds; as a single pearl surrounded with pearls or diamonds for buttons to adorn my lady’s crown; in rows, or combined with jewels and enamel, in the form of a bow-knot with long bunches of pearls, for shoulder bars; either as one pearl alone or alternating with gold wire, with jewels, or with many pearls, in endless forms, as bracelets; either as a single row, two rows or alternate rows in infinite variety on bodices, as worn in the past more than at the present; in a single row on ornamenting metal, enamel, or jewelwork in the form of girdles; in five hundred forms for rings; as an embroidery or in rows pendant on slippers; and, finally, as a stole. These are only a few of the uses to which a lady can put pearls.

By men, pearls are worn to adorn the shirt, to wear in the scarf, as link buttons, as waistcoat buttons, or as a fob. The pearls used in this way are sometimes quite as expensive as any of those worn by the ladies.

Ecclesiastics, for more than two thousand years, have appreciated the richness of bepearling. In Russia we find pearls decorating crosses, missal covers, vestments, bindings on books, chalices and crook-tops; they are employed as borders to ikon frames, or for the decoration about the Madonna and Child. In Persia we find pearl-embroidered rugs, pillows, and bolsters. Half-pearls are used in quaint decorations for watches, snuff-boxes, miniatures, and portrait frames. Even saddles and horse-trappings in the East do not escape the charm and beauty of the pearl. Even the English coronation spoon is known for the pearls which ornament it.

Of the many forms of earrings that have come down to us, none is simpler or daintier than a single pearl worn as an ear-screw, or partly or entirely strung on a thin gold wire. Another dainty style is three pearls, worn one below the other as in ancient Rome, known as a triclum; or the round pearl with a pear-shaped pendant or bunches of pearls known as crotalia, also worn in ancient times.

A pearl necklace is usually clasped either by a round or ovate pearl, drilled so that the catch and snap are contained within the pearl itself, or else by a pearl surrounded by diamonds, rubies, or other gems. Such a clasp frequently serves to bind from two to fifteen rows of pearls, the first or smaller row encircling the neck, and each row in turn being larger until the fifteenth row reaches to the bosom or even to the waist.

Pearl collars are usually made up of four, six, ten, twenty, and even twenty-five rows; often of very small pearls, generally fitting closely to the neck. The pearls are held in position either by four gold, diamond, or jeweled bars, or frequently the entire front of the collar is occupied by a large diamond ornament.

In ancient times, pearls were a favorite decoration of crosses; frequently an entire cross was made up of pearls, either of a single or a double row. Many portraits dating from the fifteenth to the seventeenth century show the cross used in connection with a necklace, this either starting from the top of the cross or from each side at the end of each arm. Sometimes from below the arms and the lower part of the cross there hung pendant either round or pear-shaped pearls. We have other instances where at the top, the cross was attached to a pearl necklace, while below each of the two arms there hung a pearl, and from the lower part of the cross a double necklace again reached to the back of the neck. Frequently a festoon collar will be made up of five rows of pearls, each of a graduated length, and pendant on each a diamond. Recently pearls have been drilled and invisibly joined by fine platinum links, so as to form a continuous ribbon or even a collar two inches wide; occasionally, a Greek border or some other design, of larger pearls or of diamonds, rubies, sapphires or other gems, is interwoven. This constitutes a veritable, smooth pearl cloth, or pearl mesh, very beautiful and also comfortable to wear. Indeed, a purse, measuring five by six inches, has been made of this cloth of pearls.

Jade jar inlaid with pearls set with fine gold
Heber R. Bishop Collection, Metropolitan Museum of Art

Japanese decoration set with pearls
Order of the crown of the First Class. Metropolitan Museum of Art

Dust-pearls, too minute to drill, and numbering over 100,000 to the ounce, were used, in the latter part of the eighteenth and the early part of the nineteenth centuries, for the embellishment of the hair-work then so much in favor and which was placed under glass. Where foliage was represented the leaves were made of the most minute seed-pearls, graduated in size and set on an outline of enamel or white paint, the pearls being cemented to the outline. This added a softness to the hair-work and other decoration.

As long as the pearl has been known, there has been a desire to obtain possession of one in some of its degrees of perfection, and for this reason many attempts have been made to prepare something that might pass for a pearl or even suggest a pearl. Sometimes the mother-of-pearl shell has, naturally, a protuberance, either round or pear-shaped, which, if cut off and highly polished may resemble an imperfect pearl; and this operation is often so cleverly performed that, at the first glance, this object may pass for a true pearl. In Russia, and especially in Bohemia, they have gone farther than this. They have cut out a bit of mother-of-pearl shell, leaving a piece of the natural shell for the top, or the part that will be visible, and rounding off the rest of the surface so as to give it a pearly effect. These objects are of trifling value and are used in necklaces and earrings, and in the ornamentation of icons and miniature frames and even as beads. Glass with either an exterior or interior coating of a nacreous substance is sometimes made absolutely round, while at other times it is made with many imperfections so as to resemble either a marine baroque or a fresh-water irregular pearl. The North American Indian, as described elsewhere, has coated little balls of clay with a powder made from a pearl-bearing fresh-water mussel and then baked them.

XVI

FAMOUS PEARLS AND COLLECTIONS

XVI
FAMOUS PEARLS AND COLLECTIONS

The kingdom of heaven is like unto a merchant man, seeking goodly pearls: who, when he had found one pearl of great price, went and sold all that he had and bought it.

St. Matthew, XIII, 45, 46.

In the course of twenty centuries many pearls and pearl collections have become famous, either because of their intrinsic value or else through historic associations. An attempt is made here to list briefly the more important of these. While we have purposely omitted any mention of the pearl collections in private hands at the present time, some of which are more valuable than many of those noted in the following pages, we have, nevertheless, given the principal sales of pearls at auction during the past twenty years. Many specimens of remarkable size and beauty have changed hands in this way, more especially in England.

Cleopatra Pearls. Next to that “pearl of great price,” mentioned by Christ, probably the most famous of all pearls were the two which Pliny records as having been worn in the ears of Cleopatra, “the singular and onely jewels of the world and even Nature’s wonder.” This writer does not note their size, but estimates their value at sixty million sestertii. We have already quoted the passage in which Pliny relates how one of these pearls was dissolved and swallowed by Cleopatra in order to win a wager she had made with Antony. After the death of that queen the other pearl “was cut in twaine, that in memoriall of that one halfe supper of theirs, it should remaine unto posterite, hanging at both the eares of Venus at Rome in the temple of Pantheon.”[^[480]] Budé estimated the value of the pearl dedicated to Venus at 250,000 escus of gold.[^[481]]

Another famous pearl mentioned by Pliny was the one which Julius Cæsar presented to Servilia, mother of Brutus, the value of which he notes as six million sestertii.[^[482]]

Peroz Pearl. The historian Procopius,[^[483]] of the sixth century, tells of a magnificent pearl which belonged to Peroz, or Firuz (459–484), one of the Sassanian kings of Persia. In the course of his disastrous battle with the White Huns, in which both he and his sons perished, Peroz, having a presentiment of the misfortune about to befall him, took the pearl from his right ear and cast it away, lest any one should wear it after him. This pearl is described as being “such as no king had ever worn up to that time.” Procopius, however, thinks it more probable that the ear of Peroz was cut off in the combat, and he states that the emperor (Zeno, 426–491) was very anxious to buy the gem from the Huns, but that all search for it was in vain. Nevertheless, a rumor was current that it was recovered later, but that another pearl was substituted for it and sold to Kobad, a successor of Peroz.

A different version is given by Panciroli,[^[484]] who quotes Zonaras, a Byzantine historian of the twelfth century, as his authority. According to this version Justinian the Great, who succeeded to the throne forty-three years after the death of Peroz, offered one hundred pounds of gold (about $25,000) for the pearl, but the barbarians refused to part with it, preferring to keep it as a memorial of Persian folly. On the coins of Peroz he is represented wearing an earring with three pendants, one of which may have been this wonderful pearl.

Charles the Bold. One of the greatest jewels of the fifteenth century was that belonging to Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy (1433–1477). According to notes and drawings[^[485]] made in 1555 by J. J. Fugger of Nuremberg, who was the banker jeweler of his generation, this consisted of a large pyramid diamond five eighths of an inch square at the base, with the apex cut as a four-rayed star in relief; surrounding this were three rectangular pyramid-shaped rubies and three magnificent pear-shaped pearls, and a large ovate pearl was suspended from the lowest ruby. The pear pearls are described as measuring half an inch in diameter and must have weighed about sixty grains each. This magnificent jewel was probably the most celebrated in Europe during the fifteenth century. According to Comines, on the defeat of the Grand Duke and the plundering of his baggage by the Swiss at Granson in 1476, the ornament was found by a careless soldier who tossed it away, but retained the gold box containing it. On second thought, he searched for and recovered the jewel and sold it to a priest for one florin, and the ecclesiastic sold it to a Bernese government official for the sum of three florins. Some years later this jewel, together with the ducal cap of Charles the Bold, which was covered with pearls, and bore a plume case, set with diamonds (points), alternating with pearls and balas-rubies, was sold by the Bernese government to Jacob Fugger, as related by J. J. Fugger in the manuscript above noted, “for no more than 47,000 florins.” In the vain hope that it would be purchased by Emperor Charles V, grandson of Charles the Bold, Fugger held the jewel for many years, but he broke up the cap and reset the stones in it for Maximilian II. The brooch was finally sold to Henry VIII of England just before his death, and it passed to his daughter and successor, Bloody Mary, who presented it to her Spanish bridegroom, Philip. Thus, after seventy-six years, the jewel was restored to a descendant of the original owner. This history has been given at some length owing to its illustration of the manner in which great pearls were easily lost on battle-fields and were passed about from one country to another.

GAIKWAR OF BARODA, 1908

Tararequi Pearls. The early American fisheries yielded several magnificent pearls, many of which eventually became part of the imperial Spanish jewels. Prominent among these was the Huerfana or Sola. According to Gomara, this was secured in 1515 from the Indians at Tararequi, in the Gulf of Panama, in a large collection which weighed 880 ounces. It was pear-shaped and weighed thirty-one carats. Gomara states that this pearl was purchased from Gaspar de Morales, leader of the Spanish expedition, by a merchant, for the sum of 12,000 castilians. “The purchaser could not sleep that night for thinking on the fact that he had given so much money for one stone, and sold it the very next day to Pedrarias de Avila, for his wife Donna Isabel de Bovadilla”; and afterward it passed to Isabella, wife of Emperor Charles V (1500–1558). It was remarkable for its luster, color, and clearness, as well as for its size. Another large pearl in this collection weighed twenty-six carats.

Oviedo Pearl. As already noted on page 237, in his “Historia natural y general de las Indias,” published at Toledo in 1526, Gonzalo de Oviedo wrote of having purchased at Panama a pearl weighing twenty-six carats for which he paid 650 times its weight in fine gold, and which he claimed was the “greatest, fairest and roundest” that had ever been seen at Panama. Probably this was the twenty-six-carat pearl obtained at Tararequi by Gaspar de Morales in 1515. At 650 times its weight in gold the value of this pearl would be $2294.54; representing a base of $.2124 per grain; but at a base of $5 per grain the same pearl would be worth $54,080, equaling 15,320 times its weight in gold.

Temple of Talomeco. Among great collections of pearls, some writers would place that described by Garcilasso de la Vega as having been found by De Soto and his followers in 1540 in the Temple of Talomeco near the Savannah River in America.[^[486]] According to Garcilasso, the quantity of pearls there was so great that 300 horses and 900 men would not have sufficed for its transportation, vastly excelling every other if not all other collections in the history of the world. Unfortunately the accuracy of this account has not been unquestioned.

La Peregrina. Most celebrated among the early American pearls was La Peregrina (the incomparable), or the Philip II pearl, which weighed 134 grains. According to Garcilasso de la Vega, who says that he saw it at Seville in 1597,[^[487]] this was found at Panama in 1560 by a negro who was rewarded with his liberty, and his owner with the office of alcalde of Panama. Other authorities note that it came from the Venezuelan fisheries in 1574. It was carried to Spain by Don Diego de Temes, who presented it to Philip II (1527–1598). Jacques de Treco, court jeweler to the king, is credited with saying that it might be worth 30,000, 50,000 or 100,000 ducats, as one might choose to estimate, for in fact it was so remarkable as to be beyond any standard valuation. If we can credit Garcilasso, at one time this pearl decorated the crown of the Blessed Virgin in the church of Guadeloupe, which was resplendent with gems.[^[488]] A contemporaneous account[^[489]] notes that it was worn at Madrid by Queen Margarita, wife of Philip III, at the fêtes given in celebration of the treaty of peace between that country and England in 1605.

Charles II Pearl. Somewhat similar to the foregoing was the pearl of Charles II of Spain (1661–1700), which was presented to that monarch by Don Pedro de Aponte, Conde del Palmer, a native of the Canaries. This gem was found in 1691, or more than a century after La Peregrina. These two pearls were nearly equal in size, and for many years they were worn as earrings by the successive queens of Spain. It is reported that they were destroyed in 1734, when a large portion of the old palace at Madrid was burned.[^[490]]

MARY, QUEEN OF SCOTS
The property of the Earl of Leven and Melville. About 1559–1560

The jewels of the Spanish crown have passed through so many vicissitudes that it is not surprising that but few of them remain in the Spanish treasury. After the overthrow of the Spanish monarchy by the French in 1808, Ferdinand VII, during the time of his exile, disposed of many of these jewels. It is asserted that, after the deposition of Queen Isabella, in 1868, the crown jewels were divided between herself and her sister, the pious Duchesse de Montpensier, and a considerable portion was eventually distributed among the numerous descendants of the latter. It is also stated that there is no mention of the Spanish crown jewels during the reign of King Amadeus, the first sovereign of the restored monarchy. There are, however, great quantities of pearls and other gems belonging to the various madonnas in the Spanish churches, as, for example, Nuestra Señora de Atocha, Cavadonga and others.

Pearls of Mary Stuart. The pearls owned by the unfortunate Mary Queen of Scots (1542–1587) were among the most beautiful in Europe. Inventories of these[^[491]] show great bordures de tour of large pear pearls with entredeux of round pearls, long ropes of pearls strung like beads on a rosary, carcans or broad belts set with pearls, and a large number of loose pearls. Many of these appear in the portraits of this popular queen; but probably the most remarkable exhibition of them is in the portrait now owned by the Earl of Leven and Melville,[^[492]] which appears to agree fairly well with the inventories of her jewels, although this portrait is not wholly free from impeachment as to its accuracy and contemporaneousness.

After the downfall of the queen, most of her jewels were sold, pawned, or lost by theft. A number of them passed into the possession of Queen Elizabeth in 1568, in a manner not wholly satisfactory to lovers of justice. Some of these were described in a letter dated May 8, 1568, and addressed to Catharine de’ Medici by Bodutel de la Forest, the French ambassador at the English court, as “six cordons of large pearls, strung as paternosters; but there are about twenty-five separate from the others much larger and more beautiful than those which are strung. They were first shown to three or four jewelers and lapidaries of this city, who estimated them at three thousand pounds sterling, and who offered to give that sum; certain Italian merchants who viewed them afterwards valued them at 12,000 escus, which is the price, as I am told, this queen [Elizabeth] will take them at. There is a Genevese who saw them after the others and estimated them as worth 16,000 escus [$24,000].”[^[493]]

Catharine de’ Medici, who was a mother-in-law of Mary Stuart, was very anxious to obtain these pearls; but the ambassador wrote on May 15, 1568, that he had found it impossible to purchase them; for, as he had told her from the first, they were intended for the gratification of the Queen of England, who had purchased them at her own price, and was even then in possession of them.[^[494]]

Queen Elizabeth’s Pearls. Although in her youth she is said to have had a distaste for personal decorations, in her later years Queen Elizabeth entertained an extravagant fondness for pearls. In speaking of her portraits, Horace Walpole says: “A pale Roman nose, a head of hair loaded with crowns and powdered with diamonds, a vast ruff, a vaster fardingale, and a bushel of pearls, are features by which everybody knows at once the pictures of Queen Elizabeth.”[^[495]] And to the end, her love for them was unabated, for in the last tragi-comic scene of her life, to meet the Angel of Death himself, she was dressed up in her most splendid jewels with great pearl necklaces and earrings and pendants, as Paul Delaroche so successfully pictured in his remarkable painting in the Louvre.

The faded waxwork effigy of her, long preserved in Westminster Abbey in that curious collection of effigies[^[496]]—the “Ragged Regiment,” as Walpole called them—has a coronet of large spherical pearls in wax, long necklaces of them, a great pearl-ornamented stomacher, pearl earrings with large pear-shaped pendants, and even broad, pearl medallions on the shoe-bows. In accordance with that singular custom which prevailed from the time of Henry V (1422), to that of Queen Anne (1714),[^[497]] this effigy lay on her coffin at the funeral and caused, says Stow in his Chronicle, “such a general sighing, groning, and weeping, as the like hath not beene seene or knowne in the memory of man.” A contemporaneous poet wrote that when the corpse with the effigy passed down the Thames to lie in state at Whitehall,

Fish wept their eyes of pearl quite out,

And swam blind after.

Gresham Pearl. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth, Sir Thomas Gresham, the merchant prince, was credited with possessing a pearl valued at £15,000, which he reduced to powder and drank in a glass of wine to the health of the queen, in order to astonish the Spanish ambassador, with whom he had laid a wager that he would give a more costly dinner than could the Spaniards.[^[498]] No other information regarding this pearl seems available. The valuation certainly appears excessive when compared with that of some other pearls of that period.

We quote an item from Burgon,[^[499]] taken from the manuscript journal kept by Edward VI:

25 [April, 1551]. A bargaine made with the Fulcare for about 60,000 l. that in May and August should be paid, for the deferring of it. First, that the Foulcare should put it off for ten in the hundred. Secondly, that I should buy 12,000 marks weight at 6 shilinges the ounce to be delivered at Antwerpe, and so conveyed over. Thirdly, I should pay 100,000 crowns for a very faire juel of his, four rubies marvelous big, one orient and great diamount, and one great pearle.

Rudolph II Pearls. The scientific, art-loving, but eccentric Rudolph II (1552–1612), Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, gathered about him at Prague a great collection of jewels and wealth of all sorts. The values of his pearls and precious stones, of the gold and silver articles, was estimated by the archæologist, Jules Cæsar Boulenger, at seventeen millions of gold florins, which was a very considerable sum at that time, as appears when we consider that one hundred gold florins annually was deemed a good salary for an official at the emperor’s court. De Boot mentions a pearl belonging to Rudolph II which weighed “thirty carats and cost as many thousands of gold pieces.” It is quite likely that this was the one noted by Gomara as coming from the Gulf of Panama,[^[500]] and which Rudolph probably inherited from his grandfather, Emperor Charles V. The pearl bought by Oviedo in Panama, prior to 1526, may be one of the principal decorations of the imperial crown of Austria.

We read in that curious and interesting book, “The Generall Historie of the Turkes,” by Richard Knolles,[^[501]] that Abbas the Great, Shah of Persia (1557–1628), after having defeated the Turks in many battles, desired to form an alliance with Emperor Rudolph II, and to induce him to break his engagements with the Turks. To this end Shah Abbas, in 1610 sent an embassy to Prague, with many valuable gifts for the emperor, among which were “three orientall pearles exceeding big.” It has been conjectured, and it is also claimed, that these may be three of the eight pear-shaped pearls which are now to be seen in the crown of Rudolph II. One of the largest pearls in the Austrian crown, as we have stated, is most probably the Oviedo pearl.

Charles I Pearl. Admirers of Vandyke’s pictures of Charles I (1600–1649) readily recall the pearl pendant from his right ear, which appears in nearly all of his portraits by that artist. Janin wrote: “This pearl in the ear of his majesty was greatly coveted, and as soon as his head had fallen, the witnesses of the dreadful scene rushed forward, ready to imbue their hands in his blood in order to secure the royal jewel.” It seems more probable that the martyr king would have left this gem in the hands of a trusty friend for his family than to the risk of injury by the ax and to be torn from his mutilated head by a scrambling mob.

Owing to their control of the great fisheries, the most valuable collections of pearls have been held by eastern monarchs, and particularly by those of India and Persia. It has been estimated that one third of the portable wealth of these countries is in jewels. Most Orientals are as suspicious of interest in their jewels as they are of inquiry regarding their harems, imagining, doubtless, that the interest conceals a sentiment of cupidity, hence it is not practicable to give a minute description of them. However, several travelers have recorded glowing accounts of collections which they have examined, which read much like a description of Aladdin’s palace in the Arabian Nights. Among these, some of the greatest are the

Pearls described by Tavernier. For accounts of remarkable pearls in eastern countries in the seventeenth century, we are indebted to that well-informed old French jeweler, Tavernier, one of the most remarkable gem dealers the world has ever known. He made numerous journeys to Persia, Turkey, Central Asia, and the East Indies, gaining the confidence of the highest officials and trading in gems of the greatest value. After amassing a large fortune and purchasing a barony near Lake Geneva, he died at Moscow in 1689 while on a mercantile trip to the Orient, at the age of eighty-four years. His “Voyages,” published in 1676–1679, reveal a critical knowledge of gems, a remarkable insight into human nature, and the absence of any intention to impart misleading information.

In the first English edition of his travels, published in 1678, Tavernier gave sketches of five of the principal pearls which came under his careful observation.

Figure 1 of Tavernier’s diagram shows what he considered “the largest and most perfect pearl ever discovered, and without the least defect.” The weight of this pear-shaped gem does not appear to have been noted, but from the sketch it may be estimated at about 500 grains. Tavernier states that the bloodthirsty Shah Sofi, King of Persia, purchased it in 1633 from an Arab who had just received it from the fisheries at El Katif. “It cost him 32,000 tomans, or 1,400,000 livres of our money, at the rate of 46 livres and 6 deniers per toman ($552,000).”[^[502]]

QUEEN ELIZABETH OF ENGLAND

ELIZABETH OF FRANCE

Very much smaller but more beautiful than this great pearl, was the one which Tavernier saw in 1670 at Ormus in the possession of the Imam of Muscat, who had recently recovered the Muscat peninsula from the Portuguese. The jeweler stated that although this weighed only twelve and one sixteenth carats (forty-eight and a quarter grains),[^[503]] and was not perfectly round, it surpassed in beauty all others in the world at that time. It was so clear and lustrous as to appear translucent. At the conclusion of a grand entertainment given by the Khan of Ormus, at which Tavernier was present, the Prince of Muscat drew this gem from a small purse suspended about his neck, and exhibited it to the company. The Khan of Ormus offered 2000 tomans (about $34,500) for it, but the owner would not part with his treasure. Tavernier states that later the prince refused an offer of 40,000 escus ($45,000) from Aurangzeb, the Great Mogul of India.[^[504]]

Figure 3 in the diagram represents a pear-shaped pearl of fifty-five carats (220 grains) which Tavernier sold to Shaista Khan, uncle of the Grand Mogul. Although of large size and good shape, this was deficient in luster. According to the jeweler, this pearl was from the Island of Margarita on the Venezuelan coast, and was the largest ever carried from Occident to Orient.

Tavernier listed among the Great Mogul’s jewels a large olive-shaped pearl, perfect in form and luster. The weight was not noted, but from the sketch which he gave (see Fig. 4) it may be estimated at about 125 grains. It formed the central ornament of a chain of emeralds and rubies, which the Mogul sometimes wore about his neck. He also listed a round pearl of perfect form (see Fig. 5). The weight of this also is not noted, but from the sketch it may be estimated at 110 grains. This was the largest perfectly spherical pearl known to Tavernier. Its equal had never been found, and for that reason it was kept with the unmounted jewels.

Among the other pearl treasures of the Great Mogul, Tavernier noted the following:

(a) Two grand, pear-shaped pearls, one weighing about seventy ratis,[^[505]] a little flattened on both sides, and of beautiful water and good form. (b) A button-shaped pearl, weighing from fifty-five to sixty ratis, of good form and good water. (c) A round pearl of great perfection, a little flat on one side and weighing fifty-six ratis; this had been presented to the Great Mogul by Shah Abbas II, King of Persia. (d) Three round yellowish pearls weighing from twenty-five to twenty-eight ratis each. (e) A perfectly round pearl, thirty-five and a half ratis, white and perfect in all respects. This was the only jewel purchased by the Great Mogul himself, the others being inherited or coming to him as presents. (f) Two pearls perfectly shaped and equal, each weighing twenty-five and a quarter ratis. (g) Also two chains, one of pearls and rubies of different shapes pierced like the pearls; the other of pearls and emeralds, round and bored. All of these pearls were round and ranged in weight from ten to twelve ratis each.[^[506]]

Peacock Throne. The famous Takht-i-Tâ’ûs, or “Peacock Throne,” at Delhi doubtless contained the greatest accumulation of gems in the seventeenth century. It was completed, in the eighth year of his reign (1044 A.H., 1634 A.D.) by Shah Jehan, greatest of Mogul sovereigns, who likewise built the Taj Mahal at Agra, one of the most beautiful edifices ever designed by man. Abd-al-Hamid, of Lahore, in his Pâd-shâh-nâmah, “Book of the King,” composed prior to 1654, writes as follows:[^[507]]

In the course of years many valuable gems had come into the imperial jewel house, each one of which might serve as an ear-drop for Venus or as an adornment for the girdle of the Sun. Upon the accession of the emperor, it occurred to him that, in the opinion of far-seeing men the acquisition of such rare jewels and the keeping of such wonderful brilliants could render but one service, that of adorning the throne of the empire. They ought, therefore, to be put to such a use that beholders might benefit by their splendour and that majesty might shine with increased brilliancy.

As described by Tavernier in 1676, great quantities of pearls were used in the ornamentation of this throne, the arched roof, the supporting pillars, the adjacent sun-umbrellas, being well covered with these gems, many of them of great value. The choicest one was pear-shaped, yellowish in color, and weighed about fifty carats (200 grains);[^[508]] this was suspended from a great ruby which ornamented the breast of the peacock. “But that which in my opinion is the most costly thing about this magnificent throne is that the twelve columns supporting the canopy are surrounded with beautiful rows of pearls, which are round and of fine water, and weigh from 6 to 10 carats each [24 to 40 grains].”[^[509]] The total value of the jewels entering into the ornamentation was estimated at 160,500,000 livres or $60,187,500; and the present value of the throne as it stands in the shah’s palace at Teheran, whither it was carried by Nadir Shah from the sack of Delhi in 1739, even though divested of many of its most valuable gems, is estimated at $13,000,000.[^[510]] The designer of the Peacock Throne was Austin de Bordeaux, who also planned the magnificent Taj Mahal. He was named by Shah Jehan, “Jewel-Handed,” and received a salary of two thousand rupees a month.

Shah’s “Tippet.” Sir Harford Jones Brydges’ description of the jewels of the Shah of Persia at Teheran is of particular value, since he had formerly dealt in jewels and was an expert in such matters. He says:

I was particularly struck with the king’s tippet, a covering for part of his back, his shoulders and his arms, which is only used on the very highest occasions. It is a piece of pearl work of the most beautiful pattern; the pearls are worked on velvet, but they stand so close together that little, if any, of the velvet is visible. It took me a good hour to examine this single article, which I have no fear of saying can not be matched in the world. There was not a single pearl employed in forming this most gorgeous trapping less in size than the largest marrow-fat pea I ever saw raised in England, and many—I should suppose from 150 to 200—the size of a wild plum, and throughout the whole of these pearls, it would puzzle the best jeweler who should examine them most critically to discover in more than 4 or 5 a serious fault. The tassel is formed of pearls of the most uncommon size and beauty; and the emerald which forms the top of the tassel is perhaps the largest perfect one in the world.... For some days after I had seen these jewels, I attempted to make an estimate of their value, but I got so confused in the recollection of their weight and the allowance to be made in some of them for their perfection in water and color, that I gave it up as impossible. I cannot, however, think I shall much mislead if I say that on a moderate, perhaps a low calculation, their value cannot be less than fifteen millions [sterling?] of our money.[^[511]]

Shah’s Pearls in 1820. Nearly a century ago the elaborate state costume of the Shah of Persia was described by the English artist, Sir Robert Ker Porter. In this description he mentioned particularly the pearls in the tiara, the pear-shaped pearls of immense size with which the plumes were tipped, the two strings of pearls—“probably the largest in the world”—which crossed the king’s shoulders, and the large cushion incased in a network of beautiful pearls against which he reclined.[^[512]]

Pearls of the Gaikwar of Baroda. Among the greatest jeweled treasures of India are those of the present Mahratta Gaikwar of Baroda, who has precedence over all the rulers in India at all functions, and is one of the most prominent and enlightened of the Indian princes. He governs a province of about 8225 square miles and 2,415,396 inhabitants in the northwestern part of India, 248 miles north of Bombay. Most of these treasures, whose value is estimated at a dozen million dollars, were collected by his predecessor, Mahratta Khandarao, who lived in barbaric splendor, and they are rarely worn by the present gaikwar. These treasures include a sash of one hundred rows of pearls, terminating in a great tassel of pearls and emeralds; seven rows of superb pearls whose value is estimated at half a million dollars; a litter set with seed-pearls, quantities of unstrung pearls, and more remarkable yet, a shawl or carpet of pearls, which closely resembles the “tippet” at Teheran described by Brydge. This carpet is said to be ten and one half feet long by six feet wide, and to be made up of strings of pearls, except that a border, eleven inches wide, and also center ornaments, are worked out in diamonds. Some writers assert that this costly ornament was originally intended by the late Mahratta Khandarao as a covering for the tomb of Mohammed. Others state that it was designed as a present for a woman of whom he was enamoured, but that the British resident interfered, claiming that the wealth of Baroda was not sufficient to warrant such an expensive gift on the part of the ruler. This ornament is now retained among the regalia at Baroda, and is probably the most costly pearl ornament in the world, its value being estimated at several million dollars.

Summer Palace in 1860. Many superb pearls were among the precious objects in the Yuen-Min-Yuen or Summer Palace in Pekin at the time of its capture by the European forces in 1860. Numbers of these were lost in the confusion of the sacking and plunder, when the soldiers’ pockets were filled and the floors were strewn with jewels, beautiful objects of gold and silver, rich silks and furs, carved jade, lapis lazuli, etc. Some of the pearls found their way to Europe, and especially to France and England. They were of good size and luster and were mostly yellowish in color. Unfortunately, many were crudely drilled with large holes, and had been strung on gold wires by which they were attached to the idols they decorated at the time they were stolen. More than one hundred, each over thirty grains in weight, were received in England, and sold at an average of nearly one thousand dollars.

PEARL CARPET OR SHAWL OF THE GAIKWAR OF BARODA

A similar booty came from the spoliation during the war between China and Japan in 1894, and during the Boxer outbreaks of 1901, and quantities of pearls, often large and of fine color, but a little the worse for wear, were brought to the United States and Europe by the soldiers and officials, and also by traders and travelers who obtained them in China. The pendant figured is one of these objects.

The Gogibus Pearl. This famous pearl, said to have been the largest in Europe, weighed no less than 126 carats (504 grains). It was pear-shaped and of fine orient, and was brought from the West Indies, in 1620, by François Gogibus, a native of Calais, who sold it to Philip IV of Spain. As no match could be found for this magnificent gem, it was mounted as a button in the royal cap.[^[513]]

La Reine des Perles. The large round pearl of the French crown jewels which is listed in the inventory of 1791 at 200,000 francs, was purchased in 1669[^[514]] for the sum of 40,000 livres, from a gem dealer named Bazu, who had traveled in the East at about the time of Tavernier’s voyage. In the inventory of 1691, it is described as “a virgin pearl, perfect, round, and of fine water,” weighing 27½ carats and valued at 90,000 livres. When the greater part of the jewels were stolen from the Garde-Meuble in 1792, we are told that the thieves took a pearl inclosed in a gold box on which was written: “The queen of pearls.” This was most probably the one we have described and there is reason to believe that this same pearl came later into the possession of the Zozima brothers, and was called La Pellegrina.

La Régente. This name was bestowed upon a big, ovate pearl which was in the collection of the French crown jewels. This pearl, which weighs 337 grains, was furnished in November, 1811, by the court jewelers, Messrs. Noitat, for a tiara, worn by Marie Louise, Empress of France. By order of the emperor, Napoleon III, the pearl was taken out of the tiara and mounted, in August, 1853, by the Paris jeweler Lemounier into a brooch. This great brooch, with “La Régente” as the central gem, was bought by Faberge & Company of St. Petersburg, Russia, for the Princess Youssoupoff at the “Vente des Diamants de la Couronne” in 1887.

La Pellegrina. For nearly a century there has been in Russia one of the most lovely pearls in the world; this is La Pellegrina, formerly owned by the Zozima brothers of Moscow, who were antiquarians of note in St. Petersburg. In 1818 a small book of forty-eight pages was written about this beautiful gem by G. Fischer de Waldheim, vice-president of the Imperial Medico-Chirurgical Academy, probably the only book ever devoted to a single pearl. According to this writer, La Pellegrina was purchased at Leghorn by one of the Zozima brothers from an English admiral who had just returned from India. It combines all the requisites of perfection: it is absolutely spherical and has never been pierced; its luster, its silvery sheen, make it appear almost transparent, and for a pearl of this high grade, it is of remarkable size, weighing 111½ grains.

The Zozima brothers retained it in a sea-urchin shell mounted in gold and with a convex lens as cover; this was contained in a silver box, and this in turn in another box studded with gems. Although the lens enlarged the appearance of the pearl, it detracted from its beautiful form, giving it an oval shape. But when removed from the triple inclosure, it rolled about like a globule of quicksilver, and surpassed that metal in whiteness and brilliancy.

Everything that is beautiful and perfect takes such possession of the beholder that words become insufficient to express his feelings; and that is what happened to me in the case of La Pellegrina of Zozima. One must have seen an object of this kind in order to appreciate the impression it makes. As an evidence of this, I shall note the last visit which I made to the owner in company with several distinguished persons.

After having examined many curious medals and coins, and also some pearls which exceeded in size the one of which I treat, and after they had received their due meed of admiration, La Pellegrina appeared, rolled upon a sheet of paper by the owner’s little finger. Attention and admiration was depicted on every face; a perfect silence reigned. It was only when the pearl had been removed very carefully lest it should slip away, and was again triply enclosed, that we recovered the power of speech and could unanimously express our admiration.[^[515]]

As it had been stated that this pearl was in the possession of the Princess Youssoupoff, Mr. Henry W. Hiller of New York, who was in St. Petersburg, courteously made inquiries and was successful in obtaining a view of the two splendid pear-shaped pearls. These are almost exactly alike, but neither of them can well be La Pellegrina, since this is a round pearl; possibly the one on the right may be La Peregrina.[^[516]]

THE HOPE PEARL. WEIGHS 1800 GRAINS
Actual size

The owner of La Pellegrina in 1818, Z. P. Zozima, died in Moscow at a great age, in 1827. He was a Greek dealer in curiosities and gems, who had resided in Moscow for a long time, and had many clients among the nobility of Russia. It is stated that a few months before his death the best pieces of his collection, including La Pellegrina, were stolen from him by a compatriot.

Moscow Pearl, 1840. The German traveler, Johann Georg Kohl (1808–1878), in the account of his travels in Russia, relates an interesting incident connected with a beautiful pearl in the Imperial Treasury. Shortly previous to 1840, a rich Moscow merchant died in a convent, whither he had retreated after the manner of the wealthy pious ones of his nation. Feeling the approach of age, he had given up the toils of business to his sons. His wife was dead, and the only beloved object which even in the cloister was not separated from him was a large, beautiful, oriental pearl. This precious object had been purchased for him by some Persian or Arabian friend at a high price, and, enchanted by its water, magnificent size, and color, its perfect shape and luster, he would never part with it, however enormous the sum offered. He himself inhabited an ordinary cell in the convent; but this object of his love reposed on silk in a golden casket. It was shown to few persons, and favorable circumstances and strong recommendations were necessary to obtain such a favor. A Moscow resident reported the style and manner of the ceremony. On the appointed day he went with his friends to the convent, and found the old gentleman awaiting his guests in his holiday clothes. Their reception had something of solemnity about it. The old man went into his cell and brought out the casket in its rich covering. He spread white satin on the table, and, unlocking the casket, let the precious pearl roll out before the enchanted eyes of the spectators. No one ventured to touch it, but all burst into acclamations, and the old man’s eyes gleamed like his pearl. After a short time it was returned to the casket. During his last illness, the old gentleman never let the pearl out of his hand, and after his death it was with difficulty taken from his stiffened fingers.

There seems to be a great similarity between the description of this pearl and that of La Pellegrina, although we have been unable to verify our surmise as to their identity.

The Hope Pearl. In the first half of the last century, Henry Philip Hope, a London banker, brought together a great collection of gems, among which were many pearls. The most famous of these was the often-described Hope pearl, one of the largest known; the value of which, however, is not in proportion to its size, owing to its irregular formation. As described in the catalogue of the Hope collection, published in 1839, this oriental pearl is of an irregular pear-shape, weighs 1800 grains, or three ounces, measures two inches in length, and in circumference four and one half inches at the broadest and three and one fourth inches at the narrowest end. The color at the larger end is of a bronze or a dark green copper tint, this gradually clearing into a fine white luster for within one and one half inches of the smaller end. This baroque pearl was firmly attached to the shell, and it yet shows the point of attachment, which has been polished so as to correspond to the remaining portion. It is attractively mounted, the smaller end being capped with an arched crown of red enameled gold set with diamonds, rubies, and emeralds.[^[517]] After remaining in the Hope jewel collection at the South Kensington Museum for many years, it was sold at auction, at Christie’s, in 1886, when that collection was placed on the market. This pearl is now held by Messrs. Garrard & Company of London, at the price of £9000.

The Hope collection also contained about 148 pearls of good form. Notable among these were the following: (a) a conical pearl weighing 151 grains, cream-white in color, from Polynesia; (b) a bouton pearl of 124 grains, bluish-white at the top and encircled by a dark bronze color; (c) an oval cream-colored pearl, weighing ninety-four grains, from the South Seas; (d) an eighty-nine-grain, roughly spherical pearl, one side bluish and the other of a light bronze; (e) an eighty-five-grain, acorn-shaped, bluish-white pearl, with a band of opaque white near the base; (f) an oval conch pearl, pink in general color and somewhat whitish at the ends, weighing eighty-two and one fourth grains; (g) another conch pearl, seventy-seven and one half grains, button-shaped, yellowish white with a slight shade of pink; (h) a seventy-six-and-one-half-grain drop-shaped pearl of a chatoyant aspect, of white color shaded with red, purple, and green; and (i) a pear-shaped Scottish pearl of thirty-four and three fourths grains, of a milky bluish caste, slightly tinged with pink.

Van Buren Pearls. Among the collections of the United States National Museum are two pendant pearls each weighing about thirty grains, and a necklace containing 148 pearls with an aggregate weight of 700 grains. These were presented in 1840 to President Van Buren by the Imam of Muscat. They were deposited in the vaults of the Treasury Department, where they remained until a few years ago, when, by the order of the Secretary of the Treasury, they were transferred to the custody of the National Museum where they now are.

HER GRACE, THE DUCHESS OF MARLBOROUGH

Thiers Necklace. In the galleries of the Louvre at Paris may be seen a pearl necklace formerly owned by the wife of President Thiers (1797–1887), consisting of 145 pearls in three rows. The weights of the three largest individual pearls are fifty-one, thirty-nine, and thirty-six grains, respectively. The aggregate weight is 2079 grains, and the value at the time of their deposit was estimated at 300,000 francs. This is on a base of $2.02; at a higher valuation the figures would be:

$148,947	= $71.64 per grain; base,	$5
238,315	= 114.63 per grain; base,	8

the last being very probably nearer to the correct value of the necklace at the present time.

Tiffany Queen Pearl. Doubtless the most famous pearl ever found within the limits of the United States, and likewise one of the choicest, is the well-known “Queen Pearl,” found in Notch Brook near Paterson, New Jersey, in 1857.[^[518]] In form it is a perfect sphere, and weighs ninety-three grains. The history of the discovery and of the sale of this beautiful gem is set forth on page 260.

The Bapst Pearls. Very practical is the account given by Streeter of a pair of magnificent spherical pearls exhibited at the Paris Exhibition in 1878 by Messrs. Bapst of Paris. One of these pearls—then weighing 116 grains—was purchased by Mr. Streeter in 1877, and by him sold to a leading merchant of London, who skilfully removed a blemish on it, reducing it to 113¾ grains in weight. After holding it for some months, it occurred to him that it would match a pearl sold by Hunt and Roskell to Dhuleep Singh about fifteen years previously. On comparison, the two were found to match perfectly, one weighing 113¾ and the other 113¼ grains. The two were eventually sold early in 1878 “for £4800, which was even then much below their value, and to-day they would be worth £10,000. They were exhibited in the great Paris Exposition in 1878, where they attracted universal attention, and were pronounced by connoisseurs to be the most extraordinary pair of pearls ever seen in Europe. They were sold from the exhibition to an individual for a very large sum.”[^[519]]

The “Southern Cross.” The “Southern Cross” is an unusual pearl or rather cluster of pearls which attracted much attention twenty years ago. It consists of nine attached pearls forming a Roman cross about one and one half inches in length, seven pearls constituting the shaft or standard, while the arms are formed by one pearl on each side of the second one from the upper end. The luster is good, but the individual pearls are not perfect spheres, being mutually compressed at the point of juncture and considerably flattened at the back. If separated, the aggregate value of the individual pearls would be small, and the celebrity of the ornament is due almost exclusively to its form. This striking formation was exhibited at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition at London in 1886, and later at the Paris Exhibition in 1889, where it was the center of interest, and obtained a gold medal for the exhibitors. It is reported that an effort was made to bring about its sale at £10,000, the owners suggesting that it was especially appropriate for presentation to Leo XIII, on the occasion of his jubilee in 1896. The writers have been unable to obtain information as to its present location.

Much information relative to the “Southern Cross” was volunteered by Henry Taunton in the very interesting account of his wanderings in Australia. He presents apparently reliable statements showing that it was found on March 26, 1883, off Baldwin Creek in Lat. 17° S. and Long. 122° E., by a boy named Clark, in the employ of James W. S. Kelly, a master pearler. When delivered to Kelly, it was in three distinct pieces, but the boy reported that it was in one piece when he found it a few hours before. Kelly sold it in the three pieces in which he received it for £10 to a fellow pearler named Roy; Roy sold it for £40 to a man named Craig, and he sold it to an Australian syndicate.

However, according to Taunton’s positive statement, there were only eight pearls in the cluster when it was sold by Kelly in 1883, and to make it resemble a well-proportioned cross—the right arm being absent—another pearl of suitable size and shape was subsequently secured at Cossack and attached in the proper place to the others, which, in the meantime, had been refastened together by diamond cement, thus making three artificial joints in the present cluster. “As if to assist in the deception, nature had fashioned a hollow in the side of the central pearl just where the added pearl would have to be fitted; and—the whole pearling fleet with their pearls and shells coming into Cossack about this time—it was no difficult matter to select a pearl of the right size and with the convexity required. The holder paid some ten or twelve pounds for the option of selecting a pearl within given limits; and then once more, with the aid of diamond cement and that of a skilful ‘faker,’ this celebrated gem was transformed into a perfect cross.”[^[520]]

Morgan-Tiffany Collection. Probably the most interesting assortment of American pearls is the Morgan-Tiffany Collection in the American Museum of Natural History, New York. The excellence of this collection lies, not in the high cost of any individual pearl, but in its illustrating in a comprehensive manner the great variety, colors, and forms of American pearls. Not only are the many varieties of fresh-water pearls represented, but likewise abalone pearls from the Pacific coast, conch pearls from the Gulf of Mexico, and a good assortment of pearly concretions from edible oysters and clams of the Atlantic coast.

This collection contains 557 species of white and colored Unio pearls, four multicolored, five mallet-shapes, 166 baroques, thirty-nine hinge pearls, twenty pearlaceous masses, thirty-four clam (Venus) pearls, fifteen abalone pearls, eleven conch pearls, and twelve oyster (Ostrea) pearls. The collection was exhibited in two parts, the first at the Paris Exposition of 1889, and the second at the Paris Exposition of 1900. On each occasion a gold medal was awarded.

Count Batthyani’s Pearl. A curious history is connected with a beautiful black pearl[^[521]] which was at one time in the possession of Count Louis Batthyani, the premier of the revolutionary government of Hungary. The count was shot in 1849, by the orders of a court-martial, and on the eve of his execution he gave the pearl, which he had worn mounted on a scarf-pin, to his trusty and faithful valet. The latter left it to his son, who, when in straightened circumstances, sought to raise money upon the pearl. The pawnbroker of the small town was distrustful of its value and took it to Budapest for appraisal. There the suspicions of the authorities were aroused, an investigation was ordered, and it was finally discovered that the pearl had been stolen one hundred and fifty years before from the English crown. The English government redeemed it for the sum of £2500 ($12,500). How it came into the possession of Count Batthyani is a mystery; probably he purchased it from some antiquarian.

In 1900 there was shown in Paris one of the most important black pearls of any time, a pear-shaped pearl of forty-nine grains, of a most wonderful black color with a green sheen, as perfectly formed as though it had been turned out of a lathe; it did not terminate in a point at the small end, but was slightly flattened. It was so beautiful an object that it almost seemed it should never be drilled for mounting. This pearl ultimately sold for more than $30,000, and it is probably the finest black pearl that has ever reached the European markets.

According to a personal communication from E. Z. Steever, governor of the District of Sulu, the largest pearl that he has seen in the islands belongs to the sultan, and is now in the possession of Hadji Butu, former prime minister. It is an oblate spheroid, there being a trifling difference between the two diameters. The upper hemisphere is very beautiful; the lower one has a few minute, black specks which are superficial and could be easily removed, the pearl not having been treated since it was taken from the oyster. This pearl measures five eighths of an inch at its greatest diameter and is said to weigh twelve carats (forty-eight grains). Hadji Butu informed Governor Steever that the sultan had refused $25,000 for the pearl in Singapore.

The Nordica pearl is the finest abalone of which we have any record. It weighs 175 grains, is a drop pearl of a greenish hue, with brilliant red fire-like flashes, and serves as a pendant to the famous collection of colored pearls belonging to the beloved and admired American prima donna, Madam Nordica.

At the International Exposition in Paris in 1889, Mr. Alphonse Falco, president of the Chambre Syndicale, exhibited a round pearl, white and lustrous, weighing seventy grains, and valued at 50,000 francs.

Augusto Castellani, the well-known Italian jeweler of Rome, in the year 1868, during the Papal regime, executed a crown for King Victor Emmanuel II. This crown was destined for the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, in Jerusalem, and on it is a pearl which, although slightly irregular, is as large as the famous Gogibus pearl.

A remarkable golden-yellow pearl from Shark’s Bay, West Australia, is in the possession of a New York lady; it weighs thirty and one half grains, is perfectly round, and is without a flaw or blemish.

Crown Jewels of France. The collection of gems known as the Crown Jewels of France owed its origin to Francis I (1494–1547). While in Bordeaux, on his way to meet his bride, Eleanor of Austria, sister of Emperor Charles V, Francis created by letter patent the Treasure of the Crown Jewels, giving to the state a number of his most valued diamonds, under the condition that at each change of sovereign a careful inventory should be made. The original collection consisted of six pieces of jewelry valued at 272,242 “écus soleil,” or about $700,000. The crown jewels have passed through many vicissitudes in the course of time. A number of the gems were at various times pledged as security for loans made in France and Italy, and it is said that in 1588, during the reign of Henry III, all the jewels disappeared from the royal treasury. Henry IV strove to regather the scattered ornaments, but it was only in the reign of Louis XIV that the collection became really important. At the time of the French Revolution, in 1791, an inventory was made by the order of the National Assembly.

THE MADAM NORDICA COLLECTION OF COLORED PEARLS
The Nordica drop pearl weighs 175 grains

The jewels were then deposited in the Garde-Meuble, where they were exposed to public view. Either they were very carelessly guarded, or the guardians were in collusion with a band of thieves, for the room wherein they were kept was entered on five successive nights, and when the theft was finally discovered only about 500,000 francs’ ($100,000) worth of the gems remained. Many of the most valuable objects were, however, traced and recovered. Napoleon I, when he became emperor, made every effort to enrich the treasure, and purchased gems to the value of 6,000,000 francs ($1,200,000), and subsequent rulers added to the collection on various occasions.

At the time of the official inventory in 1791 the entire collection of pearls was estimated at about 1,000,000 francs ($200,000). The finest specimen in the collection was a splendid round pearl weighing 109¼ grains[^[522]] and estimated at 200,000 francs ($40,000), or $366 per grain, on a base of $3.35. Then came two pear-shaped pearls of a fine orient and well-matched, weighing respectively 117¾ and 113 grains, and valued at 300,000 francs ($60,000) or $260 per grain, on a base of $2.25. In addition to the above there were twenty-five separate round pearls which had constituted the necklace of the queen; they ranged in weight from 36 to 165½ grains, and were valued at about 90,000 francs ($18,000). Beside the pear-shaped pearls to which we have alluded, there were two other pairs, each valued at 32,000 francs ($6400) for the two pearls; they averaged about 100 grains in weight. In addition to these there were two weighing respectively 175½ and 205¼ grains, each valued at 20,000 francs ($4000), and seven others ranging in weight from 92½ to 167 grains and valued at from 10,000 to 15,000 francs ($2000 to $3000). The best oval pearl was one weighing seventy-six and one half grains and estimated at 20,000 francs ($4000); there were two others, one of ninety-three grains, valued at 12,000 francs ($2400), and one of 121 grains, valued at 10,000 francs ($2000). We may also mention an egg-shaped pearl weighing 145¼ grains, estimated as worth 10,000 francs ($2000), and a button pearl of 198 grains entered at 15,000 francs ($3000). Beside these separate pearls there were eleven strings comprising 310 pearls, weighing in all 6778 grains and valued at but 29,400 francs (about $6000). The average per pearl was 95 francs ($19), less than one dollar a grain.

These pearls, according to their beauty, would now be worth from four to six times the valuation here given, so that the two large pear-shaped pearls of the French crown may be worth to-day $200,000 and the great round pearl from $100,000 to $250,000.

Many of these pearls were a century old. They were collected at a time when not as much attention was paid to their absolute perfection and beauty as at the present time, for there probably never has been a period when rare and perfect pearls, diamonds, or rubies have been appreciated so much more highly than those of mediocre quality.

RECAPITULATION
		Weight in grains		Value
	No.	Average	Total	Francs	U. S. currency
Round Pearls	1		109¼	200,000	$40,000
	3	79	238½	29,000	5,800
	11	77¼	804½	37,300	7,460
	7	64½	450½	19,400	3,880
	14	53¾	753¼	23,100	4,620
	43	34½	1488½	16,100	3,220
Pear-shaped	2	115⅜	230¾	300,000	60,000
	4	99¼	397½	64,000	12,800
	6	163⅛	978¾	92,000	18,400
	8	114¼	914¼	55,000	11,000
	47	42¼	1989¾	24,600	4,920
Oval	3	27	290½	42,000	8,400
	9	72½	654¼	20,100	4,020
	11	43	473¾	5,000	1,000
Egg-shaped	1		145¼	10,000	2,000
Irregular	12	39½	475¼	7,300	1,460
Button	1		198	15,000	3,000
	6	66¼	398	4,900	980
Baroque	4	37½	150¾	1,500	300
Strings	310	21⅞	6778	29,400	5,880
	503	35⅜	17,919¼	995,700	$199,140

GRAND PEARL DIADEM OF THE FRENCH CROWN JEWELS
Containing 212 pearls weighing 2452 grains, and 1990 diamonds weighing 74 27–32 carats. Worn by the Empress Eugénie

After the downfall of Napoleon III and the proclamation of the French Republic, the jewels were inventoried, and, by a law passed December 10, 1886, it was decreed that a large part of the treasure should be sold at public auction. The sale was held in the Pavilion de Flore, a part of the Palace of the Tuileries, on May 12, 1887, and, very naturally, all the principal gem dealers and collectors were represented. A number of remarkable pearl ornaments were among the objects offered at this sale, one of the most beautiful being a diadem of an exceptionally artistic openwork design, adorned with large, round pearls and surmounted by a row of magnificent pear-shaped pearls. The total number of pearls in this diadem was 212, and their weight 2452 grains. It was sold for the sum of 78,000 francs ($15,600). The coronet which accompanied the diadem comprised 274 pearls, weighing 984 grains; the design was similar to that of the diadem, but the points consisted of a round and a pear-shaped pearl in alternation. This ornament realized the sum of 30,000 francs ($6000). A large brooch of very elaborate and beautiful design, beside a number of smaller pearls, comprised four fine, pear-shaped pendants, weighing 100 grains each, and two choice bouton pearls, and had in the center the famous pearl known as “La Régente,” which was purchased in 1811 for 40,000 francs ($8000). This splendid ornament brought the sum of 176,000 francs ($35,200). Four other brooches each contained seven pearls and many brilliants, the twenty-eight pearls having a total weight of 1496 grains, an average of more than fifty-three grains. Each brooch had two pearls surrounded with brilliants, and five large, pear-shaped pearls set as pendants. They were sold to different purchasers at prices ranging from 18,500 francs ($3700) to 43,000 francs ($8600), the four together realizing 113,500 francs ($22,700).

Six pearl necklaces were also offered. One of forty-seven pearls weighing 698 grains was sold for 34,600 francs ($6920), and two others, each consisting of fifty-eight pearls, with a total weight of 524 and 400 grains respectively, brought the sum of 22,300 francs ($4460) and 15,000 francs ($3000). Another necklace composed of thirty-eight round pearls and nine pear-shaped pendants, the total weight being 1612 grains, sold for 74,300 francs ($14,860). The two finest necklaces were broken up into a number of separate lots. One of them, consisting of 362 pearls and weighing in all 5808 grains,—an average of a trifle over sixteen grains,—was offered in four lots which together brought 295,800 francs ($59,160). The other necklace comprised 542 pearls weighing 6752 grains, and was disposed of in eight lots, realizing in all 331,800 francs ($66,360). Two bracelets adorned with 202 pearls and a number of small brilliants were purchased for the sum of 90,200 francs ($18,040). The total amount realized for the pearl ornaments was 1,261,500 francs ($252,300). There are several American ladies who own single strings of pearls which are of more value than the whole pearl parure of the Empress Eugénie.

Pearl parure of the crown jewels of France, worn by the Empress Eugénie, and sold at the Tuileries, May 12, 1887.

A diadem containing 212 pearls, weighing 2452 grains.

A coronet with 274 pearls, weighing 984 grains.

Four brooches, each containing four large pearls, two round, two pear-shaped, and three smaller ones, weighing in all 1496 grains.

A larger brooch comprising four large pear-shaped pearls, each weighing 100 grains. In the center is the pearl called “La Régente.”

Two necklaces each consisting of forty-seven pearls, with an aggregate weight of 698 and 1612 grains, respectively.

Two bracelets with 202 pearls, weighing 2000 grains.

Five buttons, three with nine and two with ten pearls.

A necklace of 542 pearls, weighing 6752 grains.

Another necklace of 362 pearls, weighing 5808 grains.

Two other necklaces, each containing fifty-eight pearls, the total weight being 400 and 524 grains, respectively.

SUMMARY OF THE PRINCIPAL PEARL ORNAMENTS FORMING THE PEARL PARURE OF THE FRENCH CROWN JEWELS SOLD AT PALACE OF THE TUILERIES IN MAY, 1887
Designation	No. of pearls	Aggregate weight grains	Amount rec’d francs
1 necklace	362	5,808	295,800
1 necklace	542	6,752	331,800
1 necklace	47	698	34,600
1 necklace	58	524	22,300
1 necklace	58	400	15,000
1 necklace	47	1,612	74,300
2 bracelets	202	2,000	90,200
1 large diadem	212	2,452	78,000
1 coronet	274	984	30,000
1 brooch	45	1,200	176,000
4 brooches	28	1,496	113,500
Total	1875	23,926	1,261,500

Imperial Austrian Schatzkammer. The weights and values of the great gathering of pearls of the imperial Austrian Schatzkammer were carefully estimated by one of the authors and by his friends, and it is the first attempted inventory ever published.[^[523]]

The imperial crown of the Holy Roman Empire, preserved in the treasury of the imperial Burg at Vienna, and known as the crown of Charlemagne, has in front seventeen pearls weighing 424 grains, of which two weigh fifty-six grains each. The remaining fifteen pearls average 20.8 grains. The values of these pearls are as follows:

	Base
	$2.50	$5.00	$7.50
15 pearls, 20.8 grains	$16,224	$32,448	$48,672
2 56–grain pearls	15,680	31,360	47,040
Total	$31,904	$63,808	$95,712

THE IMPERIAL AUSTRIAN CROWN
Made by order of Emperor Rudolph II, in 1604

At the back of the crown there are eighteen pearls, weighing 180 grains. One of these has a weight of twenty-six grains; the remaining seventeen average 9.058 grains. The values estimated are as follows:

	Base
	$2.50	$5.00	$7.50
17 pearls, 9.058 grains	$3,487.55	$6,975.10	$10,462.65
1 pearl of 26 grains	1,690.00	3,380.00	5,070.00
Total	$5,177.55	$10,355.10	$15,532.65

The pearls in the cross surmounting the crown have a weight of thirty-six grains.

The imperial cross is profusely ornamented with pearls in front, while the back consists simply of silver-gilt. There are three strings of pearls in the front running in each direction. The total weight of the pearls is 4092 grains; one weighing sixty-four grains, and the smallest two grains.

The crucifix of the Golden Fleece is ornamented only in front with pearls; these have a weight of but 136 grains.

The imperial Austrian regalia, dating from the time of Emperor Rudolph II, are also in the imperial Burg; some of the emperor’s jewels were sold at auction in Prague in 1728.

The crown is adorned with two rows of pearls, weighing respectively 960 and 840 grains; between these rows are pearls having a total weight of 440 grains, while the ornaments and eight large drops weigh 2052 grains. The largest pearl on this crown weighs 104 grains. It is drop-shaped and belonged to Rudolph II; it is slightly uneven and the color, although white, is not that of a new pearl, but this pearl has a positive history of three hundred and six years, and at the present time is probably the oldest known unchanged pearl with a direct and authentic record.

The imperial orb is studded with pearls weighing in all 1560 grains. Four of these weigh forty grains each, the others are of lesser size, the smallest weighing ten grains. The scepter is adorned with pearls to the weight of 300 grains.

In addition to these insignia and regalia there are in the treasury two magnificent pearl necklaces, deposited by Empress Maria Theresa in 1765. The first consists of a single string of 114 large-sized pearls with the “Baden Solitaire,” a diamond of 30 carats, as a clasp. Three of these pearls weigh from 92 to 100 grains each, and the whole string has a total weight of 3400 grains. This would give us the following values, the pearls averaging 29.82 grains.

Base
$2.50	$253,432.12
5.00	506,864.24

The other necklace contains 121 pearls of a total weight of 3788 grains, arranged in three rows; these pearls average 31.3 grains, the largest weighing forty grains and the smallest ten grains. The necklace has a diamond clasp of 14¹⁄₃₂ carats. The pearls are worth:

Base
$2.50	$296,450
5.00	592,900
7.50	889,350

Two bracelets with brilliant clasps, belonging to the same set, and consisting of 240 medium-sized pearls weighing 2800 grains and averaging 11⅔ grains, have the following values:

Base
$2.50	$81,658.80
5.00	163,317.60
7.50	244,976.40

There is also a pendant of six pearls, weighing 300 grains and averaging fifty grains; these pearls are worth:

Base
$2.50	$37,500
5.00	75,000
7.50	112,500

Another necklace, bequeathed to the treasury by the late Empress Caroline Augusta, consists of eighty-six pearls disposed in two rows, the largest pearl weighing seventy-two grains and the smallest eight grains. The total weight is 2600 grains and the average, 30.2. This necklace is worth:

Base
$2.50	$196,088.60
5.00	392,177.20
7.50	588,265.80

Still another necklace is composed altogether of black pearls, of which there are thirty, the largest weighing forty-eight grains and the smallest ten. The total weight of this necklace is 1040 grains, an average of 34.66 grains for each pearl. On a base of $5 this necklace is worth $180,150.

The diamond crown of the empress bears pearls to the total weight of 2000 grains; among them are four weighing 100 grains each. These pearls alone, on a $5 base, would be worth $200,000.

THE GREAT SÉVIGNÉ OF THE FRENCH CROWN JEWELS
Containing “The Regent Pearl,” weighing 337 grains, and four pear-shaped pearls of 100 grains each; also 100 carats of diamonds

The total weight of the pearls in all these ornaments is 35,816 grains, equal to four and a half pounds, avoirdupois, and they are worth from $2,000,000 to $4,000,000.

The so-called crown of Charlemagne bears the inscription: “Chuonradus Rex Dei gratia Romanorum Imperator Aug.” It is believed to be a work of the twelfth century and originally the royal crown of Conrad III, king of the Germans (1093–1152), the first Hohenstaufen.[^[524]] The arch is said to have been added to adapt this royal crown for use in the expected coronation of Conrad as emperor. He died, however, while making preparations for his journey to Rome.

The imperial vestments used in the coronation ceremonies of the Holy Roman Empire, were produced in the celebrated Hôtel de Tirâz, at Palermo. Roger II, King of Sicily (1096–1154), after a victorious campaign in Greece, brought back with him to Sicily a number of skilled silk-weavers and embroiderers, whom he established at Palermo. The imperial mantle is of a brilliant purple and bears an inscription, embroidered in gold and pearls, stating that the garment was made in the royal manufactory in the year 1133. Two pearl-embroidered representations of a lion, who has stricken down a camel and is about to tear it to pieces, also appear on this mantle. This symbol of royal power was used frequently by the Saracens, and it is said that Richard Cœur de Lion had this design embroidered on his saddlecloths.[^[525]]

A fine collection of large baroque pearls is preserved in the Grüne Gewölbe (Green Vaults) in the palace at Dresden, which contains the treasures of the royal family of Saxony. Most of these were mounted during the eighteenth century by J. M. Dinglinger (1665–1731), the famous goldsmith to the Saxon Elector, King Augustus II of Poland, and who is sometimes called the German Cellini. A splendid specimen of his work is a vase of Egyptian jasper in the shape of a shell, bearing a representation of Hercules fighting with the Nemæan lion; this bears reference to the immense personal strength and power of Augustus II, whose portrait is painted in enamel on a mirror at the back. The pedestal is adorned with a great many precious stones, pearls, and enamel paintings in the shape of cameos representing the twelve labors of Hercules. A dragon is studded with emeralds and its back is formed of pearls, with a large sardonyx in the middle. Hercules and the lion are in enamel.

In the same collection may be seen the figure of a dwarf made by Ferbecq, who was one of the goldsmiths of King Augustus. The body of the dwarf is formed of a baroque pearl, which is studded with small diamonds. His sleeves and trousers are in black and green enamel; his hat is also of green enamel and on it is a string of diamonds. In his right hand the dwarf holds a spit and in his left a roast. On his left shoulder he bears a goose, the upper part of whose body is formed of a pearl; at his right side hangs a bottle also formed of a pearl. The gilded pedestal is ornamented with white enamel work on a pink ground. Above and below, it is set with white and yellow diamonds. Another figure, similarly formed of a large baroque pearl ornamented with gold and diamonds, shows a drunken vintager and his dog; and an exceedingly grotesque, ornamented baroque is said to bear a striking resemblance to Señor Pepe, the court dwarf of Charles II of Spain.

Exhibited at the Palace of Rosenberg at Copenhagen, are similar designs in which large baroques form the principal part of fish, birds, dragons, mermaids, etc. Prominent among them is the figure of a skater, executed by the jeweler, Diederichsen; it is said that this was made for Frederick VII, who died before it was accepted, and in 1895 it was presented to the museum.

A beautiful and costly figure of this nature was completed a year or two ago by the court jeweler, Alfred Dragsen, of Copenhagen. This is nearly four inches in height, and represents a female snake-charmer. A very long baroque pearl forms the body from the shoulders to the knees, and the head, arms, and the legs below the knees are of gold. The figure is ornamented with a diamond-studded garland, ruby necklace and earrings, and garters set with similar gems, a red enameled girdle ornamented with pearls, and golden anklets with black pearls. With a flute she charms a serpent twined about her body and grasped with the other hand.

What is said to be the finest collection of black pearls in all Europe is that belonging to the Duchess of Anhalt Dessau, Germany. It consists of three large caskets of black pearls that have taken a century to collect. It is traditional in the family that these pearls are never to be sold except as their last possession, since they know they will always find a purchaser.

A collection of pearls had been kept for many years in the Monte de Piedad of Mexico City, which it was claimed had been pawned by a friend of the Empress Carlotta, in order to provide her with money at the time of the assassination of Emperor Maximilian. These pearls were contained in a necklace and a pearl and diamond tiara, which were sewn upon cardboard covered with black velvet, and had the appearance of not having been disturbed for many years. The necklace consisted of old pearls, both of the so-called Madras and Panama varieties; in the center was a large diamond medallion from which pear-shaped pearls were suspended. It is believed that these pearls were part of Empress Carlotta’s marriage portion, and that they came from the Austrian crown jewel collection. None of them possessed much quality with the exception of one, a large pear-shaped pearl which was set at the base of the necklace and weighed eighty-four grains. The drilling of this pearl was of a very old style, being of that type in which a tube is inserted in the drill hole, through which a gold wire passes to hold the pearl; a diamond is then set at the base of the tube to disguise the drill mark. It is, however, possible that the pearl came from the East Indies, where large drill holes are usual.

MADAM NORDICA

The pearls were sent in bond to the United States as a collection, and then to Europe, where they were sold separately, the pear-shaped pearl appearing again in the New York market in 1906. There has been some doubt as to these really being Carlotta’s pearls, but the Mexican account is fairly consistent, and it satisfactorily disposes of the newspaper romance in which it was claimed that Carlotta had taken these pearls with her to Europe and that they had been buried in a casket in the Adriatic Sea.

Recent Auction Sales. In England and in France, more than in the United States, great auction sales of jewels are common. They are held in London, principally at Christie’s, originally a coffee house, established in 1880; and in Paris, at the Hôtel Drouot. Good prices are generally realized, as the buyers of the entire continent attend these great sales. The purchases are usually made by dealers who frequently do not neglect each other’s interests if private buyers are present. No matter how great may be the amount involved, no matter whether the collections consist of paintings, furniture, or jewels, there are always buyers, to a much greater extent than in the United States. The price for fine jewels may naturally vary a trifle in the different markets, according to the conditions of payment. It must evidently make an appreciable difference whether almost the entire amount is paid in cash or whether a credit of thirty days is extended, or one for a much longer period, in some countries for as long as one, two, or even three years.

While in the United States such sales of valuable jewels are very unusual, it has been a custom in England and in France for many years, in the settlement of estates, to sell not only the furniture, bric-à-brac, etc., but also the jewels. Sales of this kind are naturally calculated to attract not only the dealers, but also many rich collectors and connoisseurs, and as they are frequently widely advertised, and London and Paris are, at the most, but one to two days’ journey from all parts of Europe, many people attend, most of the private buyers being represented by their agents. By means of these sales many heirlooms, which have been handed down from generation to generation, often pass into the possession of strangers. In the matter of jewels, it has been frequently noticed that dealers are in the majority of cases the ultimate buyers, and it has also been inferred that when an outsider participates in the bidding, the prices are advanced to such an extent that it does not often appear profitable for him to buy in the face of such competition. All manner of people have had their estates disposed of in this way, and the list of these sales during the past twenty years is a striking one: royalty, nobility, merchants, and people in many other conditions of life find a place in it.

It is not an infrequent custom in London for solicitors to advance money on jewels, and when the payments are not forthcoming these jewels are sold. Hence, many sales appear at the larger auction rooms in which no name is given, the owners frequently being people of high degree.

On July 19, 1892, a necklace containing eighty-five graduated pearls of unusual size and quality, the property of the late H. W. F. Bolchow, M.P., was sold in London for the sum of £2500 ($12,500). Another necklace of 146 fine graduated pearls disposed in two rows, brought £2400 ($12,000); a single-row necklace of eighty-five pearls realized £1600 ($8000), and one of 118 pearls in two rows £1660 ($8300).

An exceptionally fine pearl necklace which belonged to her Grace the late Caroline, Duchess of Montrose, mother of the present Duke of Montrose, was sold at Christie’s on April 30, 1895. The necklace comprised 362 graduated pearls, arranged in seven rows of forty-four, forty-seven, forty-eight, forty-nine, fifty-two, fifty-eight, and sixty-four pearls, respectively. The amount realized for this ornament was £11,500 ($57,500).

On July 9, 1901, a pearl necklace, advertised as the property of “a French lady of rank,” and several other valuable pearl ornaments, were offered at Christie’s. It is supposed by many that these jewels belonged to Madame Humbert. The necklace was composed of six rows of graduated pearls consisting of fifty-five, sixty-one, sixty-seven, seventy-three, seventy-nine, and eighty-nine pearls, respectively, a total of 424, all of good color and luster. A London dealer considers that they owed their value mainly to skilful matching and fineness of color; they are perhaps a century old. As may be supposed, there were many bidders who competed eagerly for possession of this fine ornament, and it was at last adjudged for the sum of £20,000 ($100,000). While this was, up to that date, a record price in an auction room, it was by no means an exceptional figure for private sales; indeed, at about the time this necklace was sold, a London dealer disposed of another for £34,000 ($170,000).

A necklace, the property of the late Lady Matheson of the Lews, was sold at Christie’s, March 5, 1902. Well-matched and graduated round pearls, to the number of 233, were disposed in four rows, and strung with seed-pearls between. This necklace, which had been presented to Lady Matheson at the time of her marriage in 1843 by Sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, Bart., brought the sum of £6800 ($34,000).

A pearl necklace, containing fifty-three fine and graduated pearls, was sold in London, June 9, 1902, for the sum of £2250 ($11,250). Another necklace of sixty-eight fine round pearls, one of which formed the clasp, brought £1580 ($7900). A beautiful pearl and brilliant pendant of open scroll design, with a large, round white pearl in the center, and a large, pear-shaped black pearl as drop, realized £800 ($4000), and a pearl collar of ten rows of round pearls brought £820 ($4100). A noteworthy offering at this sale was a rope of 135 pearls, an heirloom sold under the will of Lady Marianna Augusta Hamilton. These pearls had been given to Lady Augusta Anne Cockburn in 1769 on the occasion of her marriage to Sir James Cockburn, Bart., by her godmother, Augusta, Duchess of Brunswick, sister to George III. The rope was sold for £900 ($4500).

The pearls of Lady Dudley were sold at Christie’s on July 4, 1902. Among them was a magnificent necklace of forty-seven slightly graduated round pearls, of large size and unusually brilliant orient; their gross weight was 1090 grains. This necklace brought the sum of £22,200 ($111,000). A single pear-shaped pearl of the finest orient mounted with a diamond cap, as a pendant, and weighing 209 grains, was sold for £13,500 ($67,500). A rope of 222 graduated round pearls of the highest quality, weighing 2320 grains was purchased for £16,700 ($83,500), and a pearl and brilliant tiara brought £10,300 ($51,500). The entire casket of thirty-one lots realized £89,526 ($447,630).

At the sale of the jewels of Mlle. Wanda de Boncza, at the Hôtel Drouot, Paris, December 6, 1902, a fine necklace was disposed of for the sum of 150,000 francs ($30,000), and a rope of 100 small pearls realized 38,100 francs ($7620); the proceeds of the entire sale of these jewels were 1,249,578 francs ($249,915).

Among the Aqualia jewels, sold in London in 1903, was a pearl necklace that brought £4480 ($22,400).

The jewels of the late Marquis of Anglesey, an enthusiastic jewel and art collector, were disposed of at Christie’s on May 4 and 5, 1904. At the time of his death, the marquis was supposed to be a bankrupt, but the value of the gems which he had purchased had increased so rapidly that the sale realized the sum of £22,988 10s. ($114,942), more than enough to cover all the obligations of the estate. Of this amount a magnificent drop pearl, mounted as a scarf-pin, brought £4000 ($20,000); another drop pearl of the finest orient, weighing 105½ grains, but slightly cracked, was sold for £3700 ($18,500). Four other drop-shaped pearls, mounted as scarf-pins, were sold for £5220 ($26,100), one of them bringing £1720 ($8600). A single bouton pearl, used as a coat fastener, realized £980 ($4900), and a pearl trefoil was purchased for £580 ($2900). One fine large bouton pearl, set as a stud, was disposed of for £3000 ($15,000), and another somewhat smaller bouton, also set as a stud, brought £1600 ($8000).

A splendid necklace comprising forty-nine well-matched and graduated pearls of fine quality, weighing 563½ grains, was sold in London on June 29, 1905, for the sum of £4700 ($23,500). At the same sale a necklace of thirty-two graduated pearls, weighing about 890 grains, brought £2600 ($13,000).

On July 20, 1905, a pearl necklace comprising forty-five graduated pearls of fine orient, with a cabochon ruby clasp, the gross weight being 832 grains, was sold in London for £3150 ($15,750).

A fine pearl and brilliant pendant was disposed of at the sale in London, February 21, 1906, of the stock of Mr. E. M. Marcoso. This pendant was composed of one large white brilliant, weighing 18¹⁄₃₂ carats, and a drop-shaped pearl weighing 75¾ grains. The ornament brought the sum of £2050 ($10,250).

A pearl necklace composed of 285 well-matched and graduated pearls disposed in five rows was sold in London on June 13, 1906, for the sum of £10,000 ($50,000). At the same sale a three-row necklace, with 213 graduated and matched pearls of fine orient, brought £3200 ($16,000), and a rope of 237 fine pearls realized £2800 ($14,000).

Among the jewels disposed of at a sale in London on July 11, 1906, may be mentioned a five-row pearl necklace of 445 graduated oriental pearls which was sold for £2500 ($12,500). Three other necklaces were offered at the same sale; one of fifty-five matched and graduated pearls of fine quality bringing £3400 ($17,000); one of fifty-seven pearls, £2700 ($13,500), and the other of 219 well-matched and graduated pearls realizing £2350 ($11,750). Still another necklace of 417 matched and graduated pearls arranged in five rows was sold for £4800 ($24,000). A splendid pearl drop, of the finest orient, brought £1650 ($8250), and a pearl rope of 191 oriental pearls, arranged so as to form three single-row necklaces, realized the sum of £3700 ($18,500), three fine black pearls, mounted as studs, were sold for £1000 ($5000). The most important necklace was reserved for the end of the sale; this was composed of forty-seven large oriental pearls, and was purchased for the sum of £10,000 ($50,000).

At the sale of the Massey-Mainwaring collection at Christie’s on March 18, 1907, a five-row pearl necklace consisting of 471 graduated pearls, with a bouton pearl in the center, was sold for £4600 ($23,000).

Another collection, sold at Christie’s, April 15, 1907, was the property of the late Mrs. Lewis-Hill, and the proceeds of the first day’s sale reached the heretofore unapproached total of £94,805 ($474,025), thus exceeding by $26,395 the amount obtained in one day by the sale of Lady Dudley’s jewels. Among the valuable pearls in this collection, we may mention a pair of large bouton pearl earrings, with small diamond tops, which brought £1180 ($5900). The enthusiasm and interest of the assembly were aroused by a necklace of forty-five large, graduated pearls of fine orient, with a bouton pearl and brilliant cluster snap; after spirited bidding this was bought for £6100 ($30,500). The greatest event of the day, however, was the appearance of a splendid rope of 229 pearls of very good form, well-matched and graduated. The opening bid was £10,000 ($50,000) and after a warm contest the pearls were finally acquired for the sum of £16,700 ($83,500). A necklace consisting of fifteen graduated drops, each formed of one bouton pearl, one brilliant, and one pear-shaped pearl drop, depending from a narrow band of small diamonds, drew forth a bid of £5000 ($25,000) and was finally awarded for the sum of £12,200 ($61,000). A pearl rope of 183 graduated and well-matched pearls realized £7200 ($36,000), and a fine pair of pearls set as earrings brought £3400 ($17,000). The crowded auction room, the keen competition among the bidders, and the amount obtained for these jewels are good indications of the firmness of the market at the present time.

Copyright, 1907, by Theo. C. Marceau, N. Y.
MRS. GEORGE J. GOULD

At the sale of the jewels of Lady Henry Gordon-Lennox, held at Christie’s on May 12, 1907, a splendid necklace was offered. It comprised 287 graduated pearls of the finest orient, disposed in five rows, with a large circular pearl. This magnificent ornament was sold for £25,500 ($127,500).

On July 11, 1907, a splendid necklace of forty-nine graduated pearls, of fine luster and carefully matched, was sold at auction by Debenham and Storr of London, for the sum of £5600 ($28,000). At the same sale a single-row necklace of forty-five pearls brought £5300 ($26,500), and a rope of oriental pearls realized £4500 ($22,500).

At the auction sale of the collection of the late Bishop Bubics of Hungary, among other objects, a very handsome saber pouch was offered, of the style worn by the Hungarian hussars. It was of green silk and richly embroidered with hundreds of pearls of varying sizes. After a spirited competition this pouch was sold to Prince Esterhazy for 13,500 crowns ($2700). Some time after the sale a letter from the late bishop was found, containing the statement that he had borrowed the ornament from the jewel-room of the Princess Esterhazy. Naturally, Prince Esterhazy was not called upon to pay the amount of his bid. It is a gratification to know that at least one of the remarkable Magyar jeweled ornaments has escaped the cupidity of enterprising jewelers who have broken up so many of these ornaments for the gems which they contained.

A BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE PRINCIPAL GREAT PEARLS OF HISTORY
		Weight
Charles the Bold’s Pearls. Three, each about		60 grains
Gomara Pearl, 31 carats		124 grains
Oviedo Pearl, 26 carats
	(probably the Morales or Pizarro Pearl)	104 grains
La Peregrina		134 grains
Charles II’s Pearl, (nearly equal to La Peregrina)
Morales and Pizarro Pearl, 26 carats		104 grains
Rudolph II’s Pearl, 30 carats		120 grains
Tavernier’s Pearls:
	Shah Sofi’s Pearl (estimated)	500 grains
	Imam of Muscat’s Pearl, 121⁄16 carats	48¼ grains
	Shaista Khan Pearl, 55 carats	220 grains
Great Mogul’s Pearls:
	Peacock Throne Pearl	200 grains
	Two pear-shaped, one about 70 ratis	186.2 grains
	Olive-shaped pearl (estimated)	125 grains
	One button-shaped, 55–60 ratis	146.3–159.6 grains
	One round pearl, 56 ratis (gift of the Shah Abbas II)	148.9 grains
	Round pearl (estimated)[[526]]	110 grains
	Three yellowish pearls, 25–28 ratis	66.5–74.5 grains
	One perfectly round pearl, 35½ ratis	94½ grains
	Two perfectly shaped and equal, each 25¼ ratis	67.1 grains
La Reine des Perles		109¼ grains
Pearls of Maria Theresa’s Necklace (three)		92–100 grains
La Régente (now owned by Princess Yousoupoff)		337 grains
La Pellegrina		111½ grains
The Ynaffit, pear-shaped		143⅛ grains
Hope Pearl, drop-shaped baroque		1800 grains
	Also in the Hope Collection:
	Conical pearl	151 grains
	Bouton pearl	124 grains
	Oval pearl	94 grains
	Roughly spherical pearl	89 grains
	Acorn-shaped pearl	85 grains
	Oval conch pearl	82¼ grains
	Button-shaped conch pearl	77½ grains
	Drop-shaped pearl	76½ grains
	Pear-shaped Scotch pearl	34¾ grains
Van Buren Pearls:
	Two, each about	30 grains
	Also necklace 148 pearls	700 grains
Tiffany Queen Pearl, American		93 grains
Black bouton earring-pearl		88 grains
White bouton earring-pearl		93 grains
Bapst Pearls, two		113¼ and 113¾ grains
Round pearl of Paris Exposition of 1889		70 grains
Mme. Nordica’s Pearl (abalone)		175 grains
Great Bahama Conch Pearl		138¼ grains
The Queen Conch Pearl		90 grains
W. H. Moore’s Pearl (Arkansas pearl, brown)		122½ grains
Shark’s Bay Pearl, golden yellow		30½ grains
Rudolph II Crown Pearl, 26 carats		104 grains
Carlotta’s Pearl, pear-shaped		84 grains
Marquis of Anglesey’s Pearl, drop-shaped		105½ grains
Black pear-shaped pearl (Lower California)		49 grains

XVII

THE ABORIGINAL USE OF PEARLS, AND THEIR DISCOVERY IN MOUNDS AND GRAVES

XVII
THE ABORIGINAL USE OF PEARLS, AND THEIR DISCOVERY IN MOUNDS AND GRAVES

The use of pearls by the aborigines of the territory now comprised in the United States is proven by their appearance in the mounds and certain graves of pre-Columbian date. This is of great interest in view of the unique system of burial and the great variety of objects buried with the pearls. It is evident from the quantities discovered in some of the mounds that a very great number of pearls, many of large size, must have been owned by these aborigines, and they were evidently quite expert in the art of drilling them. Pearls must have been freely used for ornamental purposes, and it is clear that many rivers in this region must have produced them in great numbers, when we consider that in all probability the mussels were taken only as they were required for food or for bait in fishing, and had probably reached their full growth.

It is not unlikely that pearls were used on this continent for a long period, and they may have been in use centuries before any employment was made of them in Europe. In the age of the mound-builders there were as many pearls in the possession of a single tribe of Indians as existed in any European court. We have no means of ascertaining the precise date of any of these burials, and there are no historical records relating to this region, such as were kept in Mexico as well as in Europe and Asia. No trace has been found of the employment of pearls, either for decoration or ornament, by the aborigines of Europe or Asia; either they did not use them or else the pearls have entirely passed away in the course of twenty or more centuries. We do know, however, that neither pearls nor Unio shells were used by any of the lake-dwellers of Switzerland or the adjacent countries.

Many eminent archæologists have investigated the finding and history of the pearls of the mound-builders of Ohio and Alabama, especially Squier and Davis, F. W. Putnam, Warren K. Moorehead, C. C. Jones, W. C. Mills, and Clarence B. Moore. The discoveries made up to 1890 were fully treated by one of the writers in several pamphlets (one of them, “Gems and Precious Stones of North America”).

It is not unlikely that the Indians of the Atlantic coast may have known of pearls from the common clam as well as from the edible oyster. The former may have often contained pearls weighing from fifty to one hundred grains each, as at that period the mollusks were permitted to attain their full growth, and perhaps were not eaten except when they were as small as little-neck clams; the larger ones were sought for the purple spot which held the muscle, and was used for wampum. We have no record of the finding of pearls in any graves north of Virginia, as the many graves opened in the past century have failed to reveal them, nor has the use of pearls been mentioned by any of the early writers. They may have been worn, but if so they have passed away or may have been mistaken for ashes if they had decrepitated.

The first English settlers found the Indians of the tidewater region of what now constitutes the Middle States using pearls quite freely and esteeming them among their favorite treasures and ornaments. Captain John Smith, and all the early chroniclers of the Virginia colony, have given many accounts of this aboriginal use of pearls.

In view of the general interest awakened by the tercentenary of the founding of Jamestown, and the exposition in commemoration thereof, the “American Anthropologist” devoted its first number for 1907 principally to topics relating to the Virginia Indians.[^[527]] Among these articles is one of much interest by Mr. Charles C. Willoughby, of the Peabody Museum at Cambridge, Massachusetts, dealing with the tribes occupying tidewater Virginia at the time of the first colonization, their habits and customs, their distribution, and their subsequent history of diminution and almost of extinction. These were a branch of the Algonquian stock, and extended as far south as the Neuse River in North Carolina. To the south and west they were hemmed in by tribes of Iroquoian and Siouan race, and on the north they were separated from other hostile Indians by the Potomac River and Chesapeake Bay. The powerful confederacy under Powhatan comprised some thirty tribes or “provinces,” covering most of the tidewater region of Virginia proper. To the greater chiefs, John Smith states that tribute was paid, consisting of “skinnes, beads, copper, pearle, deere, turkies, wild beasts and corne.”[^[528]] Many other references in this article confirm and illustrate this general statement, especially regarding pearls, both as to their use by the living and their deposit with the remains of the dead.

In the account given of the native clothing, the outer mantles are described, made usually of deerskin with the hair removed, and bordered with a fringe. These were often “couloured with some pretty work, ... beasts, fowle, tortayses, or such like imagery,”[^[529]] or adorned with shells, white beads, copper ornaments, pearls, or the teeth of animals.[^[530]] Strachey describes a wonderful cloak made of feather-work, belonging to an Indian princess, the wife of a deposed chief, Pipisco; with it she wore “pendants of great but imperfect couloured and worse drilled pearles, which she put into her eares,” besides a long necklace made of copper links.[^[531]]

With regard to such ornaments, Mr. Willoughby says (p. 71) that “the ears of both sexes were pierced with great holes, the women commonly having three in each ear, in which were hung strings of bones, shell, and copper beads, copper pendants, and other ornaments. Captain Amidas met the wife of a chief who wore in her ears strings of pearl beads as large as ‘great pease’ which hung down to her middle.[^[532]] The husband of this woman wore five or six copper pendants in each ear. It was a common custom for the men to wear a claw of a hawk, eagle, turkey, or bear, or even a live snake as an ear ornament.”

“Bracelets and neck ornaments of various kinds of beads were common. Beads of copper seem to have been most highly valued in the early colonial period. These were made of ‘shreeds of copper, beaten thinne and bright, and wound up hollowe,’ and were sometimes strung alternately with pearls which were occasionally stained to render them more attractive.[^[533]] Beads of polished bone or shell were strung into necklaces either alone or with perforated pearls or copper beads. Some of these chains were long enough to pass several times around the neck. Necklaces of such construction as to be easily identified were worn by messengers as a proof of good faith. Powhatan gave Sir Thomas Dale a pearl necklace, and requested that any messenger sent by Dale to him should wear it as a guaranty that the message was authentic.”[^[534]]

“Pearls of various shapes and sizes were comparatively common, but symmetrical pearls of uniform size were more rare. Strachey writes of having seen ‘manie chaynes and braceletts (of pearls) worne by the people, and wee have found plentie of them in the sepulchers of their kings, though discoloured by burning the oysters in the fier, and deformed by grosse boring.’ One of Hariot’s companions obtained from the Indians about five thousand pearls, from which a sufficient number of good quality and of uniform size were obtained to make a ‘fayre chaine, which for their likenesse and uniformitie in roundnesse, orientness and pidenesse of many excellent colours, with equalitie in greatnesse, were verie fayre and rare.’[^[535]]

“Those who have examined the thousands of pearls from the Ohio mounds, to be mentioned later, can readily understand these conditions. The pearl beads from the mounds vary in diameter from about an eighth of an inch to nearly an inch, the great majority being small and irregular, although there are many among them of good form and value. It is probable that most of the Virginia pearls were obtained from the fresh-water mussel (Unio)”; not unlikely from the common marine clam (Venus mercenaria), or the common oyster (Ostrea virginica).

As regards the burial of pearls with the dead and their use in religious rites, curious and quite full accounts are given by Strachey, Smith, Hariot, and Beverley.[^[536]] There was a “temple,” also occupied as a residence by one or more priests, in the territory of every chief. This building was usually some eighteen or twenty feet wide, and varied in length from thirty to one hundred feet, with an entrance at the eastern end, and the western portion partitioned off with mats to form a sort of sanctuary or “chancel.” Within this were kept the dried bodies of deceased chiefs, and an image of the god, called Okee, made in the shape of a man, “all black, dressed with chaynes of perle.” Full descriptions of these idols and their manufacture are given by Hariot and Beverley, also of the process of preserving the remains of the chiefs.[^[537]] After the body had been disemboweled, the skin was laid back and the flesh was cut away from the bones. When this operation was completed, the skeleton, held together by its ligaments, was again inclosed in the skin, and stuffed with white sand, or with “pearle, copper, beads, and such trash sowed in a skynne.”[^[538]] It was then dressed in fine skins and adorned with all sorts of valuables, including strings of pearls and beads. The same kinds of treasures were also deposited in a basket at the feet of the mummy.

Captain Smith describes the temple of Powhatan, at Uttamussack, which was in charge of seven priests, and was held in great awe by “the salvages.” At a place called Orapaks, was also his treasure-house, fifty or sixty yards long, frequented only by priests, where he kept a great amount of skins, beads, pearls, and copper, stored up against the time of his death and burial. A vivid account is given of the four grotesque images that stood guard at the corners of this building, all made “evill favouredly according to their best workmanship.”[^[539]]

The use of pearls as ornaments, and their deposit with the remains of chiefs and persons of distinction, have already been described as familiar among the Indian tribes of tidewater Virginia, in the notes above cited from early explorers and colonists. It is a curious circumstance, however, that this habit does not appear to have extended in that part of the country much beyond the dominions of Powhatan, as no pearls have been noted in the Indian graves in Maryland. This statement, in reply to a letter of special inquiry, is made by Dr. P. R. Uhler, of the Peabody Institute of Baltimore, who has been making very careful studies of all aboriginal remains in that region, for the Maryland Academy of Sciences.

It would seem from this and other evidence, that the use and appreciation of pearls must have been in some way a tribal matter, familiar to some and not to others, of the Indian peoples. In the Mississippi Valley, the ancient population known as the mound-builders, by some regarded as a distinct and earlier race, and by others as of true Indian stock, although much more advanced in arts and culture, have left in their mounds most remarkable quantities of pearls. But here again, the same feature appears, that these treasures are not found wherever there are mounds, but only in certain regions. Of these, by far the most celebrated is that of the Scioto and Miami valleys, in Ohio. Outside of these, no large amounts have been found, and only at a few localities are they met with at all.

The valleys of the Miami and Scioto rivers and their tributaries contain many remarkable mounds and “earthworks,” which have attracted much attention, and have been more or less explored at different times, with increasing care and thoroughness as archæological science has advanced. It may be well to give a brief, general account of these investigations and some leading features of the mounds as a whole, before going into particulars as to the occurrence of pearls.

The first important and scientific study of these remarkable structures was that conducted in the early forties by Dr. Edwin H. Davis and Mr. E. George Squier, and published in their celebrated and standard work entitled “Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley,” issued by the Smithsonian Institution in 1848. This book and the “Correspondence” in regard to the mounds by the same writers, published in 1847, were the first works issued by the Smithsonian Institution.

According to Squier and Davis,[^[540]] two quarts of pearls were originally deposited in one of these mounds. The writers consider that the pearls were probably derived from the fisheries in the southern waters, and they regard their presence in the Ohio mounds as a proof of “an extensive communication with southern and tropical regions and a migration from that direction.”

A number of pearls or pearl beads from the Ohio mounds and which formerly belonged to the Squier and Davis collection, are now in the Blackmore Museum at Salisbury, England. According to a communication from Dr. H. P. Blackmore, director of the museum, these pearls, which originally formed five necklaces, have been much injured by the action of fire at the time the bodies of those interred in the mounds were burned. Mr. Blackmore considers that the greater part of the pearl beads are of mother-of-pearl cut from some large shell, made into a round shape and perforated, but, after very careful examination, he is of the opinion that about ten may be classed as natural pearls. Their present color is a dull, leaden gray, rather lighter than the “black pearl” of commerce. The size of these pearls or beads varies from four millimeters to twenty millimeters in diameter. One of the necklaces consists of thirty-three beads well graduated, but of a dead white color from the action of the earth.

A quarter of a century later, when the Centennial Exposition was in preparation, the Smithsonian Institution undertook the formation of a public exhibit illustrating American archæology, and engaged Prof. F. W. Putnam, of Cambridge, Massachusetts, to open and examine some of the most remarkable of the mounds described by Squier and Davis. These explorations were continued for some years, partly for the government and partly for the Peabody Museum of Archæology at Cambridge, and their results were exhibited at the Columbian Exposition in 1893. The mounds explored were chiefly in the valley of the Little Miami, and particularly those known as the Turner group.

A very important series of explorations was also carried on by Mr. Warren K. Moorehead, covering the years from 1887 to 1893, largely in preparation for the Columbian Exposition. These investigations were mainly in the Scioto valley, in the counties of Ross, Franklin, and Pickaway, Ohio. Among the most important results then obtained were those from the mounds of the “Porter” and “Hopewell” groups, in Ross County.

Since that time, much valuable work has been done by Mr. Moorehead and others, and particularly under the auspices of the Ohio State Archæological and Historical Society. The latest and most complete investigation was made for this society in 1903, by its curator, Prof. William C. Mills, in the Harness mound, seven miles north of Chillicothe, Ohio, near the Scioto River, in Ross County. This locality had been previously explored in part, by Professor Putnam in 1885, and Mr. Moorehead in 1896; it was now systematically examined down to the original surface at every point.

Squier and Davis divided these ancient monuments into four classes: (1) Altar mounds, which contain what appear to be altars, and are also called hearths, of stone or hardened clay; (2) Burial mounds, containing human bones; (3) Temple mounds, with neither altars nor bones, but seeming to have had some special religious significance; and (4) Anomalous mounds, including “mounds of observation” and others of mixed or uncertain character. The burials are found to be of two kinds, simple interment and cremation; and these are sometimes met with in the same mound.

This classification has been generally followed in describing these ancient structures, although the whole subject is obscure and difficult, from our ignorance of the purposes and conditions of their formation. In many of the mounds of the first two classes especially, not only have pearls been found, but quantities of interesting and remarkable objects, many of which have been brought from distant points, and prove clearly the existence of an extensive intertribal commerce at a remote period. Galena from Illinois and Wisconsin, mica from North Carolina, obsidian from beyond the Rocky Mountains, and sea-shells from the Gulf coast, are among these objects, and particularly native copper from Lake Superior, from which many articles were fashioned by hammering. Pearls are extremely abundant, and were at first supposed to have been brought from the coast, and may have been the pearls of the common clam and the common oyster, the pearls being found in opening the mollusks for food; but the recent development of pearl hunting in the western rivers, where the fresh-water mussels (Unios) are so abundant and produce such beautiful pearls, shows that these treasures were undoubtedly gathered, partly, if not wholly, in the region where the mounds exist. The enormous numbers found are, indeed, no source of surprise, as such quantities of pearls have been obtained, for over twenty years past, from the same regions. The mollusks are still abundant in all the streams of the Mississippi Valley, except where they have been reduced or exterminated by the reckless methods of pearl hunting employed where the “pearl fever” has prevailed.

It is quite possible that the fresh-water Unios were not sought for their pearls alone, but were also used as food, and perhaps as bait for fishing. They were evidently gathered in great quantities, as is shown by the old heaps of shells found along the banks of streams at many points; and doubtless there are multitudes of such heaps that have never been observed. They are known as far north as Idaho, as communicated by Dr. Robert N. Bell, State mineralogist, and they extend still farther north, as noted by Dr. Harlan I. Smith, in his “Preliminary Notes on the Archæology of the Yakima Valley.”[^[541]] He says: “Small heaps of fresh-water clam-shells were examined, but these being only about five feet in diameter and as many inches in depth, are hardly to be compared to the immense shell-heaps of the coast.”

These Unio shell-heaps are frequent in the South, and some of the Spanish chroniclers of De Soto’s expedition in 1540–1541, describe the gathering and cooking of the mussels, and the finding of occasional pearls therein. The same writers also give glowing accounts of the pearls possessed by the natives. Some of these accounts may be exaggerated, but they cannot be wholly so. It would seem that some of the pearls may have come from marine shells, and others from those of the rivers and streams; but there are few pearl-producing shells on our own coasts, and it is not very likely that there was any trade or intercourse with the West Indian Islands, where marine pearls occur freely.

Albert H. Pickett, in his “History of Alabama,” refers to the accounts of De Soto’s historian, Garcilasso de la Vega, and holds that the pearls which he noted were evidently from the Unios of Alabama. “Heaps of mussel shells,” he says, “are now to be seen on our river banks wherever Indians used to live. They were much used by the ancient Indians for some purpose, and old warriors have informed me that their ancestors once used the shells to temper the clay with which they made their vessels. But as thousands of the shells lie banked up, some deep in the ground, we may also suppose that the Indians in De Soto’s time, everywhere in Alabama, obtained pearls from them. There can be no doubt about the quantity of pearls found in this State and Georgia in 1540, but they were of a coarser and more valueless kind than the Spaniards supposed. The Indians used to perforate them and string them around their necks and arms like beads.”[^[542]]

The use of fragments of these shells in tempering the clay for pottery, alluded to in the preceding paragraph, is well known. Prof. Daniel S. Martin describes an old village site in South Carolina, near the Congaree River, a few miles south of the city of Columbia, where the ground had been plowed, and along the furrows the soil was gleaming with brilliant pearly fragments of Unio shells, intermingled with bits of pottery.

Mr. Clarence B. Moore discovered pearls pierced for stringing in several of the mounds at Moundville, Alabama. He also found a sheet-copper pendant, elongated oval in outline, with an excised repoussé decoration, embracing a swastika within a circle, and a triangle. This pendant, which lay near the skull of burial No. 132, bears a perforated pearl nearly seven millimeters in diameter and weighing about nine grains; it is fastened to the pendant by a piece of vegetable fiber that passes through the pearl. With another burial (No. 162), the skeleton of an adult, was an elliptical gorget of sheet-copper decorated with a pearl.[^[543]] In a personal communication Mr. Moore states that all the pearls found by him in the mounds were very much disintegrated by the lapse of time; he also writes that he has never found any shells immediately with the pearls, although masses of Unio shells were often met with in the mounds. He believes the shell-fish had been used for food.

Unio shell-heaps exist likewise on the shores of the inland lakes of Florida, and in middle Georgia and Alabama; and several of them on the banks of the Savannah River, above Augusta, are fully described by Colonel Charles C. Jones.[^[544]] He says: “In these relic-beds no two parts of the same shell are, as a general rule, found in juxtaposition. The hinge is broken, and the valves of the shell, after having been artificially torn asunder, seem to have been carelessly cast aside and allowed to accumulate.”

Thus, in addition to the historical evidence, physical proof is abundant of the pearl fisheries of the aboriginal tribes of the South. In order to ascertain the precise varieties of shells from which the southern Indians obtained their pearls, Colonel Jones invited an expression of opinion from a number of scientists whose studies rendered them familiar with the conchology of the United States. Their responses throw considerable light upon this inquiry, though with some curious variation.

Prof. William S. Jones, of the University of Georgia, says that he has seen small pearls in many of the Unios found in that State.

Prof. Jeffries Wyman, on the other hand, after a careful and extensive series of excavations in the shell-heaps of Florida, failed to find a single pearl. “It is hardly probable,” he remarks, “that the Spaniards could have been mistaken as to the fact of the ornaments of the Indians being pearls, but in view of their frequent exaggerations, I am almost compelled to the belief that there was some mistake; and possibly they may not have distinguished between the pearls and the shell beads, some of which would correspond with the size and shape of the pearls mentioned by the Spaniards.”

Prof. Joseph Jones, whose investigations throw much valuable light upon the contents of the ancient tumuli of Tennessee, says: “I do not remember finding a genuine pearl in the many mounds which I have opened in the valleys of the Tennessee, the Cumberland, the Harpeth, and elsewhere. Many of the pearls described by the Spaniards were probably little else than polished beads cut out of large sea-shells and from the thicker portions of fresh-water mussels, and prepared so as to resemble pearls. I have examined thousands of these, and they all present a laminated structure, as if carved out of thick shells and sea conchs.” This point will be referred to again.

Dr. Charles Rau[^[545]] writes: “I learned from Dr. Samuel G. Bristow, who was a surgeon in the Army of the Cumberland during the Civil War, that mussels of the Tennessee River were occasionally eaten ‘as a change’ by the soldiers of that corps, and pronounced no bad article of diet. Shells of the Unio are sometimes found in Indian graves, where they had been deposited with the dead, to serve as food during the journey to the land of spirits.”

Dr. Brinton saw on the Tennessee River and its tributaries numerous shell-heaps consisting almost exclusively of the Unio virginianus (Lamarck). In every instance he found shell-heaps close to the water-courses, on the rich alluvial bottom-land. He says: “The mollusks had evidently been opened by placing them on a fire. The Tennessee mussel is margaritiferous, and there is no doubt but that it was from this species that the early tribes obtained the hoards of pearls which the historian of De Soto’s exploration estimated by bushels, and which were so much prized as ornaments.”[^[546]]

A source has recently been pointed out whence small pearls, and perhaps some fine specimens, could have been obtained by the Indians of Florida, and in considerable quantities. In the Unios of some of the fresh-water lakes of that State, there were found not less than 3000 pearls, most of them small, but many large enough to be perforated and worn as beads. From one Unio there were taken eighty-four seed-pearls; from another, fifty; from a third, twenty, and from several, ten or twelve each. The examinations were chiefly confined to Lake Griffin and its vicinity. It is said that upon one of the isles in Lake Okeechobee are the remains of an old pearl fishery, and it is proposed to open the shells of this lake, which are large, in hopes of finding pearls of superior size and quality.

The use of the pearl as an ornament by the southern Indians, and the quantities of shells opened by them in various localities, make it seem strange that it is not more frequently met with in the relic-beds and sepulchral tumuli of that region; but, after exploring many shell- and earth-mounds, Colonel Charles C. Jones failed, except in a few instances, to find pearls.[^[547]] A few were obtained in an extensive relic-bed on the Savannah River, above Augusta, the largest being four tenths of an inch in diameter, but all of them blackened by fire. Many of the smaller mounds on the coast of Georgia do not contain pearls, because at the period of their construction the custom of burning the dead appears to have prevailed very generally; hence, it may be that the pearls were either immediately consumed or so seriously injured as to crumble out of sight.

This absence of pearls tends somewhat to confirm the opinion that beads made from the thicker portions of shells that were carved, perforated, and brilliant with nacre, were regarded by the imaginative Spaniards as pearls. More minute investigation, however, will doubtless reveal the existence of pearls in localities where the pearl-bearing shells were collected. Perforated pearls have been found in an ancient burying-ground located near the bank of the Ogeechee River, in Bryan County, Georgia; and many years ago, after a heavy freshet on the Oconee River, which laid bare many Indian graves in the neighborhood of the large mounds on Poullain’s plantation, fully a hundred pearls of considerable size were gathered.

It seems quite clear that many of the pearls reported by the early Spanish voyagers were really such, although it is well known also that shell beads have been found in mounds in connection with pearls; but the numbers found in Ohio, by Professor Putnam, Mr. Moorehead, and others, leave no room for doubt in this matter. That the Indians of the South also had these pearls, both drilled and undrilled, is beyond question.

The same fact comes to view, however, in these various accounts, that has been alluded to already, viz., that the use of pearls among the aborigines appears to have been local, and probably tribal. All the fresh waters of North America contain Unios, especially in the Mississippi basin and in the South, and all the Unios are more or less pearl-bearing; but it is only at certain points that pearls are found deposited in ancient graves, sometimes, however, in extraordinary quantities.

Father Louis Hennepin relates that the Indians along the Mississippi wore bracelets and earrings of fine pearls, which they spoilt, having nothing to bore them with but fire. He adds: “They gave us to understand that they received them in exchange for their calumets from nations inhabiting the coast of the great lake to the southward, which I take to be the Gulph of Florida.”[^[548]]

The statement here made, that the Indians perforated their pearls only “with fire,” evidently refers to the use of a heated copper wire, or point, as mentioned by Pickett and others of the early explorers. This point is of importance, as apparently indicating a marked difference between the Indians met with by the first European visitors, and the mound-building people of an earlier time, among whom the perforation was made with small stone drills. On this point, a recent letter from Prof. Wm. C. Mills, who has conducted the very full exploration of the Harness mound in Ohio, is of interest. He describes the small and carefully-wrought flint drills, which he found, and believes to have been made and used for this purpose. In size and form they answer all requirements; they are delicate little implements, somewhat T-shaped or gimlet-shaped, an inch and a quarter long; the narrow boring part is about an inch in length and tapers from one eighth of an inch to quite a fine point; the wider upper end is abruptly expanded into the transverse handle, which is about a quarter of an inch thick, i.e., lengthwise of the instrument, and half an inch in span, i.e., across, so as to give a good hold for the fingers to rotate the drill, just as in an ordinary gimlet.

Passing now to the actual discoveries of pearls in the mounds of the Mississippi Valley, these will be reviewed in the order of the successive explorations in which they were made known. As already stated, the only region where any large amounts have been encountered, is that of the Scioto and Miami valleys in Ohio. Even here, pearls are found only at certain points, and though the numbers are great, the graves which contain them are few. They were apparently buried only with the remains of individuals of especial distinction, probably either chiefs or eminent medicine men. The accounts of recent explorations in these mounds bring to mind very forcibly the statement before cited from Captain John Smith, as to Powhatan’s treasure-house, where all his most valued articles, including pearls, were collected and kept, in preparation for his death and burial. Pearls appear also to have been used only by the more cultured tribes, and were kept in the larger and more prosperous communities exclusively. They are confined to the great “mound groups,” and are not found in isolated mounds. The tumuli of northern Ohio, the hill mounds, and the village sites along the smaller streams, have yielded practically none.

According to the manner of burial, the pearls vary greatly in their present condition. Where they have been placed with cremated bodies, they are, of course, much damaged, being blackened and largely decomposed. Otherwise, although injured in color and luster, the mere fact of burial in the ground has not entirely ruined them. They are generally perforated, so as to be strung or attached to garments, and traces of both these methods of use are sometimes clearly shown.

The term “pearl beads,” often employed by writers, is uncertain in meaning; as it may refer either to actual pearls, bored so as to be strung, or to imitations thereof made from pearly shell. With regard to this point, although such quantities have been obtained, there seems to have been very little close examination as to their structure, which would at once indicate the facts, according as the minute layers of the pearly material are concentric or not. The only distinct testimony is that we have cited above from Prof. Joseph Jones,[^[549]] who states that he has examined large numbers, and found them to be apparently cut from shells. He makes the suggestion that they may have been carved from the thicker portions of the fresh-water Unios. This is not only probable, but would go far to solve the mystery of the enormous numbers found, as compared with anything known of the yield of genuine pearls by these mollusks, even with all the pearl hunting of recent years. An interesting fact bearing directly on this question is the discovery in the Taylor mound, at Oregonia, Warren County, Ohio, of several Unio shells in which had been made a circular hole, two thirds of an inch in diameter, either for some ornamental use of the shell or to extract pieces to be shaped into beads. These may have been made in either of two ways. Firstly, by breaking pieces of the shell from one of the valves, as a lapidary “roughs out” a piece of gem material before he begins to grind it into shape; or, secondly, by cutting out a circular disk of shell by means of a hollow copper drill or a hollow reed, just as they perforated hard pieces of quartz or granite for pipes, or as they trephined circular disks from the skulls. Decorated disks of Unio shell were also found in the same mound. If the ancient people made beads in this manner, there is little difficulty in accounting for the quantities described, especially in connection with the evident gathering of Unios on a large scale, as shown by the widely distributed shell-heaps already described. They certainly did make beads from various marine shells, and these are found with the pearl beads in many of the mounds, as particularly noted by Professor Jones, cited above, and by others.

In the recent exploration of the Harness mound, by Professor Mills, a very curious discovery was made of imitation pearls of a kind never before met with; these were made of clay, modeled apparently after the larger natural pearls associated with them, and after being baked hard, had been “covered with a flexible mica,” so as to resemble pearls.[^[550]] The mica was a silvery mica that may have been burned and would pulverize into a gray powder with a pearly luster, as almost all micas are too resilient to be attached in any other way.

Taking up now the history of pearl discovery in the mounds, the first definite record goes back to about 1844, when perforated pearls were found by Dr. Edwin H. Davis[^[551]] on the hearths of five distinct groups of mounds in Ohio, and sometimes in such abundance that they could be gathered by the hundred. They were generally of irregular form, mostly pear-shaped, though perfectly round ones were also found among them. The smaller specimens measured about one fourth of an inch in diameter, but the largest had a diameter of three quarters of an inch.

The next great discovery of these Unio pearls was in the Porter group of mounds, in the Little Miami Valley, explored by Prof. Frederick W. Putnam, and Dr. Charles L. Metz, who procured over 60,000 pearls, nearly two bushels, drilled and undrilled, undoubtedly of Unio origin; all of them, however, decayed or much altered, and of no commercial value. In 1884 these scientists examined the Marriott mound, where they found nearly one hundred Unio shells, and among other objects of special interest six canine teeth of bears, that were perforated by a lateral hole near the edge at the point of greatest curvature of the root, so that by passing a cord through this, the tooth could be fastened to any object or worn as an ornament. Two of these teeth had a hole bored through near the end of the root on the side opposite the lateral perforation, and the hole countersunk in order to receive a large spherical pearl, about three eighths of an inch in diameter. When the teeth were found, the pearls were in place, although chalky from decay. Upward of 250 pearl beads were found here, concerning which they say: “The pearl beads found in the several positions mentioned are natural pearls, probably obtained from the several species of Unios in the Ohio rivers. In size they vary from one tenth of an inch to over half an inch in diameter, and many are spherical. They are neatly drilled, and the larger from opposite sides. These pearls are now chalky, and crumble on handling, but when fresh they would have formed brilliant necklaces and pendants.”[^[552]]

Necklace of fresh-water pearls and cut shell beads, from Mound No. 25

Bear-tooth inlaid with fresh-water pearl from the neck of skeleton No. 209, Mound 23

Perforation in charred, cut fresh-water pearl; weight, 5569 grams

Perforated fresh-water pearl; weight, 22,955 grams

FRESH-WATER PEARLS FROM HOPEWELL GROUP OF MOUNDS, ROSS COUNTY, OHIO

It is easy to see, even at a glance, that most of those in this great deposit of 60,000 are true pearls. Many are very irregular in form, and quite a number are the elongated, somewhat feather-shaped, “hinge pearls,” that are found in the region of the hinge teeth of Unios. A large and interesting exhibit of these is shown in the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago. But thousands of spherical pearls were also obtained, from the “altars” or “hearths” of mounds belonging to the first division of Squier and Davis’s classification, above noted. From the Turner group, in Clermont County, in the Little Miami Valley, Professor Putnam obtained for the Peabody Museum as much as half a bushel of pearls of this character. As these had been exposed to fire, nearly all were blackened, some cracked, and all greatly impaired.[^[553]]

The next great series of explorations were those conducted by Mr. W. K. Moorehead in the Scioto Valley, in the counties of Ross, Franklin and Pickaway, Ohio. He opened and examined a number of mounds, and found pearls or pearl beads in ten or twelve of them, but the larger deposits were confined to certain limited districts, which seem to have been occupied by tribes more advanced in culture and in traffic than the rest. In these, the pearls and also objects of other kinds brought from a distance, are principally found. The scattered mounds, not associated with any village or community sites, have few of these valuable objects.

But even where they are found freely, pearls were apparently used or possessed by only a few individuals. Mr. Moorehead investigated in all 117 burial mounds, containing about 1400 skeletons. Pearls were met with in only seven of these mounds, and in connection with but twenty-two skeletons. These, however, yielded a total of 2600 pearls, apparently from Unios, the numbers found with single skeletons varying from 18 to 602, an average of 118. It thus appears that in Mr. Moorehead’s researches, pearls were found in about one mound out of seventeen, and in these, with about one skeleton out of eight.

From “altar mounds,” pearls have been in some cases taken in vast numbers. Professor Putnam’s discoveries are mentioned above; and Mr. Moorehead obtained tens of thousands from two altars or hearths in the Hopewell group, which will be described hereafter.

When found in the burial mounds with skeletons, pearls are generally seen to have been placed at the wrists or ankles, or about the neck, or in the mouth. Sometimes they are found on copper plates, and occasionally they show evidence of having been sewn or attached to a garment. Particulars on these points will be given further on. Mr. Moorehead has also found bears’ teeth, set with pearls, as Putnam and Metz did in the Marriott mound, lying with or near skeletons.

In the case of the altar mounds, there seems to have been a different procedure, not a burial, but a great funeral sacrifice in honor of some very distinguished person, in which treasures of every kind, including great stores of pearls, were consumed, or meant to be. Of this, Mr. Moorehead says, in a letter to the author: “In the case of all altar offerings, a fire had been kindled ... and all these things were heaped upon it. They were utterly ruined, save a few; ... those at the top were not so much affected as those at the bottom.”

Mr. Moorehead’s investigations already mentioned were in the years 1888 to 1891 inclusive; he next took up especially the remarkable Hopewell groups of mounds, in 1891–1892, and explored these extensively for the archæological exhibit at the World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893, at Chicago.[^[554]] This was his most important and elaborate investigation, and will be described in some detail. In 1896, he made a partial exploration of the Harness mound near Chillicothe, which has been fully completed more recently by Prof. William C. Mills, and will also be described further on.

The investigations made in the Hopewell group of mounds were recorded by Mr. Moorehead in a series of articles in the “Antiquarian.”[^[555]] He gives a general account of the remarkable region of ancient remains in Ross County, Ohio. The State archæological map shows the “mound belt,” as a strip of country some fifteen miles wide and one hundred miles long, extending through the Scioto Valley, from about Columbus to Portsmouth. The ancient works noted on this map, though not all that exist there, yet number over 900 mounds, 24 village sites, 36 circles of earth and stone, 87 other inclosures and works of similar character, and 31 sites of gravel or kame burials. Five groups of mounds in particular exist in Ross County, all of them showing a “high culture” state. “All of the lower Scioto Valley,” says Mr. Moorehead, “was occupied by a mound-building tribe ranking higher in intelligence and numerically stronger than that of any other section of the whole Ohio region.” Among the many remarkable ancient works in that part of the country, the five groups in Ross County are the most important, and among these, the Hopewell group is preëminent. The first published notice of them, which appeared in 1820, was by Mr. Caleb Atwater.[^[556]] Squier and Davis examined and described them in the years 1844–1846, and obtained large and notable collections from them which are now in England, in the Blackmore Museum at Salisbury, as not enough interest in such matters then existed in America to induce the purchase and retention of these valuable treasures. From that time until 1891, when Mr. Moorehead began his explorations there, no one had paid much attention to these mounds, all published accounts being derived from those of Squier and Davis. They described them under the name of Clark’s works, from the owner of the farm within which they lie; but the property has since passed into the possession of Mr. M. C. Hopewell. From this fact, yet more from his kind and intelligent interest in the work of exploration, his name has been given to the group.

The Hopewell works are situated on the north fork of Paint Creek, about one third of a mile from the stream. The intervening space is low bottom-land, and the works stand upon a terrace about twenty feet high, from which again there is a rather steep rise of thirty or forty feet more, to the general level of the country. They consist of a nearly quadrangular inclosure, about half a mile in length (strictly 2800 feet), and half as much in width, occupying the entire breadth of the terrace. At its eastern end, this large inclosure opens into a second and smaller one, an exact square of 850 feet. Within the main inclosure are one or more village sites, a number of separate mounds, and especially a group of several connected elevations, together known as the Effigy mound, these being much the highest and most conspicuous, and themselves surrounded by a semicircular inclosure. The whole suggests a defensive work, or “walled town”; but the wall, although strongly and carefully built, partly of stones and partly of hard clay, is so low—only from four to six feet in height—that it could not have been a very formidable obstacle to a vigorous assault; and, moreover, the whole is overlooked and “commanded” from the bluff above it. The mounds, as Squier and Davis examined them, were pronounced to be mainly of the sacrificial or “altar” type. Since their very full and accurate account was published, time and the hand of man have reduced and almost obliterated portions of the wall and some of the smaller mounds, while the creek has slightly shifted its course. When they wrote their description, it was a little nearer than it is now; and they then expressed the belief that it had formerly washed the base of the terrace where the works are located.

Mr. Moorehead’s exploring party, aided by Dr. H. T. Cresson, began operations at this notable group of mounds in August, 1891, and continued them through about seven months, without interruption, much of the time in severe winter weather. The work was carried on under authority of the Anthropological Department of the Columbian Exposition of 1893, at Chicago. All the most interesting and important of the very extensive body of relics obtained was displayed there; and the whole remains as a permanent exhibit in the Field (Columbian) Museum of Natural History.

The Hopewell group comprises in all some twenty larger and smaller mounds within the general inclosure, besides a few unimportant ones outside of it, and the main connected group in the special inclosure near the center. These latter form together what is known as the Effigy mound, a name based upon its general resemblance to a reclining human figure; but it is not constructed on a human or animal design, as are the effigy mounds properly so called. After working for a time upon some of the others, and finding much interesting material, Mr. Moorehead set his men to work upon the Effigy mound, and spent most of his time and effort upon that remarkable structure, of which he made a very thorough and systematic exploration.

The Effigy mound is about 500 feet long and 220 feet wide, and rises 23 feet above the general surface at its highest point. It proves to belong to the fourth class of Squier and Davis, those of mixed character, with both altars and burials, as it contained three large altars and as many as 175 skeletons, nearly all of adults.

Reviewing now the entire exploration of the Hopewell group, the first mound opened, known as No. 17, was of considerable size, nearly ninety feet in diameter, and was notable for a layer of mica—some 3000 sheets—that extended almost entirely through it. It contained a rude altar, with ashes and bones, some copper implements, bone needles, sharks’ teeth, and nearly 200 pounds of bright galena. The next examined, No. 18, contained several decayed skeletons, and a good example of an “altar,” together with ornaments cut from human skulls. The next, No. 19, had an altar of earth, partially hardened by heat, which was taken out entire and boxed. It was roughly cubical, about three feet each way. In the “bowl,” or concavity, on the top of it, were various minor implements, with some galena and mica, etc. The next attacked was a large mound, No. 2, which had been partly opened by Squier and Davis, nearly fifty years before. It is remarkable for its immense store of roughly chipped flint disks, over 8000 in number, of which 600 were taken out by Squier and Davis, and most of the remainder by Mr. Moorehead. It would seem to have been a place of storage for partly worked material of this kind, to preserve it from the hardening effect of long exposure to the air.

Several other mounds yielded little of importance, save that from the soil on the site of No. 1, which had been obliterated, were taken a number of fragments of bone, curiously ornamented with finely carved patterns. Two others, Nos. 4 and 5, had peculiarly constructed altars, of which an extended account is given.

The first discovery of pearls by Squier and Davis was made in their mound No. 9, now obliterated by a railroad. With the pearls, they report as found on the top of a small altar, broken instruments of obsidian, cut patterns of mica, vestiges of cloth, etc.

Mr. Moorehead’s first discovery of pearls was in a small but interesting mound, No. 20, about forty feet in diameter. It had been reduced by plowing to only some two feet in height; and its contents would ere long have been broken into and scattered by the same process. This was strictly a burial mound, and soon yielded five skeletons, one of them being that of a child, nine or ten years of age. With these bones were numerous objects: two large shells made into cups for drinking, several copper articles and ornaments, among them a broad copper bracelet encircling the right wrist, and several hundred pearl and shell beads and small shells. The same mound yielded later some other children’s remains, but with no important objects. A finely polished pipe and two bear’s teeth coated with copper were also found.

Mr. Moorehead points out the evidences of a long occupation of this site by a cultured tribe, who had commerce with the South and West more than with the North or East.

Work was then begun, in the latter part of September, on a large and important mound known as the Oblong (No. 23), 155 feet long by 100 feet wide, with an elevation at present of 14 feet, and originally of perhaps 20 feet. This mound yielded thirty-nine skeletons, lying at depths varying from eight and three fourths to eleven feet below the present surface, nearly on the base-line of the mound. Some of these were surrounded by boulders, others were much charred, and a good deal of variety exists in their condition, all of which Mr. Moorehead describes particularly. All manner of relics and objects were obtained, including pearl beads and a splendid copper ax of seventeen pounds’ weight, of course entirely too large for any practical use, and hence plainly a ceremonial object or badge of some high distinction. Among the most remarkable of the many interesting objects discovered here were the large canine teeth of bears,[^[557]] which had not only been drilled through near the base of the root for suspension, like many others, but had also been partly drilled at the middle of one side, and a large pearl inserted into the cavity. These singular ornaments were found at the neck of a skeleton, and had evidently been worn as pendants. It will be remembered that almost identical specimens were found by Professor Putnam in the Marriott mound in the Miami Valley.[^[558]] The one here figured is now in the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, with most of the other Hopewell material.

Another somewhat similar example of the taste and art of the same people, also preserved in the Field Museum, came from the mound known as No. 25. This consisted of a large figure of a bird, in hammered copper, fifteen and seven eighths inches long, with a pearl inserted to form the eye. The head is quite expressive, and the tail-feathers well represented, although the wings and the general proportions are rude. This is shown about one third of the actual length.

The Effigy mound was next examined. The first trial shafts proved it to be evidently of human construction, and not of glacial origin, as some had supposed. One or two open cuts were then begun, using teams with a large shovel until indications of burials were found, when the further work would be carried on by hand, with extreme care.

After about two weeks, in which time several skeletons were unearthed, with some shells, beads, and copper ornaments, a burial of extraordinary character was reached on November 14. Here was lying a skeleton which the newspapers soon reported as “The King of the Mound-Builders.” It was much decayed, but was covered and surrounded with a wealth of relics. The skull was surmounted by a tall cap or helmet of copper, from which extended a wonderful pair of antlers, exactly imitating those of a deer, but made of wood and covered with copper. The whole skeleton, to quote the words of Mr. Moorehead, “glittered with mica, pearl, shell, and copper.” Plates of the latter were above, beneath, and around it, with bears’ and panthers’ teeth, etc., and over 1000 beads, many of them of pearl. The succeeding month, during which the last cut was finished down to the base-line, and a third one much advanced, revealed numerous skeletons, with abundant objects of the same general kind, including a remarkable separate deposit of copper articles of curious workmanship, ornaments of cut mica, and one of cannel coal, fragments of meteoric iron and celts made therefrom, and “many thousand pearl and shell beads.” The latest trophy here unearthed was another enormous ax of copper, nearly two feet in length, unparalleled in the world.

The first altar was next reached; it was about four by five feet, and some six inches deep, and had an immense variety of objects upon it and around it, nearly all entirely ruined by the fire. Among them were pearl beads.

The largest altar had been not only heaped with all sorts of valuables, but they had been piled around it so as to form a sloping mass of twelve feet or more in diameter at the base. Among these was a layer of mica plates of extraordinary size, eighteen or twenty inches in diameter. It is not easy even now to obtain sheets of mica of such dimensions, in any quantity. Carvings and effigies in bone and slate, rock crystal arrow-heads, obsidian knives, etc., etc., damaged and broken by heat, were cemented together by half-melted copper. The pearl and shell beads taken out amid the ashes are estimated at not less than 100,000.

The Effigy mound, “a place for ceremony, for sacrifice, for burial,” as Mr. Moorehead calls it, thus combining the character of the first three classes distinguished by Squier and Davis, is seen not to have been constructed at one time, but to have developed gradually through perhaps a long period. The several altars, the more important burials, the store of copper objects, each was surmounted by a small and separate mound. “These may have been built on the level dance or ceremonial floors, from time to time. When the entire floor was covered, the people brought large quantities of earth and gravel, heaped it on top of the irregular contour of the small mounds, and this formed the present Effigy.”

The population that occupied the main inclosure was apparently not very large, as compared with some other of the important earthworks, such as Fort Ancient, or Madisonville. From the distribution of village-site debris, Mr. Moorehead estimates that there could have been only from two hundred to three hundred lodges, even if these were all occupied at the same time. But the indications of traffic and of art show that it must have been a community advanced in culture beyond most of its neighbors. Mr. Moorehead believes it to have been a sort of capital among a body of allied or affiliated tribes who made and occupied the similar earthwork towns of the “mound belt,”—a center of production and distribution of art objects, and a place for the holding of great religious ceremonials. It may be noted, however, that the art was developed in certain directions and not in others wherein it might be expected. In hammered copper-work and in drilling, it was most remarkable, in the latter extending even to the perforation of quartz crystals, but of pottery there is little, and that not very choice—a striking contrast to the abundant and elaborately ornamental potter’s art of the tribes in the Southwest.

Tonti, the historian of La Salle’s expedition, in the eighteenth century, states that La Salle actually saw mound-dwellers among southern tribes of Indians, living very much as the Ohio mound-builders must have done, and quite untouched as yet by any contact with the whites. Tonti describes the dwellings, made of sun-dried mud and with dome-shaped roofs of cane; two of them were larger and better constructed than the rest, one the chief’s house and the other a temple, both about forty feet square. The latter held the bones of deceased chieftains, and was surmounted by three rude, wooden eagles. In the center was apparently “a kind of altar,” where was maintained a perpetual fire of logs, watched by two aged men. A recess, to which strangers were not admitted, contained the treasures of the tribe, especially pearls from the Gulf, as he was told. The chief returned the visit of La Salle, coming in great state, with attendants, one of whom bore a disk of copper, supposed to represent the sun, the chief’s great ancestor.[^[559]] The wooden eagles recall the large copper bird taken from mound No. 25 at Hopewell; and the copper disk carried before the chief suggests a similar use for some of the large objects of the same metal. The whole account is extremely interesting in its resemblance to the Ohio remains.

The most complete study of these ancient structures is that of the Harness mound, not far distant from the Hopewell, conducted under the direction of the Ohio State Archæological and Historical Society, in 1905, by their curator and librarian, Prof. William C. Mills.[^[560]]

The Harness group contains within and about it fourteen mounds; the works as a whole were described by Squier and Davis, on page 56 of their great report (“Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley,” 1848), and have been frequently mentioned and pictured for their striking form,—a large and perfect circle, opening at one side into a smaller circle and also into an exact square. They are located, like the Hopewell, in Ross County, and stand on a terrace of the Scioto River, nearly a mile from its eastern bank, and about eight miles south of Chillicothe.

The square inclosure measures 1080 feet on each side, and the diameters of the two circles are about 1600 feet for the larger and 650 feet for the smaller. In general character, this group closely resembles the Hopewell: there is the same low wall or embankment, some four feet high, though without any ditch as at Hopewell, and the same problem as to its object. A number of small mounds are placed here and there, and one large and important one recalls the Effigy, though it is somewhat less in size and much more regular in form. In 1846, when Squier and Davis examined it, unfortunately most of the ground was covered with woods; but these are gone, and the works have since been much reduced by tillage and partly obliterated by railroad and other constructions.

The one large mound is named for the recent owner of the property, Mr. Edwin Harness; the present owner, his son, Mr. John M. Harness, aided and facilitated the explorations in every way. This fact, as also in the case of Mr. Hopewell, stands in pleasing and honorable contrast to the narrow policy of some land-owners, who refuse permission for any such work, even when the structures are upon unused and valueless ground.

The large mound is an almost perfect oval in form, 160 feet long and some 80 feet across at its widest point, which is about one third of the way from the northern end; in height it is nearly 20 feet, or was before its recent removal. It was partly explored by Squier and Davis in 1846, and quite extensively by Professor Putnam in 1885, and, unlike the Effigy mound, had been repeatedly opened and examined in a small way by both official and unofficial explorers. In 1896, Mr. W. K. Moorehead took up the work where Professor Putnam had stopped, and carried it considerably further, under the auspices of the Ohio Archæological and Historical Society; and the same body, in 1905, commissioned Mr. Mills to resume and complete the examination, removing the entire structure down to its base.

The Harness mound, unlike the Effigy, was for burial purposes only. There must have been nearly two hundred. Squier and Davis found one of these, and possibly another which they mistook for an “altar”; and they state their belief that the mound probably contained other burials which their two pits had not revealed. Professor Putnam encountered 12 burials, Mr. Moorehead 27, and the final exploration 133, making a total of 174. Besides these, an unknown number have been disturbed and removed by occasional explorers. Of the 174 recorded, only ten had been buried without being burned; the rest were all cremated, some where they were laid, but most of them elsewhere, and the ashes brought and placed in the grave. This was in all cases carefully prepared, within a small inclosure of logs, the decayed and charred remains of which are clearly traceable. The entire mound itself had been outlined with posts set in the ground. the holes and impressions remaining as evidence of the fact.

Mr. Mills outlines the history of this mound, in a way that recalls Mr. Moorehead’s views as to the gradual growth of the Effigy. It began as a place for the holding of funeral rites and the deposit of the dead, marked out by lines of posts, which show that it was from time to time enlarged. Finally, when the place was substantially filled, earth and gravel were deposited over the whole, and slabs of stone (particularly noted by Squier and Davis) were laid around it, upon the lower part of the slope.

Much description is given of the separate graves or burial chambers, which are of several types, and of the various details of the cremated and uncremated interments. The mound is rich in relics, although none of the profuse sacrificial accumulations of the “altars” were encountered, this being a mound of burial only. The relics are of the same kind, in general, as those found in the Hopewell group, and to specify them in detail would be only repetition. From the 133 graves opened in Mr. Mills’s final investigation, no less than 1200 specimens were obtained for the museum of the Archæological Society at Columbus. Among these were artefacts of Lake Superior copper (and some pieces of native silver), large shells from the Gulf, galena, obsidian, and much mica, both in “blocks” and cut into ornaments, all showing the same range of aboriginal commerce as already described at Hopewell. In reference to pearls, the following are the principal observations:

Beads made from Unio pearls were very abundant everywhere in the Harness mound, as also beads of shell. They are found in such position as to show that they were strung and worn around the neck or wrists. One burial (No. 100) had some 2100 pearl beads, all rather small, and some of them perfectly round. Several hundred were obtained, however, that ranged from one quarter to one half an inch in diameter. A number of these are shown of natural size. The larger pearls, instead of being bored through for beads, are frequently somewhat flattened by grinding, and then pierced with two holes so as to attach them to a fabric. Very large ones were sometimes set in copper,—a style of work never observed before. Mr. Mills says of this: “Large and select pearls were flattened upon one side by grinding, and then placed upon a circular disk of copper a little larger than the pearl. The edges were then turned (up) around the pearl, holding it in place. Not only were pearls set in this way, but various pieces of shell cut in a circular form.” Fine examples of this unique style of jewelry, of natural size, and another copper setting of like character, from which the pearl has been lost, are shown in plates facing pages 499 and 510.

More curious still is the discovery of imitation pearls, made of clay, and apparently modeled from real ones as they reproduce all the irregularities of form of the true pearls. They could easily have been made more nearly spherical, as the beads cut from shell are so regular as to look as though made by machinery. These somewhat irregular clay imitations, found with the genuine pearls, were first coated with a pulverent mica and then burned so as to preserve a pearly appearance.

Other forms of art work were abundantly represented in the Harness mound, such as carvings and decorations in stone and bone; a variety of textile fabrics, of which remnants are preserved when they were in contact with plates of copper, the salts of the metal having penetrated the fabric and prevented its entire decay; very skilful work in copper, and to some extent in native silver and meteoric iron; and numerous fragments of pottery, more or less ornamental with simple impressed patterns. The “culture,” as a whole, appears to have been equal, and very similar, to that of the Hopewell community, and these are regarded as having been the most advanced among the Ohio mound-builders; while the term “Fort Ancient culture” is applied to a somewhat lower grade in the matter of arts, which has its chief illustration among the builders and occupants of that celebrated work. By such researches, thus minutely and systematically conducted, there is now beginning to be possible something like a classification of these ancient unknown tribes, which will doubtless be developed more fully, as investigation shall be extended and its results combined and compared.

As to pearls in the mounds of Illinois, we are informed by the veteran archæologist, Dr. J. F. Snyder, that in 1889 he found the skeletons of three adult Indians at the base of a small mound on the bluffs of the Sangomon River in Cass County. These skeletons were in a squatting posture; artefacts—such as greenstone celts, a bicave stone and a heavy pipe—had only been deposited with one of them. Around each wrist and ankle of this skeleton were perforated beads made from Marginella shells, and resting on the sternum was a solitary pearl which had evidently formed the center of a necklace of the same small marine shells. Although much decayed, it still retained something of its original luster. It was spherical, measured approximately seven eighths of an inch in diameter, and was perforated through the middle. Dr. Snyder also states that at the base of one of the large mounds he opened in 1895, in Brown County, on the west side of the Illinois River, he discovered a number of the large canine teeth of the bear, perforated at the roots, so as to be used for necklaces. On the convex side of each tooth were from two to four pits about one third of an inch in diameter, and the same in depth, in which gems had been inserted. Two small pearls were still in place. Near by were the remains of another necklace composed of alternate pearls and bone beads; the latter were oblong and perforated lengthwise. Eight of the pearls were recovered, ranging in diameter from one half to one third of an inch, and pierced through the center, but all were very badly injured by the action of fire.

Mr. David I. Bushnell, who has excavated the McEvers mound in Montezuma, Pike County, Illinois, for the Missouri Historical Society, found in this mound a cyst containing a skeleton six feet in height and also a skull reposing on a bundle of bones near which lay forty-five pearls, one of them weighing fifty-two grains and still showing a beautiful luster. Almost all the objects discovered in the mound will be presented to the Missouri Historical Society. The large pearl would be worth from $12,000 to $15,000 if it were in perfect condition.

We learn from Mr. Richard Herrmann, founder of the Herrmann Museum of Natural History, Dubuque, Iowa, that on the top of the high cliff from Eagle’s Point to its end at McKnight’s Spring, there were formerly a great many mounds which were long ago examined by government experts. Many ancient ornaments were found in these mounds, among them a string of pearls, greatly damaged from having been buried for a long period.[^[561]] Mr. Herrmann believes that these pearls were taken from the Mississippi River by the mound-builders.

Enough has been said, in this general sketch, to give some idea of the extent to which pearls, largely those from the fresh-water Unios, were gathered and used by the native tribes of North America, from the ancient mound-builders of the Ohio Valley to the Indians encountered by the explorers and colonists of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.

The love of pearls shown by the Indians was as noteworthy as was their devotion to their dead and the superstitious mystery which enshrouds their funeral rites; for, when the human sacrifice was consummated, the act was performed in as earnest a spirit of devotion as was shown by Abraham in his readiness to sacrifice Isaac, and the Indians evidenced an almost pathetic sentiment either of reverence, duty, or supernatural dread.

Dr. J. Walter Fewkes writes that in none of his excavations has he ever noted pearls. Haliotis shells, conch shells, and fragments of the same have been found in the great ruins at Casa Grande, Arizona.

Dr. Charles Hercules Read, director of the Department of Archæology of the British Museum, states that the Mexican mosaic masks in the Christy collection, which are pre-Columbian in origin, and probably date hundreds of years in advance of the conquest, prove of special interest from the fact that five of them contain an inlay of mother-of-pearl shell. The first of these is a plain mask in which the eyes are of mother-of-pearl; the second is a dagger having the details of feather-work in mother-of-pearl; the third, a circular shield center having the eyes, teeth, fingers, and toes of the figures in mother-of-pearl; the fourth, a helmet with small pieces of pearl-shell representing collars around the necks of rattlesnakes; and the fifth is a jaguar in the side of which are similar inlays. These masks are described by Dr. Read in “Archæologia,” Society of Antiquaries, London, Vol. LIV, p. 383; in this volume the objects are shown in color. Dr. Read communicates that the pearl jaguar seems to be of more recent execution, but he believes the first four to be original. He is not entirely sure that these objects contain the true mother-of-pearl, the substance having changed so much as to make a decision doubtful even if it were extracted. He states, however, that it is a pearly, nacreous shell, resembling that of the ordinary pearl-oyster. In these masks are also other shells, among them a red shell, probably a spondylus, almost as red as coral. The mother-of-pearl is of special interest as it is quite possible that the shell itself was known, and it may be that pearls also formed part of a commerce that existed between the coast and the interior.

Group of charred, cut fresh-water pearls; more than 100,000 found in mounds

Finger-shaped piece of lignite inlaid with fresh-water pearl

Copper bird, 15⅞ inches long with eye of fresh-water pearl

FRESH-WATER PEARLS FROM HOPEWELL GROUP OF MOUNDS, ROSS COUNTY, OHIO

We are informed by Mr. E. P. Dieseldorf, of Coban, Republic of Guatemala, that he has never observed pearls in the pre-Columbian graves in Guatemala; he had, however, frequently found marine shells, whole, and elaborated in connection with jadeite beads.

In a personal communication, Mr. Thomas Gann, of Yucatan, states that, in excavating a mound at San Antonio, near the mouth of the Rio Hondo, in Yucatan, he uncovered a small stone cyst or chamber, containing two perforated, pear-like ornaments of considerable size, together with portions of a human skeleton, painted pottery, etc. He also states that ornaments such as beads, gorgets, and ear-pendants, made from the pearly shell of both the oyster and the conch, are of common occurrence in many sepulchral mounds in British Honduras and in Yucatan, and he notes the fact that pink conch pearls are found in considerable numbers at the present day along the coast of British Honduras. There is no especial fishing for pearls, and they are found only incidentally in conchs which have been gathered for food. These pearls are sold by fishermen in Balize at prices varying from two or three dollars to twenty or thirty apiece. In size they range from that of a large pin’s head to that of a small pea.

Mrs. Marie Robinson Wright informs us that she has never found pearls in the Bolivian graves, although they are quite plentiful in Bolivia to-day, and hundreds of them are offered in the markets. The pretty girls wear them as earrings and in their topos.

There is no doubt that pearls existed long before the advent of man, both in the fresh-water and in the marine form. This is more clearly evidenced by Sir Charles Lyell, who calls attention to the fact that the fresh-water mussel (Unio littoralis Gray), formerly found in abundance at Grays Thurrock, Essex, no longer exists in England, but occurs in France, showing that not only had this mollusk been unseen by any Englishman, but that the form had become extinct in an entire country. Thus, both the pearl shell of the ocean and the pearl-mussel of the river, for many centuries produced pearls, which passed away with the shell itself.

A great number of fossil Unios were collected by Barnum Brown from the Laramie clays, 130 miles northwest of Miles City, Montana. The shells were found in a bed situated about 180 feet above the Fort Pierre shales and, therefore, well above the recognized cretaceous strata. These shells were in fairly good condition and retained the nacreous coloring to a considerable extent. As some of them resemble the modern species, it seems that the same designations might be applied to them.

Prof. R. P. Whitfield, one of our greatest palæontologists, who has carefully examined these fossil shells, suggests that they are probably the progenitors of the species of Unios and fresh-water mussels that now inhabit the Mississippi and Wisconsin rivers and their tributaries, and he proposes the following names for some of them, indicating at the same time the living species with which he compares them: Unio biæsopoides, Unio æsopoides and Unio æsopiformis, all resembling U. æsopus Green; Unio letsoni = U. cornutus Barnes; Unio cylindricoides = U. cylindricus Say; Unio gibbosoides = U. gibbosus Barnes; Unio pyramidatoides = U. pyramidatus Lea; Unio retusoides = U. retusus Lam.; Unio verucosiformis = U. verrucosus Barnes.

Although it is almost certain that these ancient Unios were pearl-bearing, Professor Whitfield informs us that, in a period of fifty years of palæontological research, he has never found a fossil pearl.

We are informed by Sophus Müller, Director of the Royal Danish Museum of Antiquities at Copenhagen, that no Danish ornaments containing pearls have been found dating from an earlier period than 1000 B.C.; he also states that no fresh-water pearls have ever been discovered in the Danish graves.

Dr. H. Ulmann, director of the great Swiss Landesmuseum at Zurich, and Dr. Otto Leiner, director of the Rosengarten Museum at Constance, personally communicated to us that no pearls exist in either of the collections of these great museums, nor to their knowledge have any been discovered in the lake-dwellings or the prehistoric graves of either Switzerland or Baden. This may either be due to conditions favorable to the dissolution of the pearl by the action of the ooze on the lake bottom, or else to the entire absence of knowledge of them on the part of a people who were familiar with many materials, since the museum collections even show jade implements of a number of types.

Dr. Leiner, whose father was curator of the Rosengarten Museum before him, informs us that at Bodman on Lake Constance there were found a large number of bored cylinders, from one fourth of an inch to one inch in length, made out of limestone. They were used for necklaces, somewhat in the style of our Indian wampum, and were either worn alone or in connection with bored cylinders made of the tuff-rock and also of encrinite stems.

Dr. Leiner also asserts that he has never seen Unio margaritifera in Lake Constance; nor was there any evidence of shells, broken or otherwise, observed by him in the excavations in the lake-dwellings.

The curator of the Rhodesia Museum, Bulawayo, South Africa, states that in Rhodesia, in the vicinity of Bulawayo, beads made out of the shell of the common Unio or fresh-water mussel (Unio verreauxi) have been observed in the graves, although pearls themselves have never been found with them in any burials.