Planning an Inquiry.
The late Professor Robert H. Thurston, of Cornell University, once said:—“Methods of planning scientific investigation involve, first, the precise definition of the problem to be solved; secondly, they include the ascertainment of ‘the state of the art,’ as the engineer would say, the revision of earlier work in the same and related fields, and the endeavor to bring all available knowledge into relation with the particular case in hand; then the investigator seeks information which will permit him, if possible, to frame some theory or hypothesis regarding the system into which he proposes to carry his experiment, his studies, and his logical work, such as will serve him as a guide in directing his work most effectively.
“The empirical, the imaginative, and even the guess work systems, or perhaps lack of system, have their place in scientific research. The dim Titanic figure of Copernicus seems to rear itself out of the dull flats around it, pierces with its head the mists that overshadow them and catches the first glimpse of the rising sun. But first Copernicus made a shrewd guess, and then followed with mathematical work and confirmation. . . . Kepler, also, was strong almost beyond competition in speculative subtlety and innate mathematical perception. . . . For nineteen years he guessed at the solution of a well-defined problem, finding his speculation wrong every time, until at last a final trial of a last hypothesis gave rise to deductions confirmed by observation. His first guess was that the orbits of the planets were circular, next that they were oval, and last that they were elliptical.”
Pascal, great in what he knew, was great also in what he was. Walter Pater thus depicts his powers:—“Hidden under the apparent exactions of his favorite studies, imagination, even in them, played a large part. Physics, mathematics, were with him largely matters of intuition, anticipation, precocious discovery, short cuts, superb guessing. It was the inventive element in his work, and his way of painting things that surprised those most able to judge. He might have discovered the mathematical sciences for himself, it is alleged, had his father, as he once had a mind to do, withheld him from instruction in them.”
No such gift of intuition as that displayed by Pascal fell to the lot of Buffon, who tells us:—“Invention depends on patience. Contemplate your subject long. It will gradually unfold itself, till an electric spark convulses the brain for a moment.”
As to the modes in which invention manifests itself, Mr. William H. Smyth says:—“Examine at random any one of half a dozen lines of mechanical invention, one characteristic common to them all will instantly arrest attention—they present nothing more than a mere outgrowth of the manual processes and machines of earlier times. Some operation, once performed by hand tools, is expedited by a device which enables the foot as well as the hand to be employed. Then power is applied; the hand or foot operation, or both, are made automatic, and possibly, as a still further improvement, several of these automatic devices are combined into one. All the while the fundamental basis is the old, original hand process; hence, except in the extremely improbable event that this was the best possible method, all the successive improvements are simply in the direction, not of real novelty, but of mere modification and multiplication. The most important and radical departures from old methods, by which many of the industries of the world have been completely revolutionized, are nearly always originated by persons wholly ignorant of the accepted practice in the particular industry concerned. The first and most important prerequisite to invention is an absolutely clear insight into, and a comprehensive grasp of, all the conditions involved in the problem. A scheme for the cultivation of invention should in part include:—(1) Accurate and methodical observation. (2) Cultivation of memory and the faculty of association. (3) Cultivation of clear visualization. (4) Logical reasoning from actual observation. The course should include exercises in drawing from simple objects, and the solution of a simple problem, such as that of a can-soldering machine.”