Handbook of Railroad Construction; For the use of American engineers. / Containing the necessary rules, tables, and formulæ for the location, construction, equipment, and management of railroads, as built in the United States.

by George L. Vose

SPECIFICATION.

76. The object of this paper is to define exactly the terms of the contract as regards execution of work. Every thing therein should be expressed in a manner so plain as to leave no room for misunderstanding.

A AND B RAILROAD.

77. Specification for Graduation.

LINE.

The centre of the road-bed to conform correctly to the centre line of the railroad, as staked out or otherwise indicated on the ground, and to its appropriate curvatures and grades as defined and described by the engineer; and the contractor shall make such deviations from these lines or grades at any time, as the said engineer may require. The road-bed to conform to the cross section which shall be given or described, or to such other instructions as may be given as hereinafter limited; and the same of the ditches and slopes of the work, and of all operations pertinent to the satisfactory performance of the graduation or masonry on the part or parts of the line contracted for.

CLEARING.

The ground forming the base of all embankments, and five feet beyond the foot of the slopes of all embankments, to be cleared as close to the surface as practicable, of all timber, saplings, brush, logs, stumps, or other perishable material. The valuable timber to be laid aside, beyond the clearing as directed by the engineer, the rest to be burned, if this can be done safely, otherwise to be moved beyond the limits of the cleared ground. The ground for ten feet beyond the top lines of all slopes of cuttings shall be cleared in like manner, of all timber and saplings. Wherever additional ground has to be taken in widening excavations to obtain materials, or in widening embankments to dispose of surplus material, or in grading for turnouts or depot grounds, an additional amount of ground shall be cleared in like manner; and when directed by the engineer, wherever additional space is required for outside ditching, or for alterations of roads or watercourses, or otherwise.

GRUBBING.

All stumps and large roots within ten feet of the grade line shall be grubbed out to the entire width of the work, and moved at least ten feet beyond the slopes. The cost of all clearing and grubbing is included in the price for earth work, which price is also understood to include all clearing and grubbing necessary in borrowing pits, spoil banks, road crossings, alterations of roads and watercourses, the formation of ditches or otherwise. The necessary clearing and grubbing in all cases to be kept completed five hundred feet in advance of any work in progress.

MUCKING.

Wherever mud, muck, or similar soft material occurs in excavations or embankments, within two feet of subgrade, it shall be removed and replaced by compact earth or gravel.

GRADE.

The grade lines on the profiles show the true grade, and correspond with a line two inches below the bottom of the iron rail of the superstructure. What is called subgrade corresponds with a line placed eighteen inches below the grade.[^[5]]

[5]. The distance between grade and subgrade depends somewhat upon the climate, but is generally between one and two feet. See chap. XIII.

WIDTH OF ROAD, AND SLOPES.

The width of road-way, unless otherwise directed, shall be twenty-two feet wide at grade in earth excavations, and eighteen feet wide in rock excavations. Both rock and earth shall be taken out eighteen inches below grade for the entire width of road-way. The bottoming to be replaced by gravel, broken stone, or spawls, in such manner as shall be directed by the engineer, leaving the necessary ditches of the width and depth directed on either side. The contractor will not be paid for any rock excavated beyond the slope lines of one to eight from the required width, or for any earth excavated beyond slope lines of one and one half horizontal to one vertical, unless directed by the engineer to move additional rock or earth.

BLASTING.

All blasting shall be done at the risk of the first party, who shall be liable to the second parties, or to the railroad company, for any damages incurred in consequence, to dwelling-houses, individuals, or otherwise.

DITCHES.

Whenever required, ditches shall be cut along the tops of the slopes, of the form and size and in the position directed.

SURPLUS MATERIAL.

Whenever the earth or rock required for the adjoining embankments exceeds the amount in the neighboring excavations, the contractor, when required, shall increase the width of said excavations, as directed by the engineer, to a sufficient width for a double track, provided that this additional width shall not be extended so as to produce an average haul of more than eight hundred lineal feet, on said borrowed stuff. And whenever the earth or rock to be moved from any cut exceeds in amount the adjoining embankments, (unless elsewhere wanted,) it shall be applied to widening the embankment to a width for a double track, within the same limits of haul; but for a greater haul than eight hundred feet, the contractor shall be paid
100 of a cent per yard per hundred feet of excess.

BORROW PITS.

Where the excavation does not furnish sufficient material to make the adjoining embankments, borrow pits may be opened. But no earth shall be deposited in spoil banks nor borrow pits opened without the knowledge and consent of the superintending engineer, who shall take care that such operations are arranged so as not to damage the road or its slopes, nor interfere with the widening of the road-bed at a future time for additional tracks.

MATERIAL TO BE SAVED.

If materials be found in the excavations applicable to useful purposes, such as building stone, limestone, gravel, minerals, etc., they shall be laid aside in such place as the engineer may direct, for use, to be applied then or subsequently to the construction of the road under the conditions of these specifications and of the contract.

CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS.

Earth—every thing except solid and loose rock. Loose rock—all boulders and detached masses of rock measuring over one cubic foot in bulk and less than five cubic yards. Solid rock, includes all work in ledge, which requires drilling and splitting, and all loose rocks containing more than five cubic yards.

The prices for excavation include all earth or rock excavated in ditching, bottoming, borrowing, road crossings, alterations of road crossings and water channels, and the construction of temporary roads, provided the average distance hauled on each section, be the same as stated on the schedule here annexed; but if the actual average haul on any section is found, on completion, to have been greater or less than the distance stated, a corresponding addition or deduction shall be made, of one cent per cubic yard per hundred feet which the actual haul exceeds or falls short of that stated.

EMBANKMENTS.

The embankments to be formed fifteen feet wide on the surface, unless otherwise directed, with slopes of one and one half horizontal to one vertical. Wherever the embankment is formed from ditching on either side, such ditching, and the crest of the slopes thereof shall in no case approach within six feet, nor within double the depth of ditch, of the foot of the proper embankment slope, allowing always on one side for a double track; and no soft mud or muck shall be allowed to enter the bank. Wherever watercourses or new channels for rivers require to be formed, they shall not approach within once and one half of the depth of such stream, plus twenty-five feet. Care shall be taken in forming embankments to exclude all perishable material.

SUBSIDENCE.

To allow for the after settlement of materials on embankments, they shall, when delivered to and accepted by the second parties, be finished to the full width to the following heights above subgrades, namely: all banks below five feet in height to be finished three inches above subgrade; at ten feet in depth, five inches; at twenty feet, six inches; and twenty-eight feet, seven inches; at thirty-five feet, eight inches; and at forty feet in depth, nine inches above grade; and intermediate heights in proportion; the engineer having the power to change these proportions at his discretion.

EXTRA EXCAVATION AND EMBANKMENT.

Whenever it is considered necessary to increase the width of the road-way for turnouts, water stations, or depot grounds, whether in excavation or embankment, such work shall be done at the contract prices, as may be directed. The opening of foundation pits in simple excavation, where coffer-dams or such like expedients are not necessary, and in places where such expedients are necessary, all excavation above the water line shall also be done at such increase or decrease of the contract price as shall be deemed proper by the engineer.

EMBANKING AT BRIDGES AND CULVERTS.

The contractor for earthwork shall not carry forward in the usual way any embankments within fifty feet of any piece of masonry, finished or in progress, (counting from the bottom of the slopes,) but shall in every such case have the earth wheeled to the walls or abutments, and carefully rammed to such width and depth, and in such manner as may be directed, when the embankment may be carried on as usual. The expense attendant upon any damage or rebuilding of mason work, consequent on neglect of these directions, shall be charged to the account of the first party. In case the mason work shall not be finished when the embankment approaches it, the contractor shall erect a temporary structure to carry over the earth, and proceed with the embankment on the opposite side; and the expense of said structure shall be paid by, and charged to, the contractor for masonry, in case such contractor shall have delayed beyond the proper or required time, the construction of the mason work; but if the mason work could not have been ready in season for the bank, then shall the expense belong to the contractor for the earthwork, whose price for graduation is understood to comprehend all such contingencies. For the above work of wheeling and ramming efficiently the earth around any piece of masonry, the contractor shall be paid —— cents per cubic yard, by the engineer’s measurement.

ROADS AND WATERCOURSES.

The first party is to make good and convenient road crossings wherever directed, and shall also make such alterations of existing roads, or watercourses, or river channels, or such new pieces of these pertinent the section undertaken by him, as may be required, and shall be paid for such work, whether earth, rock, or masonry, the prices, and no more, applicable to this contract. And such road crossings or other alterations referred to, he shall make at and within such times and in such form and manner as the engineer shall direct; and whenever the operations of the first party interfere with a travelled road, public or private, either by crossing or by making required alterations on it, the first party shall so operate as to afford at all times a safe and free passage to the public travel; and the first party shall be liable for any damage to which the second parties or the railroad company may become lawfully liable by reason of his neglect to maintain a safe and properly protected passage for the current travel.

BALLASTING.

Where gravel is used for the ballasting of the road-bed, it shall be of a quality satisfactory to the engineer, and shall be spread upon the road-bed to the width and depth required. When broken stone is used, it shall be of durable quality, and shall be broken so as to pass through a ring of three inches in diameter. The quantity will be measured in the road-bed as finished, and the contractor will be required to keep the ditches trimmed and clear.

RIP-RAP, OR RUBBLE SLOPES.

The first party shall distribute rubble stone over the slopes of earth embankments, whenever required to do so, to protect said slopes from the action of water. Such stone to be arranged by competent hands, and laid to such thickness, and with stones of such size, as shall be directed. Where the contractor has rock in the neighboring cuttings which is available, it shall be reserved and applied to this purpose; and when not, good rock shall be obtained where the contractor can conveniently get it.

MEASUREMENTS.

All earth or rock necessarily moved to complete the grading of this contract according to direction, will be measured in excavation only; and if the contractor (with the consent of the engineer,) should find it convenient to waste earth from an excavation, instead of carrying it to its proper embankment, and to borrow at some nearer point earth for said embankment to replace that which was wasted, he shall be paid for the earth from the original excavation in the order of its most economical arrangement for the second parties. All earth moved from borrowing pits shall also be measured in excavation only.

78. Specification for Masonry.

FIRST CLASS MASONRY.

First class masonry will apply to bridge abutments exceeding twenty-five feet in height, to the ring stones of arches, and to the piers of bridges in running water. The stone shall be laid at the rate of one header to two stretchers, disposed so as to make efficient bond. No header to be less than forty inches long, and no stretcher to be less than eighteen inches in width. No stone less than twelve inches in thickness, no stone to have a greater height than width, all stones to be placed upon the natural bed. The masonry throughout to have hammer dressed beds and joints. Vertical joints to be continued back at least ten inches from the face of the wall. The mortar joints on the face not to exceed one fourth of an inch in thickness. The stone to be laid with regard to breaking joints in the adjoining courses. The stone must be dressed complete before laying, and not be moved after being placed in the mortar. The face will not be tooled, but only roughly hewed, except for one half inch from the beds and joints, where it will be hammered. The ring stones of arches shall have beds to conform to the radius of the arch, with the end joints vertical, and be made to set smoothly on the centering, with the beds with the proper inclination. Each stone must extend through the whole thickness of the arch, and not be less than eight inches thick on the intrados. No spawls or pinners will be admitted. The ring stone shall be dimension work, according to the plans furnished, the beds and joints being truly dressed, but the faces left rough.

All first class work shall be carefully laid in good cement mortar, (see Art. Cement). Each stone before being laid shall be carefully cleaned and moistened; and masonry built in hot weather shall be protected from the sun as fast as laid, by covering with boards. Copings shall be built of stone of equal thickness, neatly dressed and laid.

All first class masonry shall be well pointed with cement pointing.

SECOND CLASS MASONRY.

To be applied to abutments less than twenty-five feet high, ring and face walls of bridges and culverts, and to piers not in running water, shall consist of stones cut in bed and build to a uniform thickness throughout, before being laid, but not hammered; they shall be laid on a level bed, and have vertical joints continued back at right angles at least eight inches from the face of the wall. The work need not be carried up in regular courses, but shall be well bonded, having one header for every three stretchers, and not more than one third of the stones shall contain less than two cubic feet, or be less than nine inches thick; and none of that third shall contain less than one and one half cubic feet, or be less than six inches thick. No more small stones shall be used than necessary to make even beds, the whole to be laid in cement mortar and pointed.

THIRD CLASS MASONRY.

Applicable to culverts, and to the spandrel backing of arches, shall consist of strong and well built rubble masonry, laid dry for culverts, but wet for backing. The culverts to be of such form and dimensions as the engineer may direct. The foundation courses of the side walls to consist of large flat stones, from eight to ten inches in thickness, laid so as to give a solid and regular basis for the side walls. The side walls to be laid with sound stone, and of sufficient size, and with beds having a fair bearing surface and good bond. The covering stone for culverts being not less than ten inches thick for two feet culverts, twelve inches for three feet culverts, and fifteen inches for four feet culverts; to be free from flaw or defect, and to have a well bedded rest upon each side wall, of not less than twelve inches for two and three feet culverts; and not less than fifteen inches for larger ones. In case such stone cannot be obtained, a dry rubble arch may be thrown instead, well pinned and backed; but the price for the arch shall not be more than the general price for third class masonry, with an allowance for the centering.

FOURTH CLASS MASONRY.

Applicable to cattle-guards, pavement of culverts, and slope and protection walls, shall consist of stones of not less than one cubic foot in contents, so laid and bonded as to give the greatest degree of strength in preference to appearance; being laid when directed with beds perpendicular to the inclined face. Pavements under culverts shall be made by excavating one foot in depth of that part to be paved, which space shall be filled with flat stones one foot wide, set on edge, close together, and made to present an even upper face.

TIMBER AND PLANK FOUNDATIONS.

Timber and plank foundations require the beds to be perfectly well levelled, and timber of such dimensions, and so laid, as shown by the plans; to be well bedded and brought to an even and level top surface. The spaces between them to be filled and well rammed with such material as the engineer may direct. On these timbers planks shall be laid, and trenailed or spiked if required. The materials shall be of quality and shape approved by the engineer, and the price shall be in full for material and labor in laying the whole in a thorough and workmanlike manner.

PILING.

Piling may be used either as bearing piles for foundations, or for piled bridges. In the former case they will be bid for by the running foot driven, and in the latter by the stick of twenty-five feet in length. The piles in either case must be straight round timber, of a quality approved by the engineer, not less than ten inches in diameter at the small end, barked, and properly banded and pointed for driving. They shall be driven in such places, and to such depths as required, and the heads cut off square, or finished with a tenon to receive caps, as may be required. Bearing piles will be cut off so far below the lowest water that any timber foundation laid thereon shall be at all times entirely immersed.

CEMENT.

Cement when used shall be of the best quality, hydraulic, newly manufactured, well housed and packed, and so preserved until required for use. And none shall be used in the work until tested and approved by the engineer.

CEMENT MORTAR.

The proportion of sand and cement for construction shall be one of cement, to two of clean, sharp sand, unless in special cases the engineer direct otherwise, for which due allowance shall be made. It shall be used directly after mixing, and none remaining on hand over night shall be remixed.

LIME MORTAR.

Lime mortar (which in all cases shall contain cement), will consist, unless otherwise directed, of two parts of best quick lime, one of cement, and five of sand; the ordinary mortar of lime and sand being first properly made, and the cement thrown in and thoroughly mixed immediately before using.

CONCRETE.

Whenever concrete is required to be used, it shall be formed of clean broken stone, cement, and sharp, clean sand. The stone, which shall be of satisfactory quality, shall be broken so as to pass through a ring three inches in diameter. The cement and sand shall be thoroughly mixed in the proportions already described for cement mortar. Thus prepared, it shall be carefully mixed with the broken stone in the proportion of one of mortar to two or two and one half of broken stone, as the engineer upon experiment shall determine, and shall be immediately laid carefully in its place, and well rammed. The concrete shall be protected on the sides by boards, and be allowed to remain undisturbed after laying until it is properly set; and in special cases the engineer shall direct the mode of application. For the proper preparation and laying of such concrete, there shall be paid the price applicable to second class masonry. The contractor shall furnish all tools and plank necessary to the operation.

POINTING.

All masonry in cement or lime will be finished with a good pointing of cement, without extra charge.

BRICKWORK.

When bricks are required, or allowed to be used, they shall consist of sound, hard-burned brick, laid in cement, or common mortar, as directed, and no soft or salmon brick will be admitted; and none but regular bricklayers must be employed.

CENTERING AND BACKING.

The whole top of all arches, whether brick or stone, shall be finished by plastering with a good coat of cement, so as to prevent the percolation of water, and turn it away from the arch. The centering shall be such as the engineer approves of in every respect, and shall not be removed until he directs. The cost of backing to be included in the price bid. For arches of more than twenty-five feet span, compensation shall be made, at the engineer’s estimate, for the extra value and cost of the centering proper for large arches.

GENERAL PROVISION.

79. The engineer reserves the right to require the whole or any part of the above described work of masonry to be laid in cement, lime, mortar, or dry, at his discretion. First and second class masonry, and brickwork, will be bid for at prices for laying in cement, from which will be deducted fifty cents per yard if laid in lime mortar, and one dollar if laid dry. Third and fourth class masonry at prices for laying dry, to which will be added fifty cents per yard if laid in lime mortar, and one dollar if laid in cement.

SCAFFOLDING.

80. Nothing shall be allowed for workmanship or timber of any scaffolding used in the construction of timber bridges, or in carrying up abutments, piers, coffer-dams, or otherwise. Should the timber used in any coffer-dam be carried away by floods, the renewal of it shall fall upon the first party.

FOUNDATIONS.

81. The foundations for all structures shall be executed by the contractor for masonry in such manner and to such depth as to secure a safe and secure foundation, of which the engineer will judge. If a natural foundation cannot be procured at a reasonable depth, then the contractor shall prepare such artificial foundation as the engineer may direct. The stuff moved from the foundations, if of the proper quality, shall be deposited in the adjoining embankment, provided the site for said embankment has been cleared of all perishable material. So much of the stuff as shall not be fit for the embankment, and all roots, stumps, etc., shall be deposited beyond the limits of the clearing, so as not to obstruct roads, watercourses, or ditches.

For the earth moved from such foundations, and for all earth used according to direction, in the construction of coffer-dams, there shall be paid —— cents per cubic yard.

Whenever it may be necessary to pump or bale water in the foundations, the contractor shall furnish the pumps or buckets, and all scaffolding and apparatus necessary to work them. He shall be allowed the net cost of all labor employed in the operations of pumping or baling water, and shall make a monthly return to the engineer of the value of such labor, provided that these operations are conducted in an economical manner, with efficient men, pumps, and tools, under the direction and to the satisfaction of the engineer. He shall also be allowed such compensation for the use of the pumps and apparatus, and for superintendence, as the engineer shall judge to be fair and reasonable.

TRESTLE WORK.

82. Includes all wooden structures commonly used as substitutes for abutments and piers, and for farm passes, etc., etc. These shall be built according to the plans furnished, and directions given by the engineer, of sound, durable material, to be approved by him. The price bid shall be by the thousand feet board measure, and will be considered as in full for all material except iron, and for the labor of building and erecting complete. The iron used will be of the best American, and the workmanship of approved quality. The bids will be by the pound, and will cover all cost of material and the labor incident to its use. Spikes and nails when used will be furnished by the contractor at cost.

BRIDGING.

83. Contractors may submit plans for bridging in connection with, or separate from their bids; but the engineer of the company may reject such plans if he choose, and substitute others, which if the contractor decline building at the approved prices, may be let to other parties. In every case, the exact manner of building, erecting, adjusting, and finishing bridges, and the determination of the nature and amount of material, will be specified by the engineer. The price bid must be by the running foot of the whole length of bridge, as erected and finished complete.

84. Specifications for Superstructure.

SUBSILLS.

To maintain the track in good adjustment until embankments are settled, subsills will be laid on certain banks, and likewise in cuts where the imperfect nature of the bottoming may, in the opinion of the engineer, render them expedient. These subsills to be fairly bedded in the earth or ballasting, and carefully adjusted and rammed so as to correspond with the grade lines given by the engineer. An additional piece of sill, four feet long, shall be laid at each joint of the subsill, either under the sill, or alongside, as may be directed. The sills will be of 3 × 9 plank, in length of twelve, fifteen, eighteen, and twenty-one feet; of which one fourth may be below fifteen, one fourth below eighteen, and one fourth below twenty-one feet. The plank must be square at the ends, and of sound, durable material, and not have more than two inches wane on one end only. There will be about 25,000 feet, board measure, laid per mile where it may be required, and 660 joint sills, 3 × 9 inches, and four feet long. When the depth of stuff to be moved to admit the subsills exceeds six inches, an allowance shall be made for extra labor, the amount of which shall be noted by the assistants on their receiving notice of such extra labor from the contractor or his agent.

CROSS TIES.

The cross ties shall be of white, black, or yellow oak, burr oak, chestnut, red elm, black walnut, or other sound timber of suitable character in the opinion of the engineer. Eight feet long, and not more than three inches out of straight, hewn to a smooth surface on two parallel plane faces six inches apart, the faces being not less than seven inches wide for at least half of the number, and the remainder not less than six inches wide. The ties shall be carefully and solidly laid on the subsills, or ballasting, or earth previously properly prepared, so as to give the true planes required by the rails, whether on straight or curved lines. They shall be laid at the rate of eight ties to each eighteen feet rail. All imperfect ties shall be excluded by the tracklaying party. The surface of the ties to be faithfully adjusted to the grades given, and to the web of the rail; and the rail to be truly laid and firmly spiked so as to correspond neatly to the alignment of the road. There will be about 2,500 ties required per mile of road.