THE PARTS OF SPEECH
6. If we examine the words in any sentence, we observe that they have different tasks or duties to perform in the expression of thought.
Savage beasts roamed through the forest.
In this sentence, beasts and forest are the names of objects; roamed asserts action, telling us what the beasts did; savage describes the beasts; through shows the relation in thought between forest and roamed; the limits the meaning of forest, showing that one particular forest is meant. Thus each of these words has its special office (or function) in the sentence.
7. In accordance with their use in the sentence, words are divided into eight classes called parts of speech,—namely, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.
I. NOUNS
8. A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing.
Examples:
- Lincoln,
- William,
- Elizabeth,
- sister,
- engineer,
- Chicago,
- island,
- shelf,
- star,
- window,
- happiness,
- anger,
- sidewalk,
- courage,
- loss,
- song.
II. PRONOUNS
9. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It designates a person, place, or thing without naming it.
In “I am ready,” the pronoun I is a convenient substitute for the speaker’s name. In “You have forgotten your umbrella,” the pronouns you and your designate the person to whom one is speaking.
Other pronouns are:
- he, his, him;
- she, hers, her;
- it, its;
- this, that;
- who, whose, whom, which;
- myself, yourself, himself, themselves.
Since pronouns stand for nouns, they enable us to talk about a person, place, or thing without constantly repeating the name.
10. Nouns and pronouns are called substantives.
Nouns and pronouns are very similar in their use. The difference between them is merely that the noun designates a person, place, or thing by naming it, and that the pronoun designates, but does not name. Hence it is convenient to have a general term (substantive) to include both these parts of speech.
11. The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent.
- Frank introduced the boys to his father. [Frank is the antecedent of the pronoun his.]
- Eleanor is visiting her aunt.
- The book has lost its cover.
- The trappers sat round their camp fire.
- Washington and Franklin served their country in different ways. [Their has two antecedents, connected by and.]
III. ADJECTIVES
12. An adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive.[5]
This it usually does by indicating some quality.
An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.
13. An adjective limits a substantive by restricting the range of its meaning.
The noun box, for example, includes a great variety of objects. If we say wooden box, we exclude boxes of metal, of paper, etc. If we use a second adjective (small) and a third (square), we limit the size and the shape of the box.
Most adjectives (like wooden, square, and small) describe as well as limit. Such words are called descriptive adjectives.
We may, however, limit the noun box to a single specimen by means of the adjective this or that or the, which does not describe, but simply points out, or designates. Such words are called definitive adjectives.[6]
IV. VERBS
14. A verb is a word which can assert something (usually an action) concerning a person, place, or thing.[7]
- The wind blows.
- The horses ran.
- The fire blazed.
- Her jewels sparkled.
- Tom climbed a tree.
- The dynamite exploded.
Some verbs express state or condition rather than action.
- The treaty still exists.
- The book lies on the table.
- Near the church stood an elm.
- My aunt suffers much from headache.
15. A group of words may be needed, instead of a single verb, to make an assertion.
A group of words that is used as a verb is called a verb-phrase.
- You will see.
- The tree has fallen.
- We might have invited her.
- Our driver has been discharged.
16. Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are called auxiliary (that is, “aiding”) verbs, because they help other verbs to express action or state of some particular kind.
Thus, in “You will see,” the auxiliary verb will helps see to express future action; in “We might have invited her,” the auxiliaries might and have help invited to express action that was possible in past time.
The auxiliary verbs are is (are, was, were, etc.), may, can, must, might, shall, will, could, would, should, have, had, do, did. Their forms and uses will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs.
The auxiliary verb regularly comes first in a verb-phrase, and may be separated from the rest of it by some other word or words.
- Where was Washington born?
- The boat was slowly but steadily approaching.
17. Is (in its various forms) and several other verbs may be used to frame sentences in which some word or words in the predicate describe or define the subject.
- 1. Gold is a metal.
- 2. Charles is my friend’s name.
- 3. The colors of this butterfly are brilliant.
- 4. Iron becomes red in the fire.
- 5. Our condition seemed desperate.
- 6. Bertram proved a good friend in this emergency.
- 7. My soul grows sad with troubles.—Shakspere.
In the first sentence, the verb is not only makes an assertion, but it also connects the rest of the predicate (a metal) with the subject (gold) in such a way that a metal serves as a description or definition of gold.
In sentences 4–7, becomes, seemed, proved, and grows are similarly used.
In such sentences is and other verbs that are used for the same purpose are called copulative (that is, “joining”) verbs.
Is in this use is often called the copula, that is, the “joiner” or “link.”
The forms of the verb is are very irregular. Among the commonest are: am, is, are, was, were, and the verb-phrases has been, have been, had been, shall be, will be.[8]
V. ADVERBS
18. An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
To modify a word is to change or affect its meaning in some way. Thus in “The river fell rapidly,” the adverb rapidly modifies the verb fell by showing how the falling took place. In “I am never late,” “This is absolutely true,” “That is too bad,” the italicized words are adverbs modifying adjectives; in “He came very often,” “He spoke almost hopefully,” “The river fell too rapidly,” they are adverbs modifying other adverbs.
Most adverbs answer the question “How?” “When?” “Where?” or “To what degree or extent?”
19. Observe that adverbs modify verbs in much the same way in which adjectives modify nouns.
| Adjectives | Adverbs |
|---|---|
| A bright fire burned. | The fire burned brightly. |
| A fierce wind blew. | The wind blew fiercely. |
A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning of another word is called a modifier.
Adjectives and adverbs, then, are both modifiers. Adjectives modify substantives; adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
VI. PREPOSITIONS
20. A preposition is a word placed before a substantive to show its relation to some other word in the sentence.
The substantive which follows a preposition is called its object.
A preposition is said to govern its object.
In “The surface of the water glistened,” of makes it clear that surface belongs with water. In “Philip is on the river,” on shows Philip’s position with respect to the river. In, or near, or beyond would have indicated a different relation. Water is the object of the preposition of, and river is the object of the preposition on.
21. A preposition often has more than one object.
- Over hill and dale he ran.
- He was filled with shame and despair.
VII. CONJUNCTIONS
22. A conjunction connects words or groups of words.
A conjunction differs from a preposition in having no object, and in indicating a less definite relation between the words which it connects.
In “Time and tide wait for no man,” “The parcel was small but heavy,” “He wore a kind of doublet or jacket,” the conjunctions and, but, or, connect single words,—time with tide, small with heavy, doublet with jacket. In “Do not go if you are afraid,” “I came because you sent for me,” “Take my key, but do not lose it,” “Sweep the floor and dust the furniture,” each conjunction connects the entire group of words preceding it with the entire group following it.
VIII. INTERJECTIONS
23. An interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound expressing surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other emotion or feeling.
Interjections usually have no grammatical connection with the groups of words in which they stand; hence their name, which means “thrown in.”
Examples:
- Oh! I forgot.
- Ah, how I miss you!
- Bravo! Alas!
THE SAME WORD AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH
24. The meaning of a word in the sentence determines to what part of speech it belongs.
The same word may be sometimes one part of speech, sometimes another.
Words of entirely separate origin, meaning, and use sometimes look and sound alike: as in “The minstrel sang a plaintive lay,” and “He lay on the ground.” But the following examples ([§ 25]) show that the same word may have more than one kind of grammatical office (or function). It is the meaning which we give to a word in the sentence that determines its classification as a part of speech.
25. The chief classes of words thus variously used are (1) nouns and adjectives, (2) nouns and verbs, (3) adjectives and adverbs, (4) adjectives and pronouns, (5) adverbs and prepositions.
| Nouns | Adjectives |
|---|---|
| Rubber comes from South America. | This wheel has a rubber tire. |
| That brick is yellow. | Here is a brick house. |
| The rich have a grave responsibility. | A rich merchant lives here. |
The first two examples show how words that are commonly nouns may be used as adjectives; the third shows how words that are commonly adjectives may be used as nouns.
| Nouns | Verbs |
|---|---|
| Hear the wash of the tide. | Wash those windows. |
| Give me a stamp. | Stamp this envelope. |
| It is the call of the sea. | Ye call me chief. |
Other examples are:
- act,
- address,
- ally,
- answer,
- boast,
- care,
- cause,
- close,
- defeat,
- doubt,
- drop,
- heap,
- hope,
- mark,
- offer,
- pile,
- place,
- rest,
- rule,
- sail,
- shape,
- sleep,
- spur,
- test,
- watch,
- wound.
| Adjectives | Adverbs |
|---|---|
| That is a fast boat. | The snow is melting fast. |
| Draw a straight line. | The arrow flew straight. |
| Early comers get good seats. | Tom awoke early. |
For an explanation of the form of these adverbs, see [§ 191].
| Adjectives | Pronouns |
|---|---|
| This man looks unhappy. | This is the sergeant. |
| That book is a dictionary. | That is a kangaroo. |
| Each day brings its opportunity. | I received a dollar from each. |
For further study of this class of words, see [pp. 62–65].
| Adverbs | Prepositions |
|---|---|
| Jill came tumbling after. | He returned after the accident. |
| We went below. | Below us lay the valley. |
| The weeds sprang up. | We walked up the hill. |
Other examples are:
- aboard,
- before,
- beyond,
- down,
- inside,
- underneath.
Miscellaneous examples of variation are the following:—
| Noun. | The calm lasted for three days. |
|---|---|
| Adjective. | Calm words show quiet minds. |
| Verb. | Calm your angry friend. |
Other examples are:
- iron,
- stone,
- paper,
- sugar,
- salt,
- bark,
- quiet,
- black,
- light,
- head,
- wet,
- round,
- square,
- winter,
- spring.
INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES
26. Two classes of verb-forms illustrate in a striking way the fact that the same word may belong to different parts of speech; for they really belong to two different parts of speech at one and the same time. These are the infinitive (which is both verb and noun) and the participle (which is both verb and adjective).
27. Examples of the infinitive may be seen in the following sentences:
- To struggle was useless.
- To escape is impossible.
- To exercise regularly preserves the health.
To struggle is clearly a noun, for (1) it is the subject of the sentence, and (2) the noun effort or exertion might be put in the place of to struggle. Similarly, the noun escape might be substituted for to escape; and, in the third sentence, regular exercise (a noun modified by an adjective) might be substituted for to exercise regularly.
But these three forms (to struggle, to escape, and to exercise) are also verbs, for they express action, and one of them (to exercise) is modified by an adverb (regularly). Such forms, therefore, are noun-forms of the verb. They are classed with verbs, and are called infinitives.
28. The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a noun. It is commonly preceded by the preposition to, which is called the sign of the infinitive.
29. The infinitive without to is used in a great variety of verb-phrases.
- I shall go.
- John will win.
- Mary may recite.
- Jack can swim.
Such phrases will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs.
Note. That go, win, recite, and swim are infinitives may be seen by comparing the following sentences:—“I intend to go,” “John is sure to win,” “Mary is permitted to recite,” “Jack is able to swim.”
30. The following sentence contains two participles:—
Shattered and slowly sinking, the frigate drifted out to sea.
In this sentence, we recognize shattered as a form of the verb shatter, and sinking as a form of the verb sink. They both express action, and sinking is modified by the adverb slowly. But shattered and sinking have also the nature of adjectives, for they are used to describe the noun frigate. Such words, then, are adjective forms of the verb. They are classed as verbs, and are called participles, because they share (or participate in) the nature of adjectives.
31. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive.
A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.
32. The chief classes of participles are present participles and past participles, so called from the time which they denote.
All present participles end in ing. Past participles have several different endings, which will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs ([§ 334]).
33. Participles are used in a variety of verb-phrases.
- Tom is coming.
- Our boat was wrecked.
- I have sent the money.
- He has brought me a letter.
- Your book is found.
- They have sold their horses.
- You have broken your watch.
- The ship had struck on the reef.
Such phrases will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs.
Note. The double nature of the infinitive (as both verb and noun) and the participle (as both verb and adjective) almost justifies one in classifying each as a distinct part of speech (so as to make ten parts of speech instead of eight). But it is more convenient to include them under the head of verbs, in accordance with the usual practice.