ERRATA.
p. 9, line 9 from foot, for “Camerun” read “Cameroon”; and line 12 from foot, for “Shilling” read “Shillong.”
p. 58, line 11 from foot, for “Sangor” read “Saugor.”
p. 63, in table, line 11 from top, for “Ayra” read “Agra.”
p. 84, line 1 in table, and p. 85, line 3 in table, for “Mazattan” read “Mazatlan.”
OUTLINES
OF
TROPICAL CLIMATOLOGY.
SECTION I.
General Considerations.
A very broad belt of the earth’s surface is occupied by countries that may be said to possess hot climates; as they include not only those within the Tropics, but also the sub-tropical zones. Practically speaking, the whole of Africa, much of South America, the Southern States of North America with the West Indian Islands, Asia Minor, Arabia, Persia, India and the Malay Peninsula, the greater part of China, Australia and the islands lying between it and the continents of the northern hemisphere, may be said to be included within this general term. In so wide an area, it is needless to remark that the widest range of climatic conditions may be found, the only condition common to all being that of subjection to a fiercer heat than that to which we Europeans are accustomed, for some or all the months of the year. It must be remembered, too, that climate is determined not only by the relation of a place to the parallels of latitude, or to speak more exactly, to isothermal lines, but is also affected by the elevation of a site above the sea. Even under a vertical sun, an ascent of 18,000 feet will land the climber in an absolutely arctic climate, as far as the temperature of the air is concerned; but it is only in this one item that we have any similarity to arctic conditions, as the sun’s rays blaze down even more fiercely than they can at the sea-level, where they have been tempered by passage through miles of denser air and watery vapour.
On the crest of the Wakujrui Pass, at 16,500 feet, while the air temperature at noon stood at 20° below freezing point, the sun thermometer registered 165°, in May, 1886, when the writer was crossing the great divide between India and Central Asia; and yet it was sufficient to remove one’s hat for a minute to realise that to do so might result in sunstroke. Moreover, apart from the effects of the rarification of the air on respiration, radiation was so rapid as to be painfully apparent; one side of the hand turned to the sun would be scorched, while the other chilled so rapidly that the sensation conveyed was that of being in contact with a cold liquid; and one was constrained to wrap up even the face as closely as possible, though the air was fortunately well-nigh still, whereas cold of similar severity at the sea-level is quite tolerable as long as there is no wind. Thus, in the consideration of a given climate, not only geographical position, but also elevation above the sea must always be taken into account.
To enter into a detailed account of the climatic conditions of the enormous area under consideration is, of course, out of the question, as it is a subject on which a special encyclopædia might well be compiled, so that only the outlines of the subject can be touched upon in the present short pamphlet. Roughly speaking, we may say that the climates under consideration have a mean annual temperature at the sea-level of not less than 64° F. (18° C), while in the equatorial zone it reaches 80° F. (27° C.); but the difference between the maximum and minimum temperatures in tropical countries is rarely as marked as in sub-tropical localities, as the range of temperature in the latter is usually far greater than in the former, so that in spite of the lower mean, far higher temperatures are recorded for certain regions well outside the Tropics than can be anywhere found within them. At Jacobabad, in Upper Sindh, for example, a place some 500 miles outside the tropical zone, the enormous shade temperature of 127° F. (52·7° C.) has been registered, and readings of 115° F. (46·1° C.) are quite common during the hot season over large areas of subtropical India. With the exception of certain parts of the Soudan, such temperatures are hardly to be met with in the truly tropical zone, and even these are but barely within it.
The tropical zone may be defined as that within which the sun is at some time of the year vertical at noon; or in other words, comprises a belt extending about 231⁄2° of latitude on either side of the Equator. To the north and south of it the sun approaches and recedes from the vertical once during the year, and there are accordingly but two distinct seasons of summer and winter; but at the Equator the sun necessarily passes overhead twice during the twelve months, and there are accordingly four seasons, none of which, however, owing to their shortness, can be very sharply differentiated from the other. The northern and southern limits of the Tropics coincide pretty closely with the isotherm, for the coldest month, of 68° F. (20° C). On the great oceans the coincidence may be taken as practically absolute, especially along the northern isotherm, but both isotherms show a tendency to turn towards the Equator as they approach the western shores of the great continents; so that the breadth of the tropical belt is considerably contracted in these positions, and the same remark applies, though to a lesser extent, to the mean annual isotherm of 68° which bounds the sub-tropical zone. The tropical zone on the West Coast of America is contracted to little more than 30° in place of the normal 47°, while as far as mean temperature is concerned, the temperate zone extends as far north as 20° S. latitude, well within the geographical Tropics. On the West Coast of Africa the contraction is equally marked, but mainly at the expense of the northern isothermal boundary, while the sub-tropical boundaries, on the contrary, spread out, so as to leave only the extreme northern and southern points of the continent outside their limits. A third narrowing is to be found at the western side of the irregular land mass formed by Australia, the Malay Peninsula, and the intervening islands, but is much less marked, amounting to a few degrees only. The comparative coolness of the western sides of the great continental masses is due to the existence of northerly currents of cold water coming from the frozen seas of the south pole, which wash the western coasts, while along the east coast there sets a current of warm water coming from the Equator.
The principal factor in the determination of climatic characteristics is the fact that while the land heats and cools with great rapidity, the sea does so more slowly, but holds the heat better. This is due to two circumstances. In the first place, it requires more heat to warm a given weight of water than an equivalent mass of the various substances which constitute the land. In the second place, while both are alike bad conductors of heat; water, being a fluid, is mobile, and in the colder parts of the globe where the surface is colder than the intermediate depths, convection comes into play, apart from which the least movement at the surface is sufficient to distribute the heat gained from the sun to a greater depth than is possible in the case of the solid constituents of the earth’s crust.
The second great determinant of climate is the fact that the temperature of the air is determined for the most part by that of the surfaces with which it is brought into contact, rather than by the passage of the sun’s rays through it, as is well shown in the arctic air temperatures of great elevations in tropical latitudes. From this it follows that the atmosphere is mainly heated by the sun’s rays indirectly, from below where it is in contact with the directly heated, solid and liquid surface of the globe.
In becoming heated it necessarily expands, and becoming lighter that the stratum immediately above it, ascends, drawing in, to take its place, the cooler air that has been in contact with surfaces of air or water less strongly heated. Now because, as we have seen, water heats and cools more slowly than land surfaces, along a coast there is always a tendency to the production of a sea wind from the cooler sea to the hotter land during the latter part of the day, and inversely of a land breeze from the more rapidly cooled land to the slowly cooling sea in the early morning; and in the Tropics, where the sun’s rays are sufficiently near the vertical to produce a rapid and marked effect, these diurnal land and sea breezes form a characteristic feature of littoral climates, and go far to render life tolerable in them. Hence also it follows that everywhere littoral and marine climates tend to uniformity, not only as to diurnal but also as to annual variations, while continental climates tend to wide variations of temperature, and the seasons differ to a degree never experienced in places on or near the sea. As an example may be contrasted the climates of Madeira and Peshawar, in the former of which the difference between the mean temperatures of the coldest months is under 13° F. (7·2 C), while in the latter the difference amounts to 40° F. (22·2 C), or three times as great in the continental climate.
It is further noteworthy that while, in the continental climate, the hottest and coldest months coincide with the summer and winter solstices, in the marine climate they lag a month or two after; the coldest month being February and the hottest August in Madeira, owing to the slowness with which the water surrounding the island gains and parts with its heat.
Just as the alternating heat of day and coolness of night produce, in littoral regions, the daily land and sea breezes, so the greater heating of the world’s surface over the Tropics produces, throughout the year, a steady flow of air from the north and south, to take the place of the air that has become rarified, and so floated to a higher level. These winds—“the trades”—are not, however, directly from the north and south respectively, but have also a great deal of easting in their direction, a circumstance which is explained by the fact that the air, coming as it does from latitudes where the circumference of the earth is much smaller than at the Equator, is moving from west to east, only at the comparatively slower pace of the rest of the earth’s surface at that latitude; and as they do not at once acquire the quicker motion of the latitudes to which they have travelled, they lag behind the points of the earth moving beneath, and so give the effect of an easterly breeze, just as would be the case with a vehicle driving rapidly eastward through still air.
Between the two belts influenced by the trade-winds there is naturally a broad zone, known as “the doldrums,” where the opposing air currents tend to neutralise each other, and which is naturally characterised by periods of prolonged calm, alternating with light and variable airs. The middle line of this zone will obviously be that in which the sun is vertical at noon, and will consequently lie north or south of the Equator according to the season of the year. For the typical development of the “trades” the absolutely uniform surface conditions of the ocean are indispensable, the variable conditions of soil and vegetation on land areas impeding their full establishment, by introducing local variations of capability of heat absorption and radiation; but in spite of this, though less definite in force and direction, winds of the same general direction are dominant over the comparatively uniform surface of the South American continent. When, however, we find a sufficiently large land area more or less surrounded by sea, the different heat-absorbing capacity of solid and liquid surfaces may suffice not merely to neutralise, but to reverse the normal direction of the tropical and sub-tropical air-currents. Under such conditions, where the land surface is sufficiently large, the much more rapid heating of the land surface during summer brings the air in contact with it up to a much higher temperature than that of the neighbouring seas, and accordingly over India and Southern China we find that about May or June, by which month the land has had time to become sufficiently heated, a strong south-west current—the monsoon[5]—is established, which, carrying with it air saturated with moisture by its contact with the sea, determines the rainy season, and by the gradual cooling of the surface thereby produced, brings about its own termination. In the winter, on the contrary, over these regions, the prevailing wind resumes the general direction of the trades.
[5] This is simply a seaman’s corruption of the Arabic word for season.
Another effect of rapid local heating of the air, the cause of which, however, is ill understood, is the occurrence of the revolving storms which are met with during the summer months in low latitudes, and are generally spoken of as “cyclones” in the Indian Ocean, as typhoons in the China seas, and as hurricanes in the West Indies. These storms are determined by the formation of areas of low barometric pressure, to meet which the air, converging from all sides, takes on a circular motion, or vortex, round its centre. Nearly all such storms have a double motion, the vortex itself being not stationary, but travelling over the surface of the globe in a definite direction. However obscure their origin, the laws of these storms are now well understood and are as follows: In the Northern Hemisphere, the vortex revolves in the opposite direction to that of the hands of a watch, and in the southern in the same direction as they do; while in both the motion is not truly circular but spiral, in such manner that a particle carried by the wind, after circling round the centre several times, ultimately finds itself carried to the centre of low pressure. In the same way the centre of low pressure, with its accompanying vortex, always travels at first from east to west, and then curves away from the Equator, to ultimately take an easterly direction as it dies out. The dimensions of the vortex, and the area influenced by such storms, may vary from a few yards to several hundred miles, but in all cases their force, within the vortex, is very considerable.
Small atmospheric disturbances of this sort, often of no more than 50 or 100 yards in diameter, are very common on the hot, dusty plains of Rajputana and the Punjab, and are most instructive to watch, as they are exact reproductions, on a small scale, of the awful visitations that from time to time devastate huge areas of the earth’s surface.
After a period of exceptional heat and stifling stillness, the still leaves of the dried-up trees are agitated by light puffs of air of irregular direction, then away in the east is seen a column of dust, and this steadily advances till one finds one’s self for a few minutes buffeted by a violent, fiery wind and choked with dust. When it has passed and the air has again cleared, this is succeeded by a refreshing relief of the previously intense heat. When of very small dimensions these miniature cyclones are locally known as “devils,” and their form, narrow below and spreading out like a funnel above, can be studied at leisure. The boundaries of the expanded upper part are indistinct and fade gradually into the steel-grey of the surrounding glare, but below the contour of the column is well-nigh as sharp as if it were composed of solid materials, and may sweep along close by the observer without involving him.
When of larger dimensions, so that the boundaries of the revolving column of dust and air are beyond the range of vision, they are known as “dust storms,” and in spite of the temporary discomforts they cause, are gladly welcomed, on account of the relief they bring from the suffocating heat that originated them. When on the larger scale that is met with in the equatorial zone their violence is well-nigh incredible—trees are torn up, houses levelled, crops destroyed, and massive bodies, such, for example, as large anchors lying on the quays of a dockyard, trundled along as if they were straw hats in an ordinary gust of wind.
From a sanitary point of view these storms are usually beneficial by their effect in clearing and cooling the air; but this is unfortunately only small and temporary, so that they are of little interest to the hygienist. In any case the prophylaxis against their effects is purely mechanical, and consists in crawling, if possible, into the nearest cave or cellar.
Over the great Asiatic continent, especially north of the Himalayas, a strong northerly current is produced about mid-summer by the area of low pressure caused by the intense heating of the Siberian steppes, which, owing to the length of the days at these high latitudes, are exposed to the sun’s rays for practically the whole twenty-four hours, and the current thus initiated makes its influence felt for hundreds of miles to the south of its point of origin, and no doubt reacts upon and modifies other periodical forces of the same character. A useful law to remember is that discovered by Professor Buys Ballot, which is to the effect that, if you stand with your back to the wind, the barometer will be lower in your left hand than in your right, in the Northern Hemisphere, and vice versâ south of the Equator.
The effect of ocean currents bringing with them masses of hot or cold water from other latitudes has already been alluded to, a familiar example being the mildness of our own climate under the influence of the Gulf Stream.
In the Southern Hemisphere currents of cold water sweep up from the Antarctic regions along the western shores of the great masses of land, counter-currents of warm water flowing down from the Equator along their eastern sides. In the Northern Hemisphere the reverse is the case, the cold Arctic currents clinging to the eastern, and the warm equatorial to the western shores of the continents. The more detailed distribution of these currents, however, can be better gathered by a little study of the current chart found in any good atlas, than from any description, however elaborate.
Climate may also be profoundly modified by the distribution of mountain chains, the cold summits of which determine the precipitation of the moisture brought up from the sea, so that while their seaward slopes may be inordinately rainy, the country beyond may be completely parched; and apart from such marked contrasts as are produced by the interposition of great ranges of hills, large differences of rainfall may often be found in stations a few miles apart. Cherapunji, in Assam, which is said to hold the world’s record for heavy rainfall, is but 40 miles from Shillong, the rainfall of which is by no means excessive; and again, Debunja, in the Cameroons, which is said to hold the second place with a rainfall of 897 cm., is close to Cameroon, where the rainfall is less than half that figure.
Another climatic factor of great importance is the amount and character of the vegetation, for it is a well-ascertained fact that not only does a heavy rainfall determine luxuriant vegetation, but the converse is also true, and it is probable that the barrenness of certain regions is due rather to improvident deforestation than to original natural dryness. Certain experiments, indeed, go far to show that it is possible to materially alter the climate of even comparatively small areas by judicious tree-planting; and it is also certain that the presence of even small patches of verdure may make a marked difference in the temperature curves of places within but a few hundred yards of each other. In the Upper Nile valley, for instance, astounding differences in the temperature and humidity of the air have been found to exist in places, respectively barren and cultivated, quite close to each other, and there is little doubt that local differences of this sort are worthy of more detailed study than they have as yet received, and would often be of value in determining the most suitable sites for habitations and stations.
From a sanitary point of view the variations of the barometer are of little interest, as at any given level they are never sufficiently great to have any physiological effect on the human organisation, and hence the elements of climate that interest us most are temperature and moisture, for the determination of which all that is required are a maximum and minimum thermometer, a pair of ordinary wet and dry bulb instruments and a rain gauge.
In forming an opinion of the characters of any given climate the temperature of the air is alone of any great importance, the data afforded by the sun thermometer and that used for determining radiation being of comparatively little interest, so that the following data are the most important:—
(1) The mean temperature of each month. This can only be given accurately by self-registering instruments, but in the absence of these is usually taken as
max. t. + min. t. + t. at 9 hours + t. at 21 hours4
(2) The mean monthly daily range of temperature, or what is practically as valuable, the mean maxima and minima.
(3) The “relative humidity” of the air, or the proportion of moisture actually present to the amount that would suffice to produce saturation, for each month of the year.
(4) The monthly rainfall.
(5) The number of rainy days in each month.
(6) The average condition of the sky, whether clear or overcast, in each month.
(7) The amount and daily distribution of wind, its direction being for us of little moment.
In speaking of air temperatures it must always be understood that temperatures in the shade are referred to, and in systematic scientific observations the greatest care must be taken that not only shall the instruments be thoroughly protected from the direct, but also from the reflected rays of the sun; and that means are also taken to secure a free current of air over them.
If an absolutely exact determination of the temperature of the air in any given situation be required, the observation should be taken by swinging the instrument, attached to a short cord, rapidly round the head, and by this method it is possible to secure a close approximation to the actual air temperature, even in the open and under the direct rays of the sun.
In considering the effects of climate on human beings it will be well to commence with a short consideration of the way in which they are affected by each of these elements of climate.
Temperature.
—In health the temperature of the human blood varies but little, whatever may be the climatic conditions to which we are submitted, the normal point being generally taken as 98·4° F. (37° C), though it may range half a degree or so above or below this level without prejudice to health or comfort. The mechanism by which this uniformity of internal temperature is maintained, in spite of the widest differences in the temperature of our environment, depends upon an automatic regulation of the nutritive processes going on within the system.
The various muscular and nervous actions, going on constantly throughout life, derive the force necessary for their production from the oxidation of the various articles contained in our food, and as the oxidation of all its digestible constituents is really nearly as complete as if they had been subjected to combustion, the body gains nearly as much heat from the consumption of its food as if the latter were actually burned. In climates where the temperature of the air is less than that of the blood, a good deal of heat is conducted away from the body by its contact with the air; but where, as in hot climates, the difference is but small, or the temperature of the air may even exceed that of the blood, it is obvious that some further mechanism is required if the temperature of the body is to be kept at the normal level of health. This requirement is met by evaporation from the surface of the body, the amount of which is regulated automatically by a special set of nerves which are known as the vaso-motor system, whose function it is to regulate the calibre of the blood-vessels throughout the body, according to the varying nutritive necessities of the several organs to which they are distributed.
We are all familiar with the fact that either extreme heat or violent exertion will alike bring about free perspiration, and in both cases the object is the same, viz., to cool down the body which tends to become overheated; in the one case by the warmth of the surroundings, and in the other by the activity of the chemical changes going on within the body to provide the force required for the various muscular and nervous actions involved in the work performed. On the other hand, under the influence of cold the skin becomes bloodless and dry, very little blood being allowed to circulate at the actual surface, the bulk of it being kept to the deeper parts of the body, well beneath the protective coating of fat which lies immediately below the skin. Buried in this fat, and opening by delicate tubes on the surface, are enormous numbers of small glandular bodies—the sweat-glands—each of which, when sufficiently freely supplied with blood, pours out a fluid consisting mainly of water, but containing also a little common salt and minute quantities of other mineral constituents, as well as a trifling amount of organic or animal matter, which has served its purpose in the organism and is thrown off in this way as being of no further value.
In the conversion of water into vapour a large amount of heat is absorbed, and it is thus equally possible for the body to be kept at a temperature lower than that of the surrounding air as it is, under more ordinary conditions, to maintain it at a higher; but the endurance of intense heat throws an even greater strain on the organism than that of severe cold, as it cannot be combated in the same way by covering the body with non-conducting clothing, and under such circumstances exertion, involving as it does a further production of heat within the body, becomes well-nigh insupportable. The evil effects of intense heat become all the more marked in proportion as they are prolonged, and the effects of air temperatures approaching or exceeding that of the normal blood continuously, for many days or weeks, without any relief at night, are most debilitating, and render any considerable amount of muscular exertion not only painful but dangerous, even to natives of the country, who, indeed, thoroughly recognise the fact and abstain during such periods from any laborious tasks not absolutely necessary. The exhaustion and incapacity produced by extreme heat are naturally specially marked in persons in whom the sudorific system is ill developed, and there is no doubt that those who suffer from this defect in any marked degree should avoid subjecting themselves to such conditions and be content to remain in more temperate climes. It is obvious that under such conditions a failure in the action of the sweat glands must necessarily result in a rise of the body temperature, and there can be little doubt that this is what takes place in certain cases of simple “heat apoplexy.” This failure of the sudorific system appears to be specially favoured by the overcrowding of too many persons within a limited space. It is only, however, when the temperature stands for long periods above 90° or 95° F. (33° C.) that these distressing effects of heat are at all commonly experienced; most Europeans bearing heat up to this limit even for prolonged periods, if not with comfort, at least without serious detriment to health, and much higher temperatures are well borne during the day, provided that the daily range of temperature is sufficient to secure a definite relief during the night. It will thus be seen that a wide diurnal range of temperature will go far to neutralise the bad effects of a high mean temperature, and the importance of securing information on this point in estimating the possible effects of a given climate on health is therefore obvious.
The proportion of moisture present in the air has at least as important a bearing on health as its temperature. It is obvious that when the air is actually saturated with watery vapour evaporation from the surface of the body must necessarily be stopped, and with it the natural provision for preventing an undue rise of the temperature of the body. Actual saturation combined with high temperature is, however, fortunately rare for anything but short periods, as the absolute amount of water requisite to saturation increases rapidly as temperature rises; and hence warm air, but partially saturated, and therefore still active as an absorbent of evaporation from moist surfaces, may contain a far larger absolute amount of water than saturated air at a lower temperature. In practice, saturated air is only to be found in situations where it is brought into contact with colder surfaces, such as that of the earth, cooled by radiation during the night, as is seen in the production of dew; the dew point being, in fact, the temperature at which the amount of water present in the air suffices to saturate it. Apart from its diminution by the formation of dew, the absolute amount of moisture present in the air, depending as it does on but slowly changing conditions, can naturally also change but slowly, but the relative moisture, or the percentage of the amount required to produce saturation, which is actually present always varies greatly during the twenty-four hours in all places where the diurnal range of temperature is at all considerable; so that relative moisture, when given for any day or other period, always refers to an average. As a rule it is only the stratum of air of a few yards in thickness that is cooled by contact with the soil during the night and is hence concerned in the formation of dew, a fact which is prettily illustrated by the low-lying bands of vapour which hang over the landscape after a clear night on any fine morning in the Tropics, and which clear off as if by magic as the returning sun once more warms up the soil and air. Wherever radiation is impeded by the shelter of trees, by artificial shelter, or by sufficiently dense masses of cloud, the temperature of the soil and air falls but little, and hence, under such circumstances, dew does not fall.
For practical purposes there are no better hygrometers than those that depend on the hygroscopic properties of certain organic substances, such as hair and catgut, and it has been shown by Sresnewsky that the alteration in length of a hair caused by its absorption of moisture is directly proportional to the natural logarithm of the degree of relative humidity, so that such instruments can be graduated for use as scientific instruments. Rapidity of evaporation is, however, proportional not to the relative humidity, but to the difference of the tension of watery vapour present in the air with that of its tension when saturated—in other words, the difference of tension of watery vapour at the temperatures of the dry and wet bulb thermometers, a form of expression which admits of degrees of humidity at different temperatures to be directly compared. In practice, however, this datum is rarely to be found in climatic tables, which is of the less importance, as in its effects on our organisation a difference of 2 or 3 mm. of mercury, from the pressure of saturation at a low temperature, will give a pleasant sensation of dryness, while at a high temperature the same deficit of pressure would be felt intolerably close and sultry. Extreme conditions of either humidity or dryness are, of course, alike unhealthy, though much of the respiratory irritation ascribed to too dry air is, I believe, more truly referable to the dust which usually accompanies such atmospheric conditions; but in any case, there can be no doubt that alike in hot and cold climates it is far healthier for the air to be too dry than too moist. With the effects of damp cold we are all of us only too well acquainted in England, and those who have experienced the effects of damp heat will never need being reminded of its debilitating effects. Fortunately, however, relative humidities exceeding 80 per cent. are but rarely to be found accompanied with really high air temperatures, and are seldom met with except in localities blessed with a copious rainfall, which by cooling the air goes far to render matters tolerable.
The most trying of all climates, however, are those where high temperatures and relative humidity are combined with an absence of rain, and under such circumstances a relative humidity of far less than 80 per cent. gives rise to intolerable closeness and oppression, especially when combined with stillness of air. Typical examples are the autumnal climates of the Red Sea and Persian Gulf, the unbearable character of which is notorious. At Abusher, in the Gulf, for example, in the month of August rain never falls, there is little or no breeze, and the mean maximum temperature is 96·5° F. (35·7° C.), while the relative humidity averages 65 per cent., and though neither figure separately is remarkably high as compared with what may be met with elsewhere, the entire combination of conditions is generally admitted to constitute one of the most unendurable climates in the world. On the other hand, in the Algerian Sahara in the summer months the relative humidity may fall as low as 16 per cent., but provided that an unstinted supply of water, to supply the loss by evaporation, be obtainable, most people find crisp, dry heat of this sort rather stimulating than otherwise, and even where the temperature is so high as to become most trying to endurance, the mortality returns of such situations show that dry heat is really favourable to health. The reason of this is obviously found in the fact that a few hours’ exposure to the sun’s rays in such climates suffices to kill the germs of nearly all specific contagious diseases, and that the breeding of mosquitoes, which are now known to be the carriers of several of the most important and deadly of tropical diseases, is further summarily stopped. A further contributory reason is also found in the fact, that the population is driven to sleep in the open air instead of within more or less ill-ventilated houses, and hence obtains the inestimable benefit of the freest possible ventilation during a large portion of the twenty-four hours, besides reducing the chances of the direct infection of the healthy by the sick to a minimum. As a degree of relative humidity of the air so low as to be in itself irritating to the respiratory mucous membranes is almost unknown, we may practically consider that dryness of climate is everywhere synonymous with healthiness.
Effects of Amount and Distribution of Rainfall.
—As already remarked, it is quite possible for a climate to be damp and yet have little or no rainfall, but such instances are rare, and on the other hand, a heavy rainfall necessarily brings about a coincident increase of relative humidity. Rain is, moreover, necessarily combined with a cloudy sky, whereby the heating of the soil during the day and its cooling by radiation during the night are alike impeded. The immediate effect of a shower of rain is to cool the air, and this for a double reason: first, coming as they do from the higher strata of the atmosphere, the temperature of the raindrops is necessarily much lower than that of the earth’s surface; and secondly, from the multiplied surfaces of the descending drops and from the wetted earth there necessarily occurs a rapid evaporation, whereby a further large amount of heat is absorbed, but unless showers recur at sufficient intervals to continuously diminish air temperature, the temporary remission is apt to be dearly paid for by a period of heat combined with high relative humidity, with its attendant discomforts of reduced evaporation from the surface of the body, prickly heat, and the other discomforts inseparable from tropical damp.
The influence of rainfall on health necessarily depends to a great extent on the configuration of the land, but assuming that the latter admits of adequate drainage, more depends upon its distribution than upon its amount; for the sanitary influences of rain are, in the main, mechanical, and depend on the “laying” of the dust and the washing away of infective and otherwise deleterious material. A heavy shower of sufficient duration will carry away, viâ the river to the sea, the deleterious products of human occupation during a preceding drought; but to do this the rain must be heavy while it lasts, for a prolonged drizzle in a warm climate simply turns the soil into a particularly efficient cultivation ground for the germs of infective diseases, and the attendant gloom of the sky stops entirely the beneficent germ-killing power of the sun’s direct rays. A prolonged drizzle, never exceeding the absorbtive and drainage capacities of a given site, marks the maximum of unhealthiness in all climates, and is possibly even more obnoxious when associated with heat than with cold: so that the most pleasant tropical climates are those that combine frequent short but heavy showers with intervals of bright sunlight, a continuously overcast sky being everywhere unfavourable to health.
To judge, then, the influence of rainfall on health, we require three data—the total rainfall, the number of rainy days, and the aspect of the sky in any given season of the year; for the beneficent influence of light on the animal organisation is at least as marked as it is on plants, though while the latter fact is a matter of common observation, the former does not meet with the recognition which it deserves. We bleach our celery by protecting it from the light, but are apt to forget that, while the consequent reduction in the amount of its characteristic essential oil makes its eatable, the plant could hardly survive but for the application of lime and other artificial antiseptics, which we are obliged to apply to make up for the lack of the natural protection. Whether the process of “earthing up” be soothing to a celery plant or otherwise is a question of which we have no means of judging, but there can be no doubt that in such matters man is far more practical in the treatment of plants than of himself, and that in tropical climates he often suffers by shrinking too much from the immediate effects of the sun’s rays. In this as in all other affairs, moderation is, of course, desirable, but the commoner mistake is undoubtedly to shirk too much all exposure to the sun, whereas those whose avocations take them most into the open are generally the healthiest in the Tropics as elsewhere. Contrast the ardent sportsman who spends the broiling days of May and June in the pursuit of large game, with the lady who spends her days in a darkened bungalow, and there can be no question as to which suffers the most from “the effects of climate”; nor is the difference, as is often suggested, purely one of sex, for it will be noticed that female medical practitioners and missionaries and other ladies whose occupations involve their being much in the open are commonly at least as healthy as men similarly situated.
In all hot countries the period of the rains is the sickly season, but this is due not so much to any direct evil effects of damp on the human system as to the fact that the agents and carriers of disease, i.e., low plant organisms and mosquitoes and other suctorial insects, find in heat moisture and puddles the conditions that best favour their growth and multiplication; in other words, the unhealthiness of this season can be largely obviated by suitable measures of sanitation, so designed as to impede this growth and multiplication of noxious agencies in the immediate vicinity of human habitations.
Effect of Winds on Health.
—Save only in so far as it necessarily raises and transports dust, and that the latter may consist not only of mineral particles but may contain also deleterious organic matter and the germs of certain diseases, the action of wind, being equivalent to so much the freer ventilation, may always be considered desirable in hot climates. Given a free current of air, the highest air temperatures are borne with comparative comfort, whereas in stagnant air the sense of oppression is unbearable. The existence of a steady breeze from a known direction also makes it possible to artificially cool houses by placing in the doorway facing the direction of the wind wetted mats, which cool the air passing through them by the agency of evaporation. It further makes it possible to live in comfort without the use of punkahs and other artificial means of keeping up a free current of air; indeed, as a matter of fact, the habitability of places situated in the Tropics depends largely on the amount and continuity of the breeze.
As has already been remarked, the amount of dust present in the atmosphere depends mainly, in the first place, on dryness of the air, and in the second on the force of wind; but it is also a fact that under certain conditions, dependent probably on electrical manifestations, a very still atmosphere may yet carry in suspension a large amount of dust, and its presence may become inimical to health by causing irritation to the respiratory organs as well as to the eyes and lining membrane of the nostrils. This is specially liable to be the case when the suspended particles are sharp and angular, as in the case of the micaceous dust, with which, during the dry, hot weather, the air is often loaded in certain sub-Himalayan stations, producing in many persons soreness of the eyes and troublesome, dry cough.
Systematic observations on the amount of solid matter suspended in the air are as yet entirely wanting, but there can be little doubt that they would, if available, be valuable to the student of public health; for the high mortality among tradesfolk whose occupations involve the respiration of a constantly dusty atmosphere is thoroughly well known, and it is most improbable that what is true of dusty trades is not also true of dusty places.
Although generally admitted, especially as an article of popular belief, the influence of the varying electrical states of the atmosphere is as yet so ill-understood that nothing definite can be stated on the subject.
SECTION II.
On the Special Characteristics of the Climates of Certain Hot Countries.
There is perhaps no one topic of human conversation that comes in for more discussion than that of the weather, and yet it is no exaggeration to say that there is no other as to which exact information is so scanty or so little accessible, and it is believed that even the following scanty notes are more complete than can be found in any one work in the English language.
If the intending emigrant to foreign parts desires to find out something of the conditions under which he will find himself, he may perhaps, after much trouble, unearth some undigested data on the subject from the Agents-General of Colonies, &c.; but he will find it far easier to ascertain the amount of piece goods bought by the “Borrioula Gah” tribe than the mean temperature of their capital; and, practically speaking, the only library containing anything approaching an adequate collection of the literature of the subject is that of the Royal Meteorological Society, to whom and to their courteous librarian, Mr. W. Marriott, my best thanks are due for their ready assistance in the compilation of the present chapter. Owing to the very varied sources from which the information has been drawn, any attempt at close uniformity of treatment is out of the question, but wherever possible the data given comprise the average mean, mean maximum and mean minimum temperatures, the rainfall, number of rainy days, and average relative humidity for each month of the year.
When possible, the figures given are the averages of several years, but in many cases they refer to a single year only, being derived from isolated observations or from series which have not as yet been collated by a meteorological expert. No barometric data have been included, as they have little interest for any but specialists, and a study of those given will be found quite sufficient to enable anyone to judge with what sort of an outfit he should provide himself. It will be, for example, quite obvious that it is quite useless to take a mackintosh coat to Wadi Halfa, if anyone will glance at the table given for that favoured (?) locality. In some cases the maximum and minimum temperatures tabulated are not the mean, but the absolute maxima and minima, and therefore represent only exceptional experiences and not what one may fairly expect. It must be clearly understood, too, that absolute and mean data are in no sense comparable, as the latter will always lie several degrees within the former; but in the present state of meteorological science one has to be thankful for what one can get, and this, in the case of most of the less advanced countries, is remarkably little.
The plan of the following notes is to make a sort of climatic tour round the globe, but it is obvious that it is impossible within the scope of a work like the present to describe more than a few widely distant examples, so that it is not even possible to include all our tropical colonies; but it is hoped that those given will suffice to give a general idea of what may be expected in most parts of the world. With few exceptions all data are given both in the English and in the metric systems.
The Mediterranean Basin.
—None of the countries comprising the European shores of this basin can be said to come well under the heading of “hot countries,” and those on the African shore are of interest rather as winter health resorts than as tropical places of residence. The first of these that requires notice is—
Algeria.
—Situated in lat. 37° N., within a couple of days’ steaming from Marseilles, this pleasant French colony is much the most easily accessible sub-tropical health station for the whole of western Europe, and forms an excellent resort for persons who find themselves unable to withstand the rigours of a northern winter. Thanks to the French talent in municipal organisation, the traveller finds himself at once among the novel sights and sounds of civilisation of the Oriental type, and yet surrounded with all the comforts and amenities of a fine European town. Few health-seekers venture far from the coast, though there must be many places in the interior that would be well suited for early cases of consumption, as the air of the coast is perhaps too “relaxing” for some cases of the sort. For the north coast of Africa, the rainfall is considerable, but in spite of this, on the average, the air is generally dry, as evidenced by the low average relative humidity.
The country may be divided into four zones, which present great differences of climate.
(1) A narrow littoral zone of low ground, often only a few miles wide. Most of the ports face eastward and are well sheltered by the neighbouring hills.
(2) The Tel, composed of plains and elevated mountain masses cut up by deep valleys, at the bottom of which are torrents which are dry for the greater part of the year.
(3) A high plateau of triangular form about 140 miles wide; intensely dry, but with scattered salt marshes which dry up during the summer.
(4) The Sahara, an immense sandy basin absolutely devoid of water-courses except quite to the north.
The following table of mean temperatures will give some idea of the degree of heat that is met with throughout the year in these different regions:—
| Monthly Mean Temperature of Algerian Stations Situated in the FourAbove-mentioned Zones. | ||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Station | E.F. | E.M. | January | February | March | April | May | June | ||||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | |||
| Algiers (on the coast) | 68 | 22 | 53·8 | 12·1 | 54·6 | 12·6 | 57·0 | 13·9 | 61·4 | 16·3 | 66·1 | 19·0 | 72·2 | 22·3 |
| Orleansville (on the low “Tel”) | 390 | 119 | 48·3 | 9·1 | 50·2 | 10·1 | 54·2 | 12·3 | 61·7 | 16·3 | 68·4 | 20·2 | 77·9 | 25·5 |
| Térriet el Haad (on the high “Tel”) | 3,700 | 1,125 | 41·0 | 5·0 | 43·0 | 6·1 | 47·5 | 8·6 | 52·3 | 11·2 | 59·6 | 15·4 | 69·8 | 21·0 |
| Géryville (on the high plateau) | 4,300 | 1,310 | 37·5 | 3·1 | 40·2 | 4·5 | 45·5 | 7·5 | 52·8 | 11·6 | 63·8 | 17·7 | 74·0 | 22·2 |
| Biskra (Sahara) | 410 | 125 | 50·2 | 10·1 | 54·3 | 12·4 | 57·0 | 13·9 | 66·0 | 18·9 | 76·0 | 24·4 | 84·4 | 29·1 |
| Station | July | August | September | October | November | December | Year | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | |
| Algiers | 76·0 | 24·4 | 77·0 | 25·0 | 74·2 | 23·4 | 67·5 | 19·7 | 60·5 | 15·8 | 54·9 | 12·7 | 64·5 | 18·1 |
| Orleansville | 85·0 | 29·4 | 85·7 | 29·8 | 77·2 | 25·1 | 66·7 | 19·3 | 56·7 | 13·7 | 49·9 | 9·9 | 65·2 | 18·4 |
| Térriet el Haad | 77·4 | 25·2 | 78·7 | 25·9 | 68·0 | 20·0 | 58·3 | 14·6 | 49·9 | 9·9 | 43·5 | 6·4 | 57·3 | 14·1 |
| Géryville | 79·7 | 26·5 | 79·7 | 26·5 | 68·5 | 20·3 | 56·7 | 13·7 | 46·5 | 8·1 | 39·8 | 4·3 | 56·7 | 13·7 |
| Biskra | 90·0 | 32·2 | 90·0 | 32·2 | 80·2 | 26·8 | 68·0 | 20·0 | 57·7 | 14·3 | 51·5 | 10·8 | 68·5 | 20·3 |
| Monthly Mean Temperature of Algerian Stations Situated in the FourAbove-mentioned Zones. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Station | E.F. | E.M. | January | February | March | April | May | June | July | August | September | October | November | December | Year | |||||||||||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | |||
| Algiers (on the coast) | 68 | 22 | 53·8 | 12·1 | 54·6 | 12·6 | 57·0 | 13·9 | 61·4 | 16·3 | 66·1 | 19·0 | 72·2 | 22·3 | 76·0 | 24·4 | 77·0 | 25·0 | 74·2 | 23·4 | 67·5 | 19·7 | 60·5 | 15·8 | 54·9 | 12·7 | 64·5 | 18·1 |
| Orleansville (on the low “Tel”) | 390 | 119 | 48·3 | 9·1 | 50·2 | 10·1 | 54·2 | 12·3 | 61·7 | 16·3 | 68·4 | 20·2 | 77·9 | 25·5 | 85·0 | 29·4 | 85·7 | 29·8 | 77·2 | 25·1 | 66·7 | 19·3 | 56·7 | 13·7 | 49·9 | 9·9 | 65·2 | 18·4 |
| Térriet el Haad (on the high “Tel”) | 3,700 | 1,125 | 41·0 | 5·0 | 43·0 | 6·1 | 47·5 | 8·6 | 52·3 | 11·2 | 59·6 | 15·4 | 69·8 | 21·0 | 77·4 | 25·2 | 78·7 | 25·9 | 68·0 | 20·0 | 58·3 | 14·6 | 49·9 | 9·9 | 43·5 | 6·4 | 57·3 | 14·1 |
| Géryville (on the high plateau) | 4,300 | 1,310 | 37·5 | 3·1 | 40·2 | 4·5 | 45·5 | 7·5 | 52·8 | 11·6 | 63·8 | 17·7 | 74·0 | 22·2 | 79·7 | 26·5 | 79·7 | 26·5 | 68·5 | 20·3 | 56·7 | 13·7 | 46·5 | 8·1 | 39·8 | 4·3 | 56·7 | 13·7 |
| Biskra (Sahara) | 410 | 125 | 50·2 | 10·1 | 54·3 | 12·4 | 57·0 | 13·9 | 66·0 | 18·9 | 76·0 | 24·4 | 84·4 | 29·1 | 90·0 | 32·2 | 90·0 | 32·2 | 80·2 | 26·8 | 68·0 | 20·0 | 57·7 | 14·3 | 51·5 | 10·8 | 68·5 | 20·3 |
Note.—In this and all following tables, F. stands for degrees Fahrenheit; C. for degrees Centigrade; E.F., elevation above the sea in feet; E.M., the same expressed in metres; Ins., inches, English; Mm., millimetres.
The character of the climate of the capital, which may be considered typical of the coast health resorts, may be gathered from the following table:—
| Algiers. Lat. 33° 47′ N.;Long. 0° 44′ E. E.F. 105; E.M. 33·5. | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Mean Temperature | Mean Maximum Temperature | Mean Minimum Temperature | Relative Humidity | Rainfall | Number of Rainy Days | ||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | |||
| January | 56·0 | 13·3 | 62·7 | 17·0 | 50·2 | 10·1 | 60 | 3·25 | 82·5 | 16 |
| February | 61·3 | 16·3 | 70·2 | 21·2 | 54·8 | 12·7 | 61 | 3·17 | 80·6 | 9 |
| March | 57·2 | 14·0 | 64·5 | 18·1 | 51·5 | 10·8 | 62 | 3·14 | 79·1 | 15 |
| April | 60·5 | 15·8 | 67·8 | 19·9 | 54·2 | 12·3 | 65 | 3·46 | 88·4 | 10 |
| May | 66·7 | 19·3 | 74·7 | 23·7 | 60·2 | 15·7 | 62 | 3·53 | 89·2 | 6 |
| June | 72·5 | 22·5 | 79·7 | 26·5 | 66·7 | 19·3 | 71 | 0·75 | 19·1 | 6 |
| July | 75·8 | 24·1 | 83·0 | 28·3 | 68·5 | 20·3 | 68 | 0·70 | 17·2 | 2 |
| August | 77·0 | 25·0 | 84·3 | 29·1 | 70·0 | 21·1 | 67 | 0·20 | 4·9 | 4 |
| September | 75·5 | 24·2 | 83·2 | 28·4 | 70·3 | 21·3 | 73 | 0·28 | 7·1 | 9 |
| October | 71·2 | 21·8 | 79·2 | 26·2 | 66·0 | 18·9 | 72 | 1·52 | 38·6 | 11 |
| November | 59·8 | 15·5 | 67·3 | 19·6 | 55·7 | 13·2 | 70 | 9·0 | 228·3 | 22 |
| December | 56·8 | 13·8 | 67·5 | 19·7 | 51·7 | 10·9 | 69 | 1·65 | 42·0 | 7 |
| Year | 65·8 | 18·8 | 73·2 | 22·9 | 59·8 | 15·5 | 66·7 | 30·5 | 777·0 | 117 |
From this it may be seen that Algiers possesses a very desirable climate all the year round, though a trifle too rainy in late autumn.
The figures are those of the year 1901, as the French Government does not appear to have furnished the library with mean normal results.
Malta.
—Owing to the large number of our officers and men serving there, the climate of this small island, which is delightful during the winter, is of interest to many, but it perhaps barely merits the name of a hot climate. While resembling in some respects the climate of southern Italy, it approximates more closely to that of northern Africa, the rainfall being very scanty.
The following are the principal climatic data:—
| Valetta. Lat. 35° 54′ N.; Long. 14° 30′ E.; nearSea Level. | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Months | Mean Maximum Temperature | Mean Minimum Temperature | Relative Humidity | Rainfall | Remarks | |||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | % | Ins. | Mm. | ||
| January | 60·2 | 15·7 | 50·1 | 10·0 | 78 | 5·51 | 139·7 | Total Annual Rainfall, 17·1 ins., or 40·3 cm. |
| February | 63·0 | 17·2 | 50·3 | 10·2 | 79 | 1·04 | 26·2 | |
| March | 63·4 | 16·8 | 49·8 | 9·9 | 73 | 1·04 | 26·2 | |
| April | 65·6 | 18·5 | 52·4 | 11·3 | 78 | 2·18 | 55·2 | |
| May | 72·3 | 22·4 | 59·1 | 15·0 | 78 | 0·55 | 14·0 | |
| June | 80·7 | 27·0 | 64·9 | 18·3 | 72 | 0·38 | 10·0 | |
| July | 88·0 | 31·1 | 70·6 | 21·3 | 70 | 0·00 | 0·0 | |
| August | 84·9 | 29·4 | 70·7 | 21·4 | 77 | 0·02 | 0·1 | |
| September | 83·3 | 28·5 | 68·7 | 20·4 | 77 | 0·10 | 2·5 | |
| October | 81·7 | 27·5 | 67·3 | 19·8 | 78 | 0·60 | 15·2 | |
| November | 71·1 | 21·7 | 59·0 | 15·0 | 83 | 3·64 | 92·5 | |
| December | 62·6 | 16·8 | 52·2 | 11·2 | 85 | 1·04 | 26·2 | |
During the summer, periods of hot dry winds blowing from the burning African deserts are somewhat trying, but these do not, as a rule, last for many consecutive days, and on the whole the climate is not unhealthy.
A peculiar infective fever, commonly known as “Malta fever,” but also met with in other parts of the Mediterranean littoral, as well as in India, and very troublesome on account of its obstinate tendency to relapse, is the most serious drawback in the matter of disease, but under improving modern sanitation the disease is yearly becoming less common.
The climate of the Syrian coast is very similar, but somewhat warmer, with a heavier rainfall; so also is that of Algiers and the North African coast generally, there being, however, mostly a wider range between the hottest and coldest months than in the purely insular Malta. Malaria, dysentery, and other tropical diseases are not uncommon, but seldom either widely spread or particularly virulent. As we leave the coast, the range of temperature, both annual and diurnal, rapidly increases, and is especially marked in the highlands of Asia Minor, as, for example, at Erzerum, where the temperature in January falls as low as -20° F. (-29° C.), and in summer may exceed 90° F. (31° C.).
Cyprus.
—Long. 32° 20′ to 34° 35′ E; lat. 34° 33′ to 35° 41′ N. Our administrative connection with this island, and the circumstance that it has of late been strongly recommended as a fairly stimulating winter health resort for delicate people, and especially for cases of chest diseases and others, make it desirable to include an account of it within our list.
The following are the principal climatic data:—
| Nikosia, on Central Plain. | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Months | Mean Maximum Temperature | Mean Minimum Temperature | Relative Humidity | Rainfall | Number of Rainy Days | |||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | % | Ins. | Mm. | ||
| January | 73·4 | 23·0 | 32·3 | 0·2 | 84 | 4·0 | 101 | 11·8 |
| February | 70·7 | 21·5 | 31·8 | 0·1 | 84 | 3·70 | 94 | 11·8 |
| March | 76·5 | 24·7 | 36·4 | 2·4 | 81 | 1·23 | 31 | 7·4 |
| April | 84·5 | 29·2 | 38·8 | 3·8 | 78 | 1·14 | 29 | 4·5 |
| May | 90·4 | 32·4 | 46·2 | 7·9 | 74 | 0·63 | 16 | 4·3 |
| June | 100·0 | 37·8 | 52·4 | 11·3 | 67 | 0·39 | 10 | 1·4 |
| July | 100·7 | 38·3 | 55·5 | 13·1 | 68 | 0·13 | 3 | 0·3 |
| August | 103·0 | 39·4 | 57·2 | 14·0 | 66 | 0·8 | 20 | 0·5 |
| September | 100·5 | 38·1 | 54·4 | 12·3 | 73 | 0·04 | 1 | 0·6 |
| October | 93·5 | 34·2 | 47·7 | 8·7 | 76 | 0·36 | 9 | 2·3 |
| November | 84·5 | 29·0 | 39·3 | 4·1 | 82 | 1·97 | 50 | 6·5 |
| December | 77·5 | 25·3 | 34·0 | 1·1 | 85 | 2·31 | 59 | 7·8 |
The climate is somewhat cooler in summer on the coast, and the rainfall slightly higher, but with a smaller number of rainy days.
The island is mountainous; a great mass of hills occupying the greater part of the southern half, and reaching an elevation of over 6,400 feet at Mount Troödos, where a summer sanatorium has been established. A lower range of hills fringes the entire northern shore, and between the two is a central plain, on the highest part of which, at an elevation of about 500 feet, is situated the capital, Nikosia. These hills shelter the central plain from the bitter winds of the Taurus range in Asia Minor during winter, but, on the other hand, cut off the cooling sea-breezes in summer. For eight months in the year the rainfall is inappreciable, and the summer appearance of the plains arid in the extreme, but the advent of the winter rains in October changes the scene to one of the greatest fertility. The hill country, on the other hand, is generally well-clothed with pine-forests, and enjoys, during the summer, a very pleasant climate. At Nikosia the mean temperature of the year is 67·2°, the extreme maximum being 108°, and the minimum 28°, showing the large range of 80°.
At the hill station on Mount Troödos, at an elevation of 5,000 feet, the excessive heat of the plains is entirely avoided. The season there opens in June and closes in October, the temperature never exceeding 85° F. in 1901. The following table shows the great gain in coolness:—
| Mean Temperatures, Fahrenheit. | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| 1901 | Nikosia | Troödos | Difference |
| June | 77·2° | 61·7° | 15·5° |
| July | 83·7° | 71·7° | 12·0° |
| August | 83·3° | 68·2° | 15·1° |
| September | 78·8° | 61·6° | 17·2° |
During the greater part of the year the wind is usually from the north-west, but during the coldest part of the winter is usually from the east. It will be noticed that the general characters of the climate are rather those of a Continental than of an insular situation. The air is almost always highly charged with electricity, and there is comparatively little malaria or other specially tropical diseases.
Egypt.
—The climate of this country is, even from the all-the-year-round point of view, one of the finest in the world, and hence its well-deserved popularity as a winter health resort. Apart from the “Khamseen,” which those used to Indian hot weather might esteem a change for the better, its one drawback is what may be termed the co-efficient of rapacity of its hotel-keepers; as for the casual visitor, it is certainly an expensive country.
With endless sights of antiquarian interest, and a gay cosmopolitan society, there is little chance of boredom for either the studious or frivolous, and with the possible exception of California, no climate affords a better combination of warmth and sunlight, with a clean, stimulating atmosphere. It owes this to its peculiar geographical characters, for although it includes on the map a large area, the actually inhabited portion consists of only a narrow strip, a few miles wide, on either side of the Nile; as all the land beyond the reach of the annual overflow of the river, which is at its maximum in September, and lowest in June, is absolute desert, the intense dryness of which is necessarily fatal to all forms of vegetable life, including the organic germs of disease. On this account, even in the middle of the cultivated strip, the air has never been fouled by passing over any considerable extent of habitations and cultivation, with their inevitable emanations, but must always come, almost fresh and germ-free, from the illimitable expanse of sand and rock that immediately succeeds the narrow band of river alluvium.
Dr. Dalrymple, one of the earliest writers on the subject, remarks, “It is scarcely possible to imagine anything more invigorating and life-giving than the air of the desert; there is a dryness and elasticity about it like nothing else, and the sense of renovation when breathing it is, to the languid invalid, like a new lease of life.”
Both he and Dr. Sandwith, from whose excellent “Egypt as a Winter Resort” the following tables are taken, seem agreed as to its suitability for all cases of chest disease that have not gone too far to be amendable to climatic treatment of any sort, and Dr. Sandwith finds it also suitable for such cases of heart and kidney affections as are unfavourably affected by cold; while the sulphur baths of Helouan have been found remarkably useful in the chronic forms of rheumatoid arthritis, rheumatism and gout.
The main characteristic of the climate is its intense dryness. Even on the coast at Alexandria, the rainfall is but trifling, and above Cairo it may almost be neglected; but in spite of this even during the hottest months the climate is quite bearable. “Northern rooms, if closed in good time, need never exceed 83° in the hot weather, or fall below 52° in the cold season, provided the sun-warmed air be allowed free entry.” The prevailing wind is a gentle breeze from the north, but both at Cairo and Alexandria, during the fifty days about Easter-time, a peculiar dust-laden wind, highly charged with electricity, and known as “the Khamseen,” blows at intervals. It is very disagreeable while it lasts, the dust sometimes obscuring the sun almost as completely as a London fog, but it rarely persists more than two days at a time, and does not usually occur more than three or four times in a season. The following tables will give a good general idea of the climate:—
| Alexandria. Lat. 31° 13′ N.;Long. 26° 53′ E. E.F., 66 ft. | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Temperature, F. | Relative Humidity % | Rain in Inches | Clouds, 0-10 | Winds | |||
| Mean | Mean Maxima | Mean Minima | Direc- tion | Force, 0-10 | ||||
| January | 58·1 | 64·0 | 53·2 | 67 | 2·33 | 4 | N. | 2·5 |
| February | 58·6 | 64·2 | 54·0 | 65 | 1·43 | 4 | N.W. | 2·5 |
| March | 61·6 | 68·0 | 56·0 | 65 | ·78 | 3 | N.W. | 2·7 |
| April | 66·0 | 73·0 | 60·6 | 66 | ·12 | 2 | N. | 2·5 |
| May | 70·0 | 75·4 | 65·6 | 70 | ·03 | 2 | N. | 2·2 |
| June | 75·0 | 79·6 | 71·2 | 72 | — | 1 | N. | 2·3 |
| July | 77·6 | 81·2 | 74·8 | 75 | — | 1 | N.N.W. | 2·4 |
| August | 79·0 | 82·4 | 76·1 | 73 | — | 1 | N. | 2·0 |
| September | 77·4 | 81·2 | 74·3 | 69 | ·11 | 2 | N. | 2·3 |
| October | 74·6 | 79·2 | 70·6 | 68 | ·33 | 2 | N. | 2·1 |
| November | 68·2 | 73·4 | 64·0 | 67 | 1·32 | 3 | N. | 2·2 |
| December | 62·0 | 67·8 | 57·0 | 67 | 1·79 | 4 | N. | 2·4 |
| Annual | 69·0 | 74·1 | 64·8 | 68·6 | 8·24 | 2·4 | N. | 2·3 |
| Cairo. Lat. 30° 4′ N.;Long. 31° 15′ E. E.F., 108. | ||||||||
| Month | Temperature, F. | Relative Humidity % | Rain in Inches | Clouds, 0-10 | Wind | |||
| Mean | Mean Maxima | Mean Minima | Direc- tion | Force, 0-10 | ||||
| January | 53·6 | 61·4 | 46·6 | 69·7 | ·19 | 4·1 | S.W. | 2·2 |
| February | 57·0 | 65·3 | 48·8 | 66·2 | ·24 | 4·2 | N. | 1·4 |
| March | 62·8 | 73·2 | 53·0 | 56·2 | ·03 | 3·4 | N. | 2·5 |
| April | 70·4 | 81·2 | 59·9 | 47·8 | ·12 | 3·4 | N. | 2·6 |
| May | 75·2 | 86·8 | 63·4 | 48·4 | ·22 | 2·3 | N. | 2·8 |
| June | 82·6 | 94·7 | 70·2 | 44·0 | ·02 | 1·0 | N. | 3·0 |
| July | 83·8 | 93·0 | 72·2 | 49·0 | — | 1·2 | N. | 4·3 |
| August | 82·2 | 92·9 | 71·4 | 55·3 | — | 1·6 | N. | 4·1 |
| September | 77·8 | 87·5 | 68·0 | 62·1 | — | 1·8 | N. | 4·3 |
| October | 74·3 | 84·0 | 64·8 | 65·8 | — | 2·5 | N. | 3·2 |
| November | 64·4 | 74·2 | 56·3 | 67·5 | ·21 | 3·0 | N. | 2·1 |
| December | 58·4 | 67·7 | 50·4 | 69·6 | ·19 | 3·7 | N. | 2·2 |
| Year | 70·2 | 80·1 | 60·4 | 58·46 | 1·22 | 2·6 | N. | 2·9 |
| Luxor. Lat. 25° 40′ N.;Long. 32° 35′ E. E.F., 292. Winter Climate. | ||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Temperature, F. | Relative Humidity | Rain in Inches | Clouds, 0-10 | Wind | |||||||||
| Mean | Mean of Maxima | Mean of Minima | % | Direc- tion | Force | |||||||||
| November | — | 78·99 | 62·1 | — | N i l . | — | S.W. | 1·0 | ||||||
| December | — | 70·0 | 53·6 | — | — | N.E. | 1·8 | |||||||
| January | 56·7 | 65·1 | 41·3 | 53·2 | 2·9 | N.W. | 1·0 | |||||||
| February | 62·6 | 70·6 | 42·4 | 51·0 | 1·9 | N.W. | 1·1 | |||||||
| March | 66·9 | 80·1 | 47·6 | 45·0 | 2·1 | - | N.W. | - | 0·7 | |||||
| N.E. | ||||||||||||||
Assouan
, 133 miles further up the Nile, has a winter climate which is said to be almost 5° F. higher than Luxor, and to be freer from dust-storms. The building of the great dam and the large artificial lake which has been thus formed can hardly fail to modify the climate, so that it is hardly worth while reproducing Dr. Sandwith’s table.
For the rest, the whole of Egypt up to this latitude may be said to be very healthy for Europeans, there being much less malaria than one would be inclined to expect as a consequence of the annual overflowing of the Nile; a circumstance which may, I believe, be attributed to the generally neat character of the cultivation, and the care with which every square yard of cultivable soil is utilised. Internal worms are, however, extremely common amongst the natives, but care in the matter of drinking water will render the risk run by the European very trifling.
Another terribly common disease amongst the natives is granular ophthalmia, a disease easily acquired by contact, or indirectly through the agency of flies, but Dr. Sandwith finds that it is extremely rarely taken by Europeans, though soreness of the eyes from dust and glare is not uncommon, for which he recommends the daily use of a little boracic solution as a toilet wash. It might, however, be perhaps advisable to protect young children by means of a veil when abroad, especially when entrusted to the care of a native attendant.
The Remainder of the African Continent.
—Our knowledge of African meteorology is necessarily in its infancy, and it is only possible to furnish a few tables of widely distant parts of this immense area, which may give some idea of its climatic characters. The whole of the northern part of the continent is extremely dry, much of it being quite rainless, especially towards its eastern side. Following on this is the equatorial belt, a great portion of which is barely, if at all, explored, but which seems to usually present the general characters of such latitudes and to be usually blessed with an ample rainfall across the entire width of the continent. Southward of the equatorial zone we again meet with immense dry and desert areas, such as the Karoo, but here it is the western side that is the more arid, none of the south-eastern coast being in any sense rainless.
Malaria is extremely rife in almost all parts of the huge peninsula, and in addition to this we have in “Blackwater fever” and sleeping sickness, diseases which seem to be at present its own peculiar privilege, though, fortunately, yellow fever is not as yet included in its list of dangers. The low-lying country along the coast and of the great rivers is notoriously unhealthy, such as the Bight of Benin, where, according to the sailor’s proverb,
“There’s two comes out
Where three goes in.”
But inland there are considerable tracts of elevated country which present climates by no means to be despised, and which will no doubt in time, with the advance of civilisation, become eligible and healthy sites for European occupation, and more than one example of climatic conditions that appear decidedly inviting will be found amongst the tables furnished below.
An example of the climate of the Sahara has already been furnished in the notice of Algeria, and in the northern part of the continent the only other at all well-known climate (apart from Egypt) is the Soudan.
Practically rainless in parts, the climate is intensely hot and dry, the relative humidity showing one of the lowest records in our collection; but as the equatorial zone is approached a moderate rainfall develops, and throughout the region the large daily range of temperature results in the nights being comparatively cool, and therefore less trying than many parts of India. The northern portion is too dry to be very unhealthy, apart from the danger of abdominal chills, but as we ascend the Nile it expands into the immense marshes described by Baker and others, which are necessarily intensely malarious, while round the great lakes the sleeping sickness, previously rare or unknown there, is spreading rapidly.
Commencing with the dry Soudanese region, climatic tables of three stations will be found below, the first and most northern of which, it will be seen, is practically rainless. The figures of the first table are averages of ten years’ observations.
| Wadi Halfa. Lat. 21° 55′ N.;Long. 31° 19′ E. E.F., 590; E.M., 128. | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Mean Temperature | Mean Maximum Temperature | Mean Minimum Temperature | Relative Humidity | Rainfall | ||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | At 9 h. | At 21 h. | ||
| January | 59·4 | 15·2 | 73.7 | 23·2 | 47·5 | 8·6 | 42 | 44 | Prac- tically nil. Drops re- corded 15 times in 10 years |
| February | 62·6 | 17·0 | 77·2 | 25·1 | 48·4 | 9·1 | 39 | 36 | |
| March | 71·5 | 21·9 | 87·5 | 30·8 | 56·5 | 13·6 | 30 | 30 | |
| April | 80·5 | 26·9 | 95·8 | 35·5 | 63·7 | 17·6 | 23 | 24 | |
| May | 87·8 | 31·0 | 104·3 | 40·2 | 70·5 | 21·4 | 17 | 19 | |
| June | 90·7 | 32·6 | 106·7 | 41·6 | 74·4 | 23·5 | 20 | 22 | |
| July | 90·5 | 32·5 | 105·7 | 40·9 | 74·5 | 23·6 | 23 | 30 | |
| August | 90·0 | 32·2 | 103·5 | 39·7 | 75·0 | 23·9 | 31 | 34 | |
| September | 88·7 | 31·4 | 99·6 | 37·6 | 73·5 | 23·1 | 35 | 38 | |
| October | 82·5 | 28·1 | 97·2 | 36·2 | 69·0 | 20·6 | 37 | 10 | |
| November | 70·7 | 21·8 | 85·0 | 29·4 | 58·7 | 14·8 | 41 | 43 | |
| December | 63·0 | 17·2 | 76·6 | 24·7 | 51·0 | 10·6 | 45 | 45 | |
| Year | 78·0 | 25·6 | 92·9 | 33·8 | 63·5 | 17·8 | — | — | |
The two remaining tables are for the year 1901, and are not even complete in places. Kassala is, of course, much nearer the sea than Omdurman, and hence its better rainfall.
| Omdurman. Lat. 15° 38′; Long. 32° 29′. E.F.,1,250; E.M., 376. | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Mean Temperature | Mean Maximum Temperature | Mean Minimum Temperature | Relative Humidity | Rainfall | ||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | ||
| January | 72·9 | 22·7 | 88·5 | 31·4 | 62·6 | 17·0 | 24 | — | — |
| February | 79·9 | 26·3 | 94·5 | 34·7 | 70·2 | 21·2 | 28 | — | — |
| March | 82·7 | 28·2 | 99·7 | 37·6 | — | — | 19 | — | — |
| April | 87·5 | 30·8 | 103·7 | 39·8 | 72·5 | 22·5 | 14 | — | — |
| May | 93·0 | 33·9 | 112·0 | 42·4 | 79·0 | 26·1 | 20 | — | — |
| June | 89·9 | 32·1 | 106·2 | 41·2 | 77·4 | 25·2 | 46 | 0·63 | 16·1 |
| July | 90·4 | 32·4 | 103·9 | 39·9 | 79·3 | 26·3 | 48 | 0·50 | 12·8 |
| August | 87·0 | 30·6 | 99·0 | 37·2 | 77·7 | 25·5 | 58 | 0·13 | 3·3 |
| September | 90·4 | 32·4 | 104·5 | 40·3 | 81·0 | 27·2 | 40 | — | — |
| October | 89·9 | 32·1 | 103·2 | 39·5 | 79·5 | 26·4 | 30 | 0·32 | 8·0 |
| November | 82·4 | 28·0 | 96·7 | 35·9 | 72·4 | 22·4 | 24 | — | — |
| December | 76·2 | 24·5 | 91·2 | 32·9 | 65·5 | 18·6 | 28 | — | — |
| Year | 85·2 | 29·5 | 99·9 | 37·7 | 74·4 | 23·5 | 32 | 1·58 | 40·2 |
| Kassala. Lat. 15° 28′ N.; Long. 36° 24′ E. | |||||||||
| Month | Mean Temperature | Mean Maximum Temperature | Mean Minimum Temperature | Relative Humidity | Rainfall | ||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | ||
| January | 72·6 | 22·6 | 86·4 | 30·2 | 58·9 | 14·9 | — | Drops | |
| February | — | — | 95·6 | 35·4 | — | — | — | — | — |
| March | 82·0 | 27·8 | 100·5 | 38·1 | 68·1 | 20·1 | 51 | — | — |
| April | 86·4 | 30·2 | 103·3 | 39·6 | 73·0 | 22·8 | 32 | 0·08 | 2·0 |
| May | 89·6 | 32·0 | 106·2 | 41·2 | 76·9 | 24·9 | 25 | 0·25 | 6·4 |
| June | 86·0 | 30·0 | 101·2 | 38·4 | 75·5 | 24·2 | 40 | 2·85 | 72·4 |
| July | 83·7 | 28·7 | 96·9 | 36·0 | 74·2 | 23·4 | 59 | 1·48 | 37·4 |
| August | 79·8 | 26·6 | 92·5 | 33·6 | 81·8 | 27·7 | 64 | 3·96 | 100·6 |
| September | — | — | 99·8 | 37·7 | 75·4 | 24·1 | — | 1·24 | 31·3 |
| October | — | — | 101·4 | 38·5 | 76·5 | 24·7 | — | — | — |
| November | — | — | 99·2 | 37·3 | 73·5 | 23·1 | — | — | — |
| December | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| Year | 83·0 | 28·3 | 98·5 | 36·9 | — | — | 40 | 9·84 | 250·1 |
Abyssinia.
—The greater part of the Ethiopian empire is high ground, and in many parts of the country the climate may almost be described as temperate, as may be judged from the following statement (derived from a French official source) of the climatic factors of the capital during the year 1901.
| Adis-Ababa. Lat. 9° 1′ N.;Long. 38° 43′ E. E.F., about 7,000. | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Mean Temperature | Mean Maximum Temperature | Mean Minimum Temperature | Relative Humidity | Rainfall | Number of Rainy Days | ||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | |||
| January | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| February | 55·4 | 18·0 | 73·4 | 23·0 | 47·9 | 8·8 | 81 | 2·15 | 54·6 | 8 |
| March | 58·0 | 14·4 | 75·7 | 24·3 | 50·4 | 10·2 | 83 | 5·23 | 132·7 | 10 |
| April | 58·4 | 14·6 | 74·2 | 23·3 | 51·4 | 10·7 | 86 | 4·39 | 111·1 | 11 |
| May | 60·9 | 16·0 | 78·5 | 25·8 | 52·7 | 11·5 | 74 | 1·36 | 34·7 | 4 |
| June | 57·5 | 14·2 | 72·3 | 22·4 | 49·7 | 9·8 | 72 | 8·36 | 212·3 | 30 |
| July | 56·0 | 13·3 | 69·0 | 20·6 | 49·7 | 9·8 | 80 | 10·10 | 256·5 | 30 |
| August | 60·2 | 15·7 | 69·0 | 20·6 | 50·0 | 10·0 | 79 | 9·46 | 240·1 | 28 |
| September | 63·0 | 17·2 | 73·5 | 23·1 | 49·8 | 9·9 | 66 | 5·48 | 139·2 | 14 |
| October | 61·5 | 16·4 | 77·2 | 25·1 | 46·5 | 8·1 | 37 | 0·60 | 15·2 | 3 |
| November | 60·0 | 15·6 | 77·0 | 25·0 | 44·5 | 6·9 | 28 | — | — | — |
| December | 57·2 | 14·0 | 74·4 | 23·5 | 44·3 | 6·7 | 39 | 0·54 | 13·5 | 3 |
| Year | 58·4 | 14·6 | 72·2 | 23·6 | 48·7 | 9·3 | 66 | 49·11 | 1247·5 | 141 |
The Region of the Great Lakes.
—Turning now to the great lakes of Central Africa, the following data from Hann’s “Klimatologie” may give some notion of the conditions prevailing.
In the Victoria Nyanza region (at E.F., 3,900; E.M., 1,200), according to E. G. Rauenstein, the mean annual temperature is 71·2° F. (21·8° C.), March 73·7° F. (23·2° C.), July 67·7° F. (19·8° C.), October 75·2° F. (24·0° C.), December 71·7° F. (22·0° C.). The extreme mean monthly maxima and minima (of January and February), 94° to 54° F. (34·4° to 12·2° C.), and the absolute maximum and minimum, 99·7° and 50·2° F. (37·7° and 10·1° C.).
The average rainfall for nine years was as follows:—
| Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apl. | May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | Year | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ins. | 2·5 | 3·3 | 3·7 | 4·8 | 4·2 | 3·4 | 2·5 | 3·3 | 4·8 | 4·8 | 5·3 | 3·2 | 40·6 |
| Mm. | 63 | 84 | 94 | 122 | 106 | 87 | 63 | 83 | 122 | 122 | 136 | 80 | 1,160 |
In the north (Uganda) the climate is warm and moist, though without excessive rainfall, but the air is a good deal drier along the southern coast.
In Tanganyika, in lat. 4° S., long. 29° E. (E.F., 2,670, E.M., 813), the mean annual temperature is 76·7° F. (24·8° C.), the mean of the hottest month (of October) being 81·7° F. (27·6° C.), and of the coolest, in December, 74·2° F. (23·4° C.), the extremes being 90·7° and 64·4° F. (32·6° and 18° C.). The rains occur in April and May and November and December, while from June to September is dry, the annual rainfall being 50 ins. (1,270 mm.).
Further south, Zoruba, in Nyassaland, has a total rainfall of 62·23 ins. (1,581 mm.), falling on 144 days in the year, but should otherwise be a pleasant climate, as the relative humidity is usually low.
| Zoruba. Lat. 16° S. E.F., 1800. E.M., 548. | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Temperature at 7 a.m. | Mean Monthly Maxima | Mean Monthly Minima | Relative Humidity at 2 p.m. | Rainfall | Number of Rainy Days | ||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | |||
| January | 69·8 | 21 | 81·2 | 27·3 | 65·9 | 18·9 | 78 | 11·62 | 295 | 27 |
| February | 66·7 | 19·3 | 77·6 | 25·3 | 63·7 | 17·6 | 74 | 15·42 | 391 | 20 |
| March | 66·7 | 19·3 | 78·9 | 26·1 | 64·7 | 18·2 | 90 | 7·60 | 193 | 23 |
| April | 64·4 | 18·1 | 75·4 | 24·2 | 61·7 | 16·5 | 76 | 11·74 | 298·5 | 14 |
| May | 61·1 | 16·1 | 76·9 | 25·0 | 58·0 | 14·4 | 65 | 0·37 | 9·0 | 7 |
| June | 57·1 | 13·9 | 68·4 | 20·3 | 54·4 | 12·5 | 66 | 2·55 | 64·8 | 12 |
| July | 55·0 | 12·8 | 68·8 | 20·5 | 52·9 | 11·7 | 65 | 0·87 | 21·8 | 6 |
| August | 55·4 | 13·1 | 71·4 | 21·9 | 52·3 | 11·3 | 51 | 0·15 | 3·8 | 4 |
| September | 62·7 | 17·0 | 79·0 | 26·1 | 58·1 | 14·4 | 48 | 1·80 | 45·7 | 4 |
| October | 68·5 | 20·3 | 85·4 | 29·7 | 62·6 | 16·9 | 53 | ·95 | 24·1 | 4 |
| November | 72·0 | 22·2 | 88·3 | 31·3 | 67·1 | 19·4 | 53 | ·35 | 8·9 | 4 |
| December | 73·2 | 23·0 | 83·6 | 28·6 | 65·6 | 18·6 | 66 | 8·81 | 223·8 | 19 |
The capital, Blantyre, at E.F., 3,280, E.M., 1,000, is naturally even cooler, but has a heavier rainfall, distributed as below:—
| Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apl. | May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ins. | 19·51 | 17·60 | 14·48 | 13·77 | 4·05 | 3·28 | 3·34 | 1·56 | 1·83 | 4·13 | 5·54 | 15·35 |
| Mm. | 484·6 | 447 | 368 | 349·5 | 102·9 | 83·7 | 85·1 | 39·5 | 46·8 | 105·3 | 140 | 390 |
The Congo Basin.
—The climate of the basin of the Congo is notoriously unhealthy, especially as the portion as yet opened up seldom extends far beyond the low malarious banks of the great river and its tributaries. The warmest month is February or March, and the coldest July or August.
Hann gives the following table of the temperatures of the following stations:—
| Station | Latitude | Mean Annual Temperature | Mean Temperature of Warmest Month | Mean Temperature of Coldest Month | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | |||
| Luluaberg | 5·9 | ° S. | 81·3 | 27·4 | 81·7 | 27·6 | 80·8 | 27·1 |
| Congo, mouth of | 6·0 | ° S. | 76·8 | 24·9 | 80·5 | 26·9 | 70·9 | 21·6 |
| Vivi | 5·7 | ° S. | 77·2 | 25·1 | 80·5 | 26·9 | 71·7 | 22·0 |
| San Salvador | 6·3 | ° S. | 77·9 | 25·5 | 81·0 | 27·2 | 72·8 | 22·7 |
| Brazzaville | 4·3 | ° S. | 81·2 | 27·3 | 84·7 | 29·3 | 75·2 | 24·0 |
| Bolobo | 2·2 | ° S. | 80·5 | 26·9 | 81·5 | 27·5 | 79·4 | 26·3 |
| Equatorville | 0·0 | 79·1 | 26·2 | 80·6 | 27·0 | 78·2 | 25·7 | |
| Bangala | 1·5 | ° N. | 78·9 | 26·0 | 80·8 | 27·1 | 77·7 | 25·4 |
These are typical equatorial climates, the greatest range between the means of the coldest and hottest months being at most 9·5° F. (5·3° C.), while in one case the range is less than one degree of the Fahrenheit scale, and though the temperatures are in no case excessive, the dampness of the atmosphere makes the heat of a very trying character, especially in certain localities, as at Stanley’s Pool, where during August and September there are certain peculiar night-winds which, not unfrequently, are the cause of cases of heat apoplexy, and this although the highest temperature recorded is but 97°, at Brazzaville.
There are two rainy seasons, in April and November. The dry period falls in June and July, but is not very marked in the interior.
The [table] on next page will give an idea of the amount and distribution of the rainfall.
On the West Coast
, at Bathurst, the highest temperature occurs in October, during the period of the greater rains, the annual extremes being 98·8° F. (37·1° C.) and 57·4° F. (14·1° C.); the greatest daily variation of temperature being met with during the dry season, January to April, when it amounts to about 20° F. (11·5° C.). The rainfall varied during eleven years from about 32 ins. (813 mm.) to 78 ins. (1,980 mm.). In December, a cool morning breeze known as the Harmattan sets in, and continues till February or March. The rains begin in June and end in September.
| Monthly Rainfall in the Congo Basin. | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Station. | |||||
| Congo, Mouth of | Lower Congo | Bolobo | ||||
| Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | |
| January | 3·70 | 94 | 2·93 | 74 | 5·0 | 127 |
| February | 3·12 | 79 | 3·87 | 98 | 6·97 | 177 |
| March | 4·09 | 104 | 4·73 | 120 | 4·61 | 117 |
| April | 3·86 | 98 | 8·87 | 225 | 7·17 | 182 |
| May | 2·98 | 76 | 2·84 | 72 | 5·64 | 143 |
| June | 0·23 | 6 | 0·19 | 5 | 0·39 | 10 |
| July | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0·04 | 1 |
| August | 0·08 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2·60 | 66 |
| September | 0·16 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 3·98 | 101 |
| October | 0·48 | 12 | 2·17 | 55 | 6·54 | 166 |
| November | 3·95 | 100 | 8·31 | 211 | 9·58 | 243 |
| December | 2·28 | 58 | 4·64 | 118 | 10·80 | 260 |
| Year | 24·95 | 633 | 39·85 | 1,008 | 62·7 | 1,593 |
At Sierra Leone
, in spite of its lying north of the equator, the distribution of the monthly temperature resembles that of the Southern Hemisphere, the minimum falling in August, while the hot season lasts from February to May. The mean annual temperature is 77·6° F. (25·4° C.), and the average annual extreme temperatures 97·5° F. (36·4° C.) and 64·8° F. (18·2° C.). No month is absolutely rainless, and the annual rainfall is very heavy, ranging from 100 ins. (2,540 mm.) to 204·5 ins. (5,230 mm.).
Curiously enough, the Cape Verd Islands are very dry, although they agree generally as to temperature with the coast, tempered by their insular position and the influence of the trade wind, having a rainfall of only about 10 ins. (260 mm.), the most rainy month being September.
Gulf of Guinea.
—Along this coast there is a double rainy season; the greater from March to the end of July, and the lesser in October and November; with the dry season in August and September, and the cool Harmattan blowing between November and March. In speaking of the Harmattan as a cool breeze, it must be remembered that one refers only to the sensations produced by it; for as a matter of fact, it has no appreciable effect on the mean temperature, and feels cool only by virtue of the accelerated evaporation from the skin caused by its intense dryness. On the coast it really raises the mid-day temperatures, although it renders the mornings and evenings cooler. In the interior the Harmattan may figure indeed as a hot wind, and may be additionally disagreeable on account of the red dust it carries.
The rainfall is everywhere very heavy, that of the Cameroon district reaching the enormous figure of 350 ins. (8,970 mm.), the second greatest in the world.
The mean annual temperature is about 77° F. (25° C.), with annual extremes of 89·6° F. (32° C.) and 68° F. (20° C).
The following table of the climatic data for the coast of British Nigeria will give a fair idea of the conditions that will be met with in the coast towns of the group of colonies in this region:—
| Old Calabar. Lat. 4° 58′ N.; Long. 8° 17′ E. | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Mean Monthly Temperature | Mean Monthly Maxima | Mean Monthly Minima | Relative Humidity Per cent. | Rainfall | Number of Rainy Days | ||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | |||
| January | 83·4 | 28·6 | 90 | 32·2 | 68 | 20·0 | 78·8 | 2·68 | 68·1 | 1 |
| February | 86·5 | 30·3 | 94 | 34·4 | 72 | 22·2 | 78·1 | 6·69 | 170·0 | 5 |
| March | 84·8 | 29·2 | 94 | 34·4 | 71 | 21·7 | 81·6 | 7·70 | 195·6 | 8 |
| April | 85·5 | 29·7 | 93 | 33·9 | 71 | 21·7 | 75·8 | 11·01 | 279·5 | 10 |
| May | 81·9 | 27·8 | 94 | 34·4 | 75 | 23·9 | 77·6 | 10·95 | 279·0 | 19 |
| June | 80·8 | 27·0 | 92 | 33·3 | 71 | 21·7 | 84·4 | 32·59 | 827·0 | 22 |
| July | 77·9 | 25·5 | 90 | 32·2 | 70 | 21·1 | 85·8 | 13·61 | 345·4 | 25 |
| August | 77·1 | 25·0 | 86 | 30·0 | 70 | 21·1 | 88·2 | 6·39 | 162·4 | 15 |
| September | 80·8 | 27·0 | 92 | 33·3 | 70 | 21·1 | 85·7 | 11·84 | 300·0 | 25 |
| October | 82·3 | 28·0 | 91 | 32·8 | 70 | 21·1 | 83·6 | 9·38 | 238·0 | 17 |
| November | 82·3 | 28·0 | 91 | 32·8 | 71 | 21·7 | 83·9 | 11·34 | 288·3 | 12 |
| December | 81·9 | 27·8 | 89 | 31·7 | 70 | 21·1 | 83·6 | 1·32 | 33·6 | 1 |
| Year | 82·2 | 28·0 | 94 | 34·4 | 68 | 20·0 | 82·1 | 119·50 | 303·6 | 150 |
The remarkable uniformity of the temperature data is very striking. In the interior of Nigeria, however, much higher temperatures are experienced, especially at the times when the hot Harmattan is blowing off the northern deserts, the noon temperature at such times being rarely under 100° F. (37·8° C).
As we get farther south the temperature moderates and the rainfall rapidly diminishes; the mean temperature in Angola being no more than 68° F. (20° C.), while in the elevated interior the climate is neither disagreeable nor unhealthy.
Dr. Yale Massey sends me the following information from his Mission station in the Benguela district, at 4,700 feet, lat. circa 12° S.; and long. 17° E. “The distinctly wet months are from October to April inclusive, and this is also the hot season. There are usually a few showers in September, and rarely some in May, and during the dry season there is usually a strong breeze. In the wet season the mid-day temperature ranges from 80° to 100° F., at night from 45° to 60° F.; while during the dry weather the mid-day temperature is from 70° to 90° F., and at night even slight frost may occur. As might be expected from the elevation and climate, this is a generally healthy locality, but there is a certain amount of fever, most of the cases occurring in April and May.”
East Coast.
—The reputation borne by the east coast is scarcely more enviable than that of the western, the accounts of travellers voyaging on the Zambesi being generally alternate wails on attacks of mosquitoes and upsets from hippopotami. The rainfall is, however, much lighter, and at corresponding latitudes the temperatures generally seem somewhat lower.
Owing to the presence of a considerable Arab element, the population have attained, in some places, a larger grade of civilisation than is the case on the west coast, so that the introduction of hygienic measures might be somewhat more practicable, albeit that Arab civilisation, per se, has hardly reached the stage of promoting sanitation.
The two following tables of a tropical and subtropical station, each on this coast, will give some general conception of the conditions prevailing.
| Zanzibar Island. Lat. circa 7° 30′ S. | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Mean Maximum Temperature | Mean Minimum Temperature | Rainfall | |||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | |
| January | 86·1 | 30·0 | 79·6 | 26·5 | 3·26 | 82·6 |
| February | 87·0 | 30·6 | 80·3 | 26·8 | 1·51 | 38·3 |
| March | 86·3 | 30·2 | 79·3 | 26·3 | 6·24 | 159·1 |
| April | 84·7 | 29·3 | 77·6 | 25·4 | 11·94 | 303·3 |
| May | 82·4 | 28·0 | 75·6 | 24·3 | 10·23 | 250·2 |
| June | 81·5 | 27·5 | 74·2 | 23·5 | 1·36 | 34·7 |
| July | 80·2 | 26·8 | 72·7 | 22·6 | 2·75 | 69·8 |
| August | 81·8 | 27·0 | 72·7 | 22·6 | 1·68 | 43·0 |
| September | 82·0 | 27·8 | 73·4 | 23·0 | 2·10 | 53·3 |
| October | 83·2 | 28·1 | 75·3 | 24·0 | 3·74 | 95·1 |
| November | 83·7 | 28·7 | 77·1 | 25·1 | 8·23 | 209·1 |
| December | 85·8 | 29·8 | 79·5 | 26·4 | 4·18 | 106·3 |
| Year | 83·6 | 28·7 | 76·4 | 24·6 | 57·25 | 1,454·2 |
| Natal, Durban. Lat. 29° 50′ S.; near Sea-level. (1902.) | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Temperature at 9 a.m. | Monthly Maxima | Monthly Minima | Rainfall | Number of Rainy Days | ||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | ||
| January | 74·0 | 23·3 | 92·1 | 33·4 | 56·4 | 13·6 | 6·53 | 166·2 | 23 |
| February | 78·2 | 25·7 | 95·2 | 35·1 | 60·5 | 15·8 | 2·09 | 53·2 | 12 |
| March | 74·5 | 23·6 | 93·8 | 34·3 | 59·2 | 15·1 | 10·23 | 256·5 | 20 |
| April | 70·1 | 21·1 | 86·2 | 30·1 | 56·9 | 13·8 | 2·52 | 64·0 | 9 |
| May | 66·5 | 19·2 | 83·5 | 28·6 | 52·0 | 11·1 | 1·21 | 30·6 | 10 |
| June | 61·6 | 16·5 | 78·3 | 25·7 | 47·4 | 8·6 | 0·73 | 18·0 | 3 |
| July | 62·0 | 16·7 | 88·0 | 31·1 | 49·5 | 9·7 | 0·27 | 7·0 | 4 |
| August | 63·5 | 17·5 | 79·0 | 26·1 | 48·4 | 9·2 | 3·90 | 99·1 | 12 |
| September | 67·1 | 19·5 | 105·6 | 40·9 | 51·5 | 10·8 | 2·54 | 64·7 | 13 |
| October | 69·6 | 20·8 | 91·2 | 32·9 | 51·3 | 10·7 | 2·23 | 56·6 | 17 |
| November | 70·9 | 21·6 | 92·3 | 33·5 | 57·1 | 13·9 | 5·15 | 130·8 | 19 |
| December | 75·2 | 24·0 | 91·4 | 33·1 | 58·2 | 14·5 | 3·96 | 100·4 | 18 |
| Year | 69·4 | 20·8 | 105·6 | 40·9 | 47·4 | 8·6 | 41·18 | 1,047·0 | 160 |
Madagascar.
—With the exception of the littoral, which is rather warm and extremely malarious, the greater part of this island is too elevated to present a really hot climate, but the rainfall in the interior is rather heavier than on the mainland, that of the capital, Antananarivo, being 52·4 ins. (1,331 mm.), which is distributed as follows:—
| Monthly Rainfall of Antananarivo. E.F., 4,850; E.M., 1,478. | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jan. | Feb. | March | April | May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | |
| Ins. | 11·54 | 9·28 | 7·36 | 2·00 | 0·71 | 0·33 | 0·20 | 0·28 | 3·18 | 3·51 | 5·25 | 11·0 |
| Mm. | 294 | 236 | 187 | 51 | 18 | 8 | 5 | 7 | 17 | 89 | 133 | 280 |
The Island of Mauritius.
—Latitude circa 20° 20′ S. The mean annual temperature of Port Louis is 77·2° F. (25·1° C.), the absolute extremes of temperature in nineteen years being 89° and 53·5° F. (31·6° and 11·9° C.), and the mean relative humidity 74 per cent., so that in the matter of heat there is nothing to be feared; but unfortunately malaria, which was quite unknown in the earlier days of its colonisation, is now very rife and of a very obstinate type. The rainfall amounts to 74·5 ins. (1,892 mm.), which is rather heavier than that of Madagascar, and is distributed as below:—
| Monthly Rainfall of Port Louis, Mauritius; near Sea-level. | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jan. | Feb. | March | April | May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | |
| Ins. | 11·55 | 8·18 | 11·35 | 9·14 | 5·73 | 4·65 | 4·25 | 3·86 | 2·71 | 2·64 | 3·24 | 6·98 |
| Mm. | 293 | 208 | 288 | 232 | 145 | 118 | 108 | 98 | 69 | 67 | 82 | 177 |
The southernmost portions of Africa, Cape Colony, &c., do not belong to the category of hot climates, either in climate or in their diseases, and so need not be considered here.
Red Sea and its Coasts, including Somaliland.
—The horrors of the climate of the Red Sea are too well known to need comment. The whole region is almost rainless, subject to suffocating calms, and the presence of the large, but completely land-locked, sheet of water renders the relative humidity constantly high. Moreover, the whole basin is comparatively shallow, so that it becomes highly warmed even in its depths. At its southern end the temperature of the water at the surface may reach 95° F. (35° C.), and 90° F. (32·2° C.) has been registered at a depth of 5 fathoms. In the Gulf of Suez, pleasantly fresh days may be met with during winter, but in the south the mean temperature of a day seldom falls below 80° F. (26·7° C.), and in July the mean maximum temperature exceeds 108° F. (42° C.) July is the hottest month, but there is little to choose between the discomforts of any of the four months, June to September. The least hot month is January, but the climate is a singularly uniform one, the night bringing comparatively little relief, and when followed by a breeze of about the same speed as the ship, cases have occurred in which steamers have actually been obliged to put about and steam against the wind, in order to prevent the crew from falling victims to heat apoplexy.
North of lat. 19°, the prevailing winds are from the north or north-west, while in the south the predominating winds are from the south and south-east, between the two lying a belt of variable winds. From June to August north-west winds prevail over the whole Red Sea. This is known as the “Kamsin,” or fifty days’ wind, the word being derived from the Arabic root of that numeral, which, originally, intensely hot and dry, rapidly takes up moisture from the water, and is hence particularly insupportable on the Arabian side of the sea; though the fine sand with which it is loaded makes it equally objectionable from another point of view on the African side. Its velocity is often considerable, and under such circumstances may be even dangerous to the lives of those who are so unfortunate as to be exposed to its fury in the open desert. The extremely fine dust penetrates everywhere in spite of closed doors and windows, reaching even ships far out at sea. Fortunately, on the coast it is generally a good deal modified by sea-breezes springing up in the afternoon, but there is also a tendency to fall dead calm at night, under which circumstances the dark hours are even more intolerable than those of the day.
The following table of the principal climatic data of Massawa in the Italian colony of Erythrea, compiled from data contained in a pamphlet by Dr. Giovani Petella, of the Royal Italian Navy, gives a good idea of the character of the climate of the Red Sea littoral.
| Massawa. Lat. 16° N.; near Sea-level. | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Mean Temperature | Mean Maximum Temperature | Mean Minimum Temperature | Relative Humidity % | Rainfall | Number of Rainy Days | ||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | |||
| January | 78·0 | 25·6 | 90·4 | 32·4 | 68·0 | 20·0 | 75 | 2·05 | 52·1 | 5·2 |
| February | 78·9 | 26·0 | 92·2 | 33·4 | 68·4 | 20·2 | 76 | 0·63 | 16·2 | 1·6 |
| March | 81·0 | 27·2 | 94·8 | 34·9 | 70·1 | 21·2 | 74 | 0·68 | 17·5 | 1·7 |
| April | 84·3 | 29·0 | 98·2 | 36·8 | 72·8 | 22·6 | 69 | 0·11 | 2·5 | ·2 |
| May | 88·5 | 31·3 | 101·7 | 38·7 | 76·6 | 24·7 | 66 | 0·56 | 14·1 | 1·4 |
| June | 92·4 | 33·5 | 105·9 | 41·0 | 80·7 | 27·0 | 51 | — | — | — |
| July | 94·7 | 34·8 | 108·5 | 42·5 | 84·5 | 29·2 | 56 | 0·13 | 3·3 | 1·3 |
| August | 94·6 | 34·7 | 106·7 | 41·5 | 83·4 | 28·5 | 57 | 0·26 | 5·7 | 1·7 |
| September | 92·0 | 33·3 | 103·0 | 39·4 | 78·2 | 25·7 | 60 | 0·17 | 4·0 | 1·0 |
| October | 89·0 | 31·7 | 98·7 | 37·0 | 77·2 | 25·1 | 60 | 0·35 | 9·0 | 1·0 |
| November | 84·3 | 29·0 | 95·2 | 35·1 | 75·0 | 23·8 | 65 | 0·78 | 20·0 | 2·1 |
| December | 80·7 | 27·0 | 92·0 | 33·3 | 69·5 | 20·8 | 70 | 2·27 | 57·6 | 3·7 |
The total rainfall amounts only to 7·86 ins. (198 mm.), falling on 29·2 days in the year, but the amount and distribution is very capricious, varying greatly in different years. In so far, however, as Massawa can be said to possess a rainy season at all, the wet weather comes in the winter, instead of about August, as is normally the case in the Tropics of the Northern Hemisphere.
Sometimes a whole year may be practically rainless, as for example 1885, in which only 41·2 mm. (about 11⁄2 ins.) was collected, whereas 1891 had the respectable rainfall of 500 mm. (or 191⁄2 ins.). Apparently, however, it never rains in June.
Owing to the antiseptic powers of the intense light and heat, the place is singularly free from zymotic diseases, the cases of fever being usually not malarial, but truly climatic.
For the greater part of the year the skin is kept in a continuous bath of perspiration, and accordingly prickly heat in its most acute form, with the usual sequel of boils, is very common; as also, of course, are heatstroke and less acute forms of nervous prostration. During the continuance of the Kamsin Dr. Petella finds that the temperature of even strong and healthy individuals is raised distinctly above the normal.
The extreme character of the climate of Suakim, the frequent scene of British military activity, may be gathered from the following nearly complete table for portions of the years 1902-1903.
| Suakim. Lat. 19° 5′ N. Near Sea-level. | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Absolute Maximum Temperature | Absolute Minimum Temperature | Rainfall | Clouds | Relative Humidity | Wind | |||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | ||||
| Jan. | 78·5 | 25·8 | 68·4 | 20·2 | 1·17 | 29·7 | 4·5 | 71 | N.N.W., occasionally N. and E. in afternoon |
| Feb. | 79·0 | 26·7 | 70·4 | 21·3 | 0·68 | 17·0 | 4·8 | 78 | N.W., shifting to N.E. or N. |
| Mar. | 82·5 | 28·1 | 71·9 | 22·1 | 0 | 0 | 2·1 | 90 | Ditto, ditto |
| April | Wanting | ||||||||
| May | 95·0 | 35·0 | 76·1 | 24·5 | 0 | 0 | 0·5 | 78 | Ditto, ditto |
| June | 100·2 | 37·9 | 78·0 | 25·6 | 0·13 | 3·0 | 1·2 | 69 | Variable, but generally N.E. in afternoon |
| July | 107·8 | 42·1 | 82·0 | 27·8 | 0·36 | 9·3 | 1·5 | 48 | S.W. to S., shifting to E. or N.E. in afternoon |
| Aug. | 112·0 | 44·4 | 84·4 | 29·1 | 0 | 0 | 1·3 | 68 | Ditto, ditto |
| Sept. | Wanting | ||||||||
| Oct. | 92·0 | 33·3 | 78·0 | 25·6 | 4·80 | 122·0 | 3·5 | 75 | N.W. to W., shifting to N.E. in afternoon |
| Nov. | 86·5 | 30·3 | 75·9 | 24·3 | 6·10 | 154·9 | 5·6 | 78 | Ditto, ditto |
| Dec. | 81·0 | 27·2 | 69·5 | 20·8 | 2·02 | 51·5 | 4·5 | 78 | Ditto, ditto |
No European constitution could, however, endure such climates for any considerable time with impunity without periods of relief in a more moderate climate, and it is therefore fortunate that, owing to configuration of the Colony of Erythrea, the inland portion of which for the most part consists of elevated plateaux and mountains; these extreme conditions of heat and moisture are limited to a comparatively narrow belt of country, consisting of plains formed of slightly elevated coral formation, and the foothills which gradually rise to elevations at which the climate is necessarily temperate, some of the peaks reaching over 7,000 feet above the sea.
The progressive improvement of climate as one gains increasing elevations, even where that at the sea-level is of the most extreme character, is instructively shown in the [table] on next page, taken from Dr. Petella’s pamphlet.
| Table showing the Mean Monthly Temperature of Four Stations inErythrea at Various Elevations, the diminution of temperaturebeing equivalent to about 1° F. for every 300 Feet of Elevation,or 1° C. to each 150 Metres. | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Massawa, 6 m. elevation = 18 ft. | Ghenda, 962 m. elevation = 3,165 ft. | Cheren, 1,460 m. elevation = 4,790 ft. | Asmara, 2,327 m. elevation = 7,533 ft. | ||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | |
| January | 78·0 | 25·6 | 65·2 | 18·4 | 63·3 | 17·3 | 68·8 | 14·9 |
| February | 78·9 | 26·0 | 69·4 | 20·8 | 67·0 | 19·4 | 61·4 | 16·3 |
| March | 79·4 | 26·3 | 73·3 | 22·9 | 72·0 | 22·2 | 61·5 | 16·4 |
| April | 84·3 | 29·0 | 78·6 | 25·8 | 77·0 | 24·9 | 62·8 | 17·1 |
| May | 88·5 | 31·3 | 79·6 | 26·3 | 75·8 | 24·3 | 63·5 | 17·5 |
| June | 92·4 | 33·3 | 84·1 | 28·9 | 76·5 | 24·7 | 63·5 | 17·5 |
| July | 94·7 | 34·8 | 87·2 | 30·7 | 72·7 | 22·6 | 61·5 | 16·4 |
| August | 94·5 | 34·7 | 83·4 | 28·5 | 68·0 | 20·0 | 61·4 | 16·3 |
| September | 92·9 | 33·8 | 84·5 | 29·2 | 68·4 | 20·2 | 62·5 | 16·9 |
| October | 89·2 | 31·8 | 76·8 | 24·9 | 67·4 | 19·6 | 56·5 | 13·6 |
| November | 84·3 | 29·0 | 72·3 | 22·4 | 65·2 | 18·4 | 58·4 | 14·6 |
| December | 80·7 | 27·0 | 65·8 | 18·7 | 63·3 | 17·3 | 58·8 | 14·9 |
| Annual Means | 86·5 | 30·3 | 76·7 | 24·8 | 69·7 | 20·9 | 60·0 | 16·5 |
In these elevated regions, a little away from the coast, there is a definite, though not very abundant, rainy season, and the direction of the prevailing winds is normal for these latitudes, i.e., north-east during the winter and south-west during the monsoon, which, however, breaks a good deal later here than at corresponding latitudes on the eastern side of the Arabian sea. More complete data of Addi Ugri, an Italian sanatorium on one of these Erythrean hill-stations, are extracted [below] from a pamphlet by Captain Tancredi, an Engineer officer.
The hottest time of the year is, it will be noticed, in the spring, and the rainy season takes place at the normal time in July and August, after the setting in of the south-west monsoon. There is also a secondary period of rainfall about February and March, corresponding to our “chota bursat” in India.
From the inspection of the table on [next page] it will be seen that the climate must be an exceptionally pleasant one, the mean temperature of the year corresponding to that of Southern Italy, though the range of temperature is less than a third of that of Palermo and other Mediterranean ports. The climate is also said to be very healthy, though there is generally a certain amount of malaria to be met with about the drying up of the rains. Its uniformity and mildness, coupled as it is with great dryness, suggests that the site might well be utilised for certain forms of chest disease.
| Climate of Addi-Ugri, Erythrea (Serahè). Lat. 14° 53′ N.;Long. 38° 48′ 40″ E. Elevation 6,633 Feet. | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Mean Temperature | Mean Maximum Temperature | Mean Minimum Temperature | Relative Humidity | Rainfall | Number of Rainy Days | ||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | |||
| January | 64·9 | 18·2 | 79·0 | 26·0 | 51·6 | 10·9 | 39·6 | 0·02 | 0·3 | 2 |
| February | 66·3 | 19·0 | 81·2 | 27·4 | 51·9 | 11·0 | 28·6 | 0·11 | 2·7 | 1·6 |
| March | 70·6 | 21·4 | 87·0 | 30·6 | 55·5 | 13·1 | 30·0 | 0·62 | 15·4 | 6·6 |
| April | 70·4 | 21·3 | 85·5 | 29·7 | 56·5 | 13·6 | 35·3 | 0·91 | 22·8 | 9·3 |
| May | 70·6 | 21·4 | 84·5 | 29·1 | 58·2 | 14·5 | 36·6 | 1·85 | 46·2 | 10·3 |
| June | 69·5 | 20·8 | 82·3 | 27·9 | 60·4 | 15·7 | 39·1 | 2·41 | 60·6 | 15·3 |
| July | 64·3 | 17·9 | 73·6 | 23·2 | 54·6 | 12·6 | 71·9 | 5·30 | 134·9 | 25·0 |
| August | 63·8 | 17·6 | 73·4 | 22·9 | 54·6 | 12·5 | 74·1 | 7·05 | 179·1 | 24·3 |
| September | 67·5 | 19·7 | 78·6 | 25·9 | 56·2 | 13·3 | 53·4 | 1·45 | 36·8 | 6·6 |
| October | 67·6 | 19·7 | 80·3 | 26·8 | 54·4 | 12·4 | 53·0 | 0·65 | 16·5 | 3 |
| November | 65·4 | 18·5 | 78·6 | 25·8 | 52·5 | 11·3 | 43·6 | 0·19 | 4·2 | 1·6 |
| December | 63·5 | 17·4 | 78·0 | 25·5 | 50·0 | 9·9 | 42·3 | 0·32 | 8·3 | 1·6 |
| Year | 66·9 | 19·4 | 80·2 | 26·8 | 54·7 | 12·6 | 45·6 | 20·2 | 513·0 | 107·2 |
Travelling, however, in Somaliland is necessarily arduous, as the country is nearly impassable during the short rainy season, and intense heat and great suffering have to be encountered in the low-lying valleys, owing to the waterless character of the country and the intensely desiccating effects of the air, which, elsewhere than on the coast, is intensely dry. The frequent dust storms are also a source of much discomfort and even of danger.
Once issued from the Red Sea and arrived in the Gulf of Aden, things begin to improve, as although the thermometer may show but little difference from the conditions left behind in the Red Sea, it is at once felt that the heat is of quite a different kind, and that it is not, as Gilbert’s heroine would describe it, “such a stuffy class of death.” There is nearly always a fresh sea breeze, and for several months of the year the climate is much less oppressive than that of Bombay, especially in the spring. Strange as it may appear to those who have only seen the grim fortress from the sea, Aden seems to have a queer fascination about it, and is generally rather liked than otherwise, many preferring to serve there to remaining in Bombay.
The Asiatic Continent.
—Owing to the fact that the distinction between Europe and Asia is a purely geographical convention, and that the area of the eastern extremity of the Mediterranean is of too small an area to exercise any marked influence, we find that once the Syrian shore is left behind we are at once under typical intra-continental weather conditions, with a wide range of temperature, and a rainfall either small or almost non-existent. Speaking generally, these arid conditions prevail over the whole of south-western Asia, from the coast of Palestine till we have crossed the five waters of the Punjab, and within these limits there are many places that can put the maximum thermometers of even Omdurman and Suakim to shame.
The scanty rainfall is almost confined to the hills, so that cultivation in the lower lands depends more or less completely on irrigation from the rivers that have their origin in the mountain masses, which attract to their peaks the lion’s share of the little moisture obtainable. On this account the greater part of western tropical Asia is desert, but in spite of this under-irrigation, Mesopotamia was once the granary of the world, and might still, under a more enlightened government, soon regain her position.
Palestine.
—On account of its petty area, the whole of Palestine must be considered as a part of the Mediterranean littoral, and hence enjoys a moderate rainfall, which, combined with almost continuous sunshine, without really excessive heat at any period of the year, renders the enthusiasm with which this little land is described by the sacred writers easily understood.
The following table will give some idea of the amount and distribution of the rainfall:—
| Place | Jerusalem | Smyrna | Jaffa | Beirut | Mosul | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Latitude | 31° 47′ N. | 26° 38′ N. | 32° 4′ N. | 33° 54′ N. | 37° 20′ N. | |||||
| Scale | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. |
| January | 6·30 | 160 | 4·14 | 105 | 5·71 | 145 | 7·40 | 188 | 3·47 | 88 |
| February | 5·75 | 146 | 2·95 | 75 | 3·63 | 92 | 6·03 | 153 | 3·08 | 78 |
| March | 3·58 | 91 | 3·35 | 85 | 1·46 | 37 | 3·89 | 98 | 0·93 | 24 |
| April | 1·73 | 44 | 1·78 | 45 | 1·08 | 27 | 2·32 | 59 | 0·78 | 20 |
| May | 0·29 | 7 | 1·26 | 32 | 0·28 | 7 | 0·55 | 14 | 0 | 0 |
| June | 0 | 0 | 0·49 | 12 | 0·18 | 2 | 0·28 | 7 | 0 | 0 |
| July | 0 | 0 | 0·19 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 0·03 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
| August | 0 | 0 | 0·12 | 3 | 0·04 | 1 | 0·03 | 1 | 0 | 0 |
| September | 0·04 | 1 | 0·90 | 23 | 0·04 | 1 | 0·28 | 7 | 0 | 0 |
| October | 0·39 | 10 | 1·79 | 43 | 0·68 | 17 | 1·93 | 49 | 0 | 0 |
| November | 2·04 | 52 | 4·25 | 108 | 3·32 | 84 | 5·39 | 137 | 1·03 | 26 |
| December | 5·35 | 136 | 4·41 | 112 | 5·39 | 137 | 7·40 | 188 | 3·70 | 94 |
| Year | 25·48 | 647 | 25·59 | 650 | 21·66 | 550 | 35·59 | 904 | 11·2 | 283 |
At Jerusalem the annual extremes of temperature are from 101·7° F. (38·7° C.) to just above freezing point, while on the sea-coast the range of climate is rather less marked.
The following table, adapted, like the preceding, from Hann, epitomises most of the necessary temperature data:—
| Place | Elevation above Sea | January Mean | April Mean | June Mean | October Mean | Annual Mean | Annual Range of Temperature | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ft. | M. | F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | |
| Jerusalem | 2,510 | 765 | 47·3 | 8·4 | 59·9 | 15·5 | 75·7 | 24·3 | 68·7 | 20·5 | 62·9 | 17·1 | 67·3 | 38·5 |
| Smyrna | — | — | 45·5 | 7·5 | 56·8 | 13·8 | 79·5 | 26·4 | 65·4 | 18·5 | 61·7 | 16·5 | 79·2 | 44·0 |
| Jaffa | 50 | 15 | 54·0 | 12·2 | 68·4 | 20·2 | 83·5 | 28·6 | 78·8 | 26·0 | 70·2 | 21·2 | — | — |
| Beirut | 115 | 35 | 55·5 | 13·0 | 65·2 | 18·4 | 81·5 | 27·5 | 75·2 | 24·0 | 68·7 | 20·4 | 56·1 | 31·2 |
| Damascus | 2,380 | 725 | 45·0 | 7·2 | 58·7 | 14·8 | 80.0 | 26·7 | 67·0 | 19·4 | 63·4 | 17·4 | — | — |
| Mosul | 400 | 120 | 44·7 | 7·0 | 59·7 | 15·4 | 93.5 | 34·2 | 72·3 | 22·4 | 68·2 | 20·1 | — | — |
Between the cultivations of Syria and Mesopotamia there stretches a wide extent of desert country of which, as yet, but little is known, as it is even now, not altogether too safe a land to travel in.
In the upper part of the Euphrates valley, at Mosul, which, to save space, is included in the two above tables, the climate, though hotter in summer, does not differ to any great extent from that of Palestine. The rainfall is, however, very much smaller and absolutely confined to the winter.
Of the lower and better known part of the valley; once the granary of the world, and even now a rich country; the climate of Bagdad, lat. circa 33° 30′ N., in Turkish Arabia, may serve as a specimen.
| Months | Mean Maximum Temperature | Mean Minimum Temperature | Relative Humidity % | Rainfall | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | ||
| January | 63·3 | 17·3 | 39·9 | 4·4 | 84 | 1·59 | 40·5 |
| February | 65·6 | 18·6 | 40·3 | 4·6 | 76 | 2·49 | 63·0 |
| March | 74·7 | 23·8 | 47·1 | 8·4 | 62 | 1·93 | 49·3 |
| April | 80·9 | 27·0 | 54·4 | 12·4 | 52 | 1·19 | 30·3 |
| May | 90·6 | 32·5 | 67·3 | 19·6 | 42 | 0·21 | 5·2 |
| June | 103·2 | 39·5 | 76·3 | 24·6 | 35 | 0 | 0 |
| July | 106·8 | 41·6 | 78·8 | 25·9 | 33 | 0 | 0 |
| August | 107·8 | 42·1 | 78·2 | 25·7 | 32 | 0·13 | 3·2 |
| September | 100·8 | 38·2 | 71·1 | 21·8 | 37 | 0 | 0 |
| October | 91·3 | 33·0 | 62·2 | 16·8 | 52 | 0·10 | 2·5 |
| November | 76·6 | 24·7 | 50·0 | 10·0 | 74 | 1·03 | 26·6 |
| December | 64·3 | 17·9 | 43·0 | 6·1 | 81 | 1·16 | 29·5 |
The intense heat and dryness of the summer months are very noticeable, but the locality does not suffer from hot nights to the same extent as parts of Northern India.
Persian Gulf.
—The delights of service in this inland sea are only too well known to most of H.M.’s Indian Marine, and to many naval officers, but it must be remembered that although the climate presents much resemblance to that of the Red Sea, the Gulf corresponds to the northern end of those unpleasant waters, and that in winter the climate is further tempered by breezes from the high Persian plateau, so that in the cold weather it would be difficult to choose a more pleasant scene for a yachting cruise, coral reefs and Arabs permitting, and it is only from the middle of June to that of October that anything like the stew-pan of the southern Red Sea is met with. This, combined with the circumstance that the passage of the Gulf should only last half as long as that of the Red Sea, is one of the strongest arguments in favour of the adoption of the Euphrates valley as a rapid route of communication with the East. The climate may best be realised by an inspection of the [climatic table] for Bushire, which is included in the following brief note on the climate of Persia.
Persia is continental and sub-tropical in geographical position, but does not, as a matter of fact, for the most part, properly come under the category of hot climates, as, with the exception of “the Dashtistan,” or narrow belt of recently upheaved coral forming the northern shore of the Gulf, the whole country is a mountainous mass, the lowest portions of which are sufficiently elevated to bring them, from the point of view of climate, within the temperate zone. For practical purposes the country is absolutely without roads, the tracks that connect the various towns being merely made by the constant passage of travellers without any assistance whatever from art, and was probably a good deal more “advanced” two thousand years ago than it is now. On this account travelling is a very slow business, and any one proposing to visit the country must necessarily be prepared for a somewhat extended stay. As all routes cross over a succession of passes which often closely approach the snow-line, intending visitors should bring not merely clothes suitable for an English winter, but some fur-lined garment, such as is used by an automobilist, only slit behind so as to be wearable when mounted, as any one unprovided with a semi-arctic outfit may have to endure a good deal of suffering in surmounting the passes even during the summer.
Properly provided, however, travel in Persia offers many attractions, as the people are a pleasant, intelligent race, who make excellent camp servants in any capacity but as cooks, for which an Indian servant is better suited if obtainable. They are often spoken of as “the French of the East,” and there is no doubt a good deal of justification for the parallel, but, however this may be, they are not at present likely to produce an Oriental Soyer.
The Dashtistan is simply an emerged portion of the coral bed of the Persian Gulf, and the abominable character of its climate goes far to counterpoise the bright, temperate weather of the rest of the country. It is often no more than 20 miles or less wide, and is badly off for fresh water, most of the wells being brackish. Even here, the cold weather is extremely pleasant, so that one is glad to sit over a big coal fire in February in rooms not directly warmed by the sun, and there is nothing much to complain of till early June—the earlier hot months being rendered quite endurable by strong breezes which make punkahs quite needless. This, however, is succeeded by a period of intense, damp, breathless heat, entirely unassuaged by a drop of rain, which requires to be endured to be thoroughly appreciated.
The climax of discomfort is attained somewhere about the middle of August, but it is well on in October before any very decided improvement sets in, the hot weather being thus prolonged far on into the autumn. Under these circumstances, it is not surprising that cases of heat apoplexy are far from uncommon, but fortunately there is comparatively little malaria, though digestive disturbances arising from the brackishness of drinking water are naturally rather common. There is nothing like the proportion of cases of eye diseases that is to be met with in Egypt, but the intense glare and the sparseness of the vegetation make the use of neutral-tinted spectacles very advisable.
The following table of the temperature and rainfall of Bushire (Abusher) will serve as a sufficient example of the climate of the Dashtistan generally:—
| Month | Mean Maximum Temperature | Mean Minimum Temperature | Relative Humidity | Rainfall | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | ||
| January | 65·2 | 18·4 | 52·0 | 11·1 | 79 | 3·39 | 86·2 |
| February | 66·0 | 18·9 | 52·5 | 11·4 | 80 | 2·51 | 63·7 |
| March | 72·6 | 22·5 | 58·2 | 14·5 | 72 | 0·87 | 21·7 |
| April | 84·6 | 29·3 | 66·1 | 18·9 | 61 | 0·58 | 15·1 |
| May | 89·8 | 32·0 | 75·3 | 24·1 | 60 | 0·02 | 0·5 |
| June | 92·2 | 33·4 | 80·3 | 26·8 | 61 | 0 | 0 |
| July | 95·5 | 35·3 | 84·0 | 28·9 | 65 | 0 | 0 |
| August | 96·5 | 35·8 | 83·6 | 28·7 | 64 | 0 | 0 |
| September | 94·2 | 34·5 | 78·8 | 26·0 | 65 | 0 | 0 |
| October | 87·9 | 31·0 | 70·7 | 21·5 | 65 | 0 | 0 |
| November | 78·0 | 25·6 | 62·1 | 16·8 | 74 | 2·16 | 54·7 |
| December | 69·7 | 20·9 | 55·5 | 13·1 | 73 | 3·98 | 101·3 |
The Dashtistan forms, however, a very small percentage of the area of Persia, as its level plain is abruptly succeeded by the mountains, which rise, terrace over terrace, to a height of 5,000 to 6,000 feet, and once the plateau of Fars is reached the traveller finds himself in surroundings which, although suffering a good deal from the scarcity of water, have much to recommend them in the purity and dryness of the air, and which would no doubt be thoroughly healthy under a decently sanitary régime. At present the country is out of the question for purposes of health, as one requires to be pretty “hard bitten” to get about it at all; but assuming the introduction of the amenities of civilisation there can be little doubt as to its suitability for the treatment of pulmonary disorders; and even as matters stand, I cannot recall meeting with cases of tuberculous disease amongst the natives of the country.
Owing to the very different levels, it is difficult to give any general idea of the climate, but the climate of two of the principal towns given below must suffice as a sufficient example.
| Month | Teheran. Lat. 85° 41′ N.;Long. 57° 25′ E. E.F., 3,700; E.M., 1,130. | Ispahan. Lat. 32° 38′ N.; Long. 57°40′ E. E.F., 5,000; E.M., 1,530. | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean Maximum Temperature | Mean Minimum Temperature | Rainfall | Mean Maximum Temperature | Mean Minimum Temperature | Rainfall | |||||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | |
| January | 42·3 | 5·7 | 26·2 | -3·2 | 1·17 | 29·6 | 46·5 | 8·1 | 23·1 | -5 | 0·21 | 5.2 |
| February | 52·1 | 11·2 | 32·9 | -0·5 | 0·85 | 21·6 | 54·3 | 12·3 | 29·2 | -1·6 | 0·21 | 5·2 |
| March | 57·2 | 14·0 | 38·4 | 3·5 | 2·44 | 62·1 | 61·0 | 16·1 | 36·2 | 2·3 | 0·83 | 20·8 |
| April | 71·4 | 21·8 | 49·9 | 9·9 | 0·87 | 21·7 | 73·1 | 22·9 | 45·7 | 7·6 | 0·60 | 15·2 |
| May | 82·9 | 28·2 | 59·4 | 15·2 | 0·41 | 10·3 | 84·1 | 29·0 | 54·1 | 12·3 | 0·10 | 2·5 |
| June | 94·4 | 34·6 | 67·1 | 19·5 | 0·04 | 1·2 | 94·4 | 34·6 | 61·9 | 16·6 | 0 | 0 |
| July | 98·4 | 36·8 | 72·1 | 22·3 | 0·35 | 8·9 | 98·4 | 36·8 | 66·3 | 19·1 | 0·05 | 1·3 |
| August | 96·7 | 35·9 | 70·7 | 21·5 | 0·04 | 1·2 | 95·5 | 35·3 | 61·5 | 16·4 | 0 | 0 |
| September | 90·7 | 32·6 | 64·9 | 18·2 | 0·11 | 2·6 | 90·4 | 32·4 | 55·1 | 12·9 | 0 | 0 |
| October | 77·5 | 25·3 | 54·0 | 12·2 | 0·14 | 3·7 | 77·4 | 25·2 | 44·4 | 6·9 | 0·27 | 6·5 |
| November | 61·4 | 16·3 | 42·2 | 5·7 | 1·17 | 29·6 | 61·9 | 16·6 | 35·9 | 2·1 | 0·84 | 21·5 |
| December | 57·3 | 14·1 | 33·9 | 0·5 | 1·33 | 34·0 | 52·3 | 11·3 | 29·2 | -1·7 | 0·47 | 12·0 |
| Year | 73·0 | 22·8 | 57·0 | 10·6 | 8·92 | 227·0 | 74·1 | 23·4 | 45·2 | 7·3 | 3·58 | 90·3 |
The better rainfall of Teheran is no doubt due to its proximity to the Caspian, but in both places the climate is typically continental, both the daily and annual ranges of temperature being very considerable.
The climate of Beluchistan resembles closely that of Persia in its general characters, but owing to the generally lower level of the country the temperature is necessarily higher, approaching that of the Dashtistan.
Arabian Peninsula.
—With the exception of Muskat, which does not differ very markedly from the other Gulf ports, we have no reliable information as to the climate of Arabia proper, beyond the fact that it is a hot and arid land. The climate of the southern coast is, however, much more tolerable than that of the Persian Gulf, owing to the influence of the south-western monsoon, during the worst months.
India and Ceylon.
—If we draw a line from Karachi, at the mouth of the Indus, to those of the Hughli, a little south of Calcutta, it will be found that we have divided the irregular diamond-formed outline of the country into two triangles, the upper or northern of which may be called the continental, and the lower the peninsular triangle. We also find that the dividing line coincides pretty accurately with the Tropic of Cancer, and that, therefore, all to the north of it is sub-tropical, while in the southern triangle there is, as one travels south, an increasingly marked tendency to a duplication of the rainy season and of weather conditions generally, with a resulting general uniformity of climate throughout the year, while the proximity of the sea ensures that the daily range of temperature will be also small. North of this, therefore, there is a distinct “cold weather,” while to the south this pleasant climatic interlude can scarcely be said to exist. One of my predecessors, writing at the end of the eighteenth century, in the course of some 300 very sober pages devoted to life and habits in India, perpetrated “with deeficulty” a single joke. He devotes a table of some six lines to the elucidation of the subject of climate, the columns being headed, Hot—Cold—Rainy Seasons. Opposite Madras the first column stated, “Begins January 1, ends December 31.” From his ill-concealed contempt of Madras and Bombay “presidencies” I am sure this old “Qui hai” hailed from “the Bengal side,” but, prejudice apart, there is a good deal of truth in the impeachment.
Taking first the northern or sub-tropical triangle, we find that it presents a much greater variety of climate than can be found to the south, for while its north-western side is intensely dry and arid, the eastern angle of the triangle contains the wettest spot in the world. This triangle includes, too, within its boundaries another “record,” viz., that for extreme heat. The man who “sent back for his blankets” resided, I believe during life, somewhere in the United States; but I fear he must have been a person of comparatively small endurance, as in the entire American continent there is no spot that in the matter of heat is in the same field with Jacobabad, where 127° F. (52·8° C.) in the shade has actually been registered, and, in fact, the whole of Scind easily “licks creation” in this unenviable detail.
The northern triangle may be divided into three distinct climatic regions, viz.:—
(1) The Persian frontier zone, including the Punjab, Scind and Rajputana.
(2) The Old North-west zone, containing Oudh, Rohilkhand, Benares, &c., Behar, and a good deal of Central India.
(3) Lower Bengal, including Assam.
It must not, of course, be imagined that there is any distinct line of demarcation between these “zones,” as each climate, of course, shades off gradually into the next, but this division greatly facilitates description.
The Persian frontier zone, especially in its western portion, closely resembles Persia in climate, and gives one a very good notion of what that country would be, were it not an elevated plateau. Excluding, of course, from consideration the Himalayas and Suleiman Range, its highest part, near Rawal Pindi, is only about 1,700 feet above the sea (E.M., 530), which is too little to sensibly modify the temperature.
Along the actual north-west frontier, the rainfall is very small and the summer heat intense. The daily range is very small at the worst time of the year, as the arid soil gets so baked during the day that it is able to give out an ample supply of heat to make the short night intolerable, without having time to cool down to any appreciable extent. The few scanty showers that occur relieve matters for a few hours only, after which the only trace of their passage is an increased dampness of the air, with the concomitant exacerbation of “prickly heat.” In certain places situated in some of the confined valleys that are to be found at the foot of the Suleiman Range, the heat, day and night, is perfectly appalling. Unfortunately, some of these choice localities are of administrative importance, as affording the best alignment for our railways, and their continuous occupation by a number of unfortunate European officials and by a native staff little better able to bear it, is an unfortunate necessity.
In one of these pleasant spots the Anglo-Indian community are said to save themselves from the sun during the day by sitting beneath the Club billiard table, still wearing their solar hats, to cut off certain of the rays that have found their way through the slate bed of the table, and there is a good deal of foundation in fact for the “yarn,” as one requires to have lived there to have any adequate conception of what it is like. For seven months in the year indeed the climate is extremely trying, but as some compensation the cold weather, which lasts a full five months, at Peshawar in the north is most enjoyable and goes far to brace up residents to bear the horrors of the hot season.
At Peshawar I have been glad to sit over a blazing fire all day at the end of February, and even in Scind there are some three months of very pleasant weather. In the Eastern Punjab there is, however, a much more respectable rainfall, and the climate closely approaches that of the next zone. During the cold weather the daily range of temperature is considerable, so that if chills are to be avoided it is necessary to put on additional clothing after sunset.
The Old North-west, so called because up to “the forties” it formed our actual frontier, has in many ways the best climate to be found in the plains of India, the best part of the area being undoubtedly the Rohilkhand division. During the hot weather, it is true, the heat rivals that of the Punjab, and one may at times have a long succession of hot nights, but the worst is over by the middle of June, as with the “bursting of the monsoon” comes a great and welcome relief, which in good years is kept up through the rest of the warm weather. When, however, a “break in the rains” of any duration occurs, the climate for the time becomes, if anything, more trying than the contemporaneous conditions in the Punjab. The cold weather, however, goes on for four months, and affords one of the finest climates in the world for those who are not enthusiasts for the miseries of ice and snow.
| Table Showing the Monthly Rainfall and Mean Temperature of Thirty-OneIndian Stations. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. | Station | January | February | March | April | May | June | July | August | September | October | November | December | Remarks | |||||||||||||
| Rain- fall | Mean Tem- pera- ture | Rain- fall | Mean Tem- pera- ture | Rain- fall | Mean Tem- pera- ture | Rain- fall | Mean Tem- pera- ture | Rain- fall | Mean Tem- pera- ture | Rain- fall | Mean Tem- pera- ture | Rain- fall | Mean Tem- pera- ture | Rain- fall | Mean Tem- pera- ture | Rain- fall | Mean Tem- pera- ture | Rain- fall | Mean Tem- pera- ture | Rain- fall | Mean Tem- pera- ture | Rain- fall | Mean Tem- pera- ture | ||||
| 1 | Simla | S u b - T r o p i c a l I n d i a . | 2·35 | 41·5° | 2·68 | 41·5° | 2·24 | 50·7° | 1·90 | 59·7° | 3·64 | 64·5° | 6·79 | 68·0° | 17·55 | 65·0° | 17·98 | 63·5° | 6·56 | 62·4° | 1·22 | 56·8° | 0·54 | 49·7° | 0·74 | 45·8° | Hill station, with practically temperate climate. Not malarious. |
| 2 | Peshawar (N.) | 1·77 | 51·7 | 0·98 | 53·6 | 1·70 | 64·2 | 1·84 | 73·7 | 0·75 | 83·6 | 0·35 | 91·0 | 1·79 | 99·0 | 2·70 | 88·4 | 0·64 | 82·8 | 0·11 | 72·9 | 0·57 | 60·6 | 0·34 | 53·0 | Punjab Stations.—Intensely hot in summer, quite cold in winter; rainfall scanty. Malaria rifefrom August to November; sometimes of a very virulent type. | |
| Lahore (Mid.) | 1·06 | 54·4 | 1·10 | 57·1 | 0·73 | 69·2 | 0·46 | 80·7 | 1·03 | 87·4 | 1·84 | 92·7 | 6·67 | 89·5 | 5·83 | 87·4 | 2·49 | 84·9 | 0·26 | 76·6 | 0·10 | 63·7 | 0·38 | 56·1 | |||
| Multan (S.) | 0·48 | 56·3 | 0·38 | 59·5 | 0·38 | 72·1 | 0·07 | 82·7 | 0·42 | 90·3 | 0·59 | 94·5 | 2·94 | 93·1 | 1·58 | 91·1 | 0·42 | 88·5 | 0·00 | 70·9 | 0·10 | 67·8 | 0·20 | 58·6 | |||
| 3 | Meerut | 1·27 | 57·4 | 0·79 | 61·0 | 0·77 | 72·4 | 0·24 | 83·2 | 0·69 | 88·5 | 2·44 | 91·1 | 9·54 | 86·3 | 10·59 | 84·5 | 5·74 | 83·2 | 0·42 | 76·4 | 0·08 | 65·3 | 0·32 | 58·6 | North-West Provinces.—Hot and dry from April to mid-June; then to September moderate rain; coolwith bright sun, November to March. Malarious from August to November, but seldom of a severe type. | |
| Agra | 0·53 | 61·0 | 0·21 | 65·0 | 0·31 | 77·2 | 0·14 | 88·2 | 0·60 | 93·7 | 2·54 | 94·8 | 11·50 | 86·6 | 7·67 | 84·5 | 4·91 | 84·3 | 0·47 | 80·4 | 0·05 | 60·5 | 0·19 | 62·1 | |||
| Allahabad | 0·85 | 60·8 | 0·28 | 65·3 | 0·32 | 77·8 | 0·11 | 88·1 | 0·39 | 22·4 | 5·69 | 92·6 | 12·33 | 85·4 | 11·10 | 84·1 | 6·05 | 83·8 | 1·83 | 78·8 | 0·17 | 68·2 | 0·32 | 61·2 | |||
| Benares | 0·79 | 61·2 | 0·37 | 65·9 | 0·28 | 77·8 | 0·08 | 87·9 | 0·72 | 91·6 | 5·13 | 91·6 | 10·74 | 85·5 | 11·83 | 84·3 | 6·59 | 84·2 | 2·30 | 79·3 | 0·36 | 68·7 | 0·24 | 61·4 | |||
| Jhansi | 0·59 | 63·3 | 0·33 | 67·3 | 0·35 | 79·3 | 0·13 | 89·9 | 0·49 | 94·9 | 4·89 | 93·5 | 12·60 | 84·5 | 12·50 | 82·6 | 6·80 | 83·1 | 0·70 | 80·5 | 0·12 | 70·4 | 0·13 | 64·3 | |||
| 4 | Patna | 0·65 | 61·3 | 0·53 | 65·3 | 0·38 | 77·4 | 0·26 | 87·0 | 1·97 | 88·6 | 7·34 | 88·4 | 11·75 | 85·1 | 11·30 | 84·4 | 7·40 | 84·7 | 3·25 | 80·5 | 0·17 | 70·7 | 0·13 | 62·6 | Upper Bengal.—Intermediate in climate and salubrity between N.W.P. and Lower Bengal. | |
| Hazaribagh | 0·56 | 61·7 | 0·82 | 65·8 | 0·75 | 76·3 | 0·41 | 85·2 | 2·26 | 86·3 | 7·63 | 84·2 | 14·16 | 79·0 | 13·11 | 78·3 | 8·76 | 78·3 | 3·41 | 75·0 | 0·20 | 67·2 | 0·22 | 66·9 | |||
| 5 | Calcutta | 0·60 | 66·2 | 1·38 | 70·7 | 1·57 | 80·0 | 1·74 | 85·5 | 7·62 | 85·2 | 10·74 | 85·0 | 12·46 | 83·2 | 12·95 | 82·6 | 9·33 | 82·6 | 4·39 | 80·5 | 0·66 | 72·9 | 0·24 | 66·1 | Lower Bengal and Assam.—Moist, except for a few weeks in March and April; heavy and prolongedrains, but seldom with intense heat. Malaria prolonged, and often of a severe type. | |
| Dhubri | 0·40 | 62·5 | 0·53 | 66·0 | 1·93 | 75·6 | 4·83 | 79·4 | 13·97 | 79·4 | 24·53 | 81·0 | 16·17 | 83·1 | 13·76 | 82·3 | 13·35 | 81·4 | 3·50 | 79·0 | 0·26 | 71·8 | 0·10 | 65·3 | |||
| Sibsagar | 1·47 | 59·9 | 1·96 | 62·9 | 5·07 | 69·7 | 9·37 | 74·6 | 12·63 | 78·9 | 13·69 | 83·2 | 17·10 | 84·5 | 16·19 | 83·8 | 12·22 | 82·6 | 4·84 | 78·0 | 0·98 | 69·1 | 0·57 | 61·1 | |||
| 6 | Jaipur | 0·69 | 61·1 | 0·19 | 63·0 | 0·39 | 75·4 | 0·09 | 84·9 | 0·45 | 90·9 | 2·49 | 91·4 | 9·37 | 84·4 | 10·07 | 85·0 | 4·40 | 82·7 | 0·30 | 78·9 | 0·24 | 68·8 | 0·08 | 62·8 | Rajputana.—Closely resembles the Southern Punjab. | |
| 7 | Kurrachi | 0·72 | 66·8 | 0·31 | 69·4 | 0·23 | 76·8 | 0·33 | 82·2 | 0·00 | 86·3 | 0·52 | 88·5 | 3·47 | 86·1 | 1·55 | 83·8 | 0·54 | 83·6 | 0·00 | 82·2 | 0·09 | 75·0 | 0·16 | 69·0 | Seaport of Sind.—Waterless and desert; but climate modified by proximity to sea. Exceptionally little malariapreviously to the introduction of a regular water supply. | |
| 8 | Deesa | 0·17 | 67·1 | 0·10 | 70·2 | 0·05 | 79·9 | 0·01 | 86·9 | 0·25 | 91·8 | 2·62 | 91·1 | 10·99 | 84·4 | 7·60 | 81·8 | 4·83 | 83·1 | 0·35 | 81·5 | 0·16 | 75·6 | 0·06 | 68·6 | Gujarat.—Scanty rainfall, July, August; heat of prolonged drought modified by proximity to sea. Malariamoderate, more or less throughout the year, with two maxima—in February and October respectively. | |
| 9 | Khandwa | T r o p i c a l I n d i a . | 0·31 | 67·6 | 0·06 | 71·7 | 0·13 | 81·3 | 0·17 | 89·3 | 0·45 | 93·1 | 6·05 | 87·7 | 8·82 | 81·0 | 7·14 | 79·8 | 7·56 | 80·2 | 1·73 | 78·0 | 0·31 | 70·4 | 0·56 | 65·3 | Central India.—Prolonged dry season, intensely hot in May and June; rainfall moderate. Malariaautumnal, prolonged far into cold weather, but seldom particularly virulent. |
| Jubulpur | 0·76 | 62·8 | 0·47 | 66·8 | 0·51 | 77·2 | 0·18 | 86·2 | 0·71 | 91·6 | 9·10 | 87·4 | 20·80 | 80·1 | 16·12 | 79·3 | 8·77 | 79·9 | 2·07 | 75·6 | 0·50 | 66·6 | 0·38 | 60·6 | |||
| Nagpur | 0·55 | 69·2 | 0·27 | 74·2 | 0·61 | 83·1 | 0·34 | 90·8 | 0·80 | 94·9 | 8·74 | 87·9 | 14·73 | 80·9 | 10·25 | 81·0 | 10·13 | 81·2 | 2·95 | 78·9 | 0·90 | 71·8 | 0·64 | 66·8 | |||
| 10 | Bombay | 0·13 | 75·1 | 0·01 | 75·5 | 0·03 | 79·6 | 0·01 | 82·7 | 0·94 | 85·2 | 19·37 | 83·3 | 27·17 | 80·7 | 11·43 | 80·3 | 11·81 | 80·2 | 2·47 | 81·8 | 0·66 | 79·7 | 0·09 | 76·8 | Considerable rainfall, almost confined to three months. Not very malarious. | |
| 11 | Hyderabad | 0·09 | 71·0 | 0·04 | 76·8 | 0·75 | 83·6 | 0·67 | 88·7 | 1·15 | 90·4 | 4·85 | 83·7 | 6·90 | 78·6 | 8·17 | 78·4 | 5·99 | 78·4 | 3·08 | 77·3 | 1·76 | 72·5 | 0·27 | 69·1 | Southern plateau.—Scanty rainfall, but no great annual variation of temperature; intense heat ofcentral region modified by sea breeze as ghauts are approached. Malaria worst in August, prolonged far into cool season, but rarely ofvirulent type. | |
| Poona | 0·06 | 70·0 | 0·04 | 74·2 | 0·05 | 80·7 | 0·54 | 85·5 | 1·65 | 85·3 | 4·73 | 80·6 | 6·87 | 76·3 | 3·22 | 75·7 | 5·21 | 76·3 | 4·80 | 77·5 | 1·31 | 72·4 | 0·26 | 68·6 | |||
| Belgaum | 0·06 | 70·3 | 0·02 | 74·0 | 0·35 | 78·9 | 1·72 | 81·8 | 2·62 | 80·5 | 6·59 | 74·3 | 15·37 | 71·2 | 8·74 | 71·2 | 4·64 | 71·9 | 6·39 | 73·7 | 2·11 | 71·6 | 0·13 | 69·6 | |||
| Bellary | 0·13 | 76·0 | 0·04 | 79·5 | 0·22 | 86·1 | 0·58 | 90·4 | 1·70 | 89·8 | 1·85 | 85·1 | 1·93 | 82·6 | 2·58 | 82·1 | 4·09 | 81·7 | 4·29 | 80·1 | 2·13 | 76·0 | 0·14 | 73·0 | |||
| Bangalore | 0·19 | 67·9 | 0·11 | 72·0 | 0·54 | 77·3 | 1·15 | 81·2 | 4·02 | 80·1 | 3·45 | 75·6 | 4·59 | 73·7 | 5·80 | 73·6 | 4·72 | 73·5 | 7·15 | 72·9 | 3·59 | 70·3 | 0·55 | 68·1 | |||
| Trichinopoly | 0·26 | 77·0 | 0·90 | 80·0 | 0·55 | 85·1 | 1·53 | 89·2 | 3·04 | 89·7 | 1·62 | 88·3 | 1·50 | 87·1 | 4·67 | 86·2 | 3·21 | 85·4 | 7·49 | 82·4 | 5·37 | 79·1 | 2·55 | 76·7 | |||
| 12 | Cochin (West Coast) | 0·59 | 80·0 | 0·62 | 81·2 | 2·44 | 83·7 | 4·37 | 84·7 | 13·30 | 83·2 | 28·41 | 79·5 | 21·51 | 78·6 | 13·31 | 78·7 | 9·38 | 79·2 | 14·01 | 80·1 | 6·77 | 80·6 | 1·81 | 80·3 | Southern littoral.—Climate uniform and moist. No marked malaria-free season, but disease seldomspecially severe. | |
| Madras (East Coast) | 0·89 | 76·0 | 0·28 | 77·2 | 0·39 | 80·6 | 0·62 | 85·1 | 2·12 | 89·3 | 2·11 | 89·3 | 3·87 | 87·0 | 4·56 | 85·5 | 4·69 | 85·2 | 11·00 | 82·1 | 13·21 | 78·7 | 5·28 | 76·7 | |||
| 13 | Rangoon | 0·17 | 76·3 | 0·34 | 78·9 | 0·28 | 83·6 | 1·83 | 87·0 | 9·42 | 84·9 | 17·51 | 81·3 | 21·68 | 80·3 | 18·19 | 80·3 | 16·04 | 80·7 | 6·74 | 81·4 | 2·98 | 80·1 | 0·09 | 77·5 | Lower Burmah.—Resembles Indian Southern littoral in climate, but disease often of severe type. | |
| 14 | Mandalay | 0·08 | 69·7 | 0·07 | 74·8 | 0·21 | 82·4 | 1·37 | 89·4 | 5·56 | 89·0 | 6·21 | 86·5 | 3·17 | 86·1 | 3·88 | 85·3 | 6·54 | 84·8 | 5·08 | 83·1 | 1·28 | 76·9 | 0·28 | 70·5 | Climate resembles that of Southern Indian plateau. Malaria from June to December, worst in August; disease often ofvirulent type. | |
| Table Showing the Monthly Rainfall and Mean Temperature of Thirty-OneIndian Stations. | ||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| No. | Station | January | February | March | April | May | June | |||||||
| Rain- fall | Mean Tem- pera- ture | Rain- fall | Mean Tem- pera- ture | Rain- fall | Mean Tem- pera- ture | Rain- fall | Mean Tem- pera- ture | Rain- fall | Mean Tem- pera- ture | Rain- fall | Mean Tem- pera- ture | |||
| 1 | Simla | S u b - T r o p i c a l I n d i a . | 2·35 | 41·5° | 2·68 | 41·5° | 2·24 | 50·7° | 1·90 | 59·7° | 3·64 | 64·5° | 6·79 | 68·0° |
| 2 | Peshawar (N.) | 1·77 | 51·7 | 0·98 | 53·6 | 1·70 | 64·2 | 1·84 | 73·7 | 0·75 | 83·6 | 0·35 | 91·0 | |
| Lahore (Mid.) | 1·06 | 54·4 | 1·10 | 57·1 | 0·73 | 69·2 | 0·46 | 80·7 | 1·03 | 87·4 | 1·84 | 92·7 | ||
| Multan (S.) | 0·48 | 56·3 | 0·38 | 59·5 | 0·38 | 72·1 | 0·07 | 82·7 | 0·42 | 90·3 | 0·59 | 94·5 | ||
| 3 | Meerut | 1·27 | 57·4 | 0·79 | 61·0 | 0·77 | 72·4 | 0·24 | 83·2 | 0·69 | 88·5 | 2·44 | 91·1 | |
| Agra | 0·53 | 61·0 | 0·21 | 65·0 | 0·31 | 77·2 | 0·14 | 88·2 | 0·60 | 93·7 | 2·54 | 94·8 | ||
| Allahabad | 0·85 | 60·8 | 0·28 | 65·3 | 0·32 | 77·8 | 0·11 | 88·1 | 0·39 | 22·4 | 5·69 | 92·6 | ||
| Benares | 0·79 | 61·2 | 0·37 | 65·9 | 0·28 | 77·8 | 0·08 | 87·9 | 0·72 | 91·6 | 5·13 | 91·6 | ||
| Jhansi | 0·59 | 63·3 | 0·33 | 67·3 | 0·35 | 79·3 | 0·13 | 89·9 | 0·49 | 94·9 | 4·89 | 93·5 | ||
| 4 | Patna | 0·65 | 61·3 | 0·53 | 65·3 | 0·38 | 77·4 | 0·26 | 87·0 | 1·97 | 88·6 | 7·34 | 88·4 | |
| Hazaribagh | 0·56 | 61·7 | 0·82 | 65·8 | 0·75 | 76·3 | 0·41 | 85·2 | 2·26 | 86·3 | 7·63 | 84·2 | ||
| 5 | Calcutta | 0·60 | 66·2 | 1·38 | 70·7 | 1·57 | 80·0 | 1·74 | 85·5 | 7·62 | 85·2 | 10·74 | 85·0 | |
| Dhubri | 0·40 | 62·5 | 0·53 | 66·0 | 1·93 | 75·6 | 4·83 | 79·4 | 13·97 | 79·4 | 24·53 | 81·0 | ||
| Sibsagar | 1·47 | 59·9 | 1·96 | 62·9 | 5·07 | 69·7 | 9·37 | 74·6 | 12·63 | 78·9 | 13·69 | 83·2 | ||
| 6 | Jaipur | 0·69 | 61·1 | 0·19 | 63·0 | 0·39 | 75·4 | 0·09 | 84·9 | 0·45 | 90·9 | 2·49 | 91·4 | |
| 7 | Kurrachi | 0·72 | 66·8 | 0·31 | 69·4 | 0·23 | 76·8 | 0·33 | 82·2 | 0·00 | 86·3 | 0·52 | 88·5 | |
| 8 | Deesa | 0·17 | 67·1 | 0·10 | 70·2 | 0·05 | 79·9 | 0·01 | 86·9 | 0·25 | 91·8 | 2·62 | 91·1 | |
| 9 | Khandwa | T r o p i c a l I n d i a . | 0·31 | 67·6 | 0·06 | 71·7 | 0·13 | 81·3 | 0·17 | 89·3 | 0·45 | 93·1 | 6·05 | 87·7 |
| Jubulpur | 0·76 | 62·8 | 0·47 | 66·8 | 0·51 | 77·2 | 0·18 | 86·2 | 0·71 | 91·6 | 9·10 | 87·4 | ||
| Nagpur | 0·55 | 69·2 | 0·27 | 74·2 | 0·61 | 83·1 | 0·34 | 90·8 | 0·80 | 94·9 | 8·74 | 87·9 | ||
| 10 | Bombay | 0·13 | 75·1 | 0·01 | 75·5 | 0·03 | 79·6 | 0·01 | 82·7 | 0·94 | 85·2 | 19·37 | 83·3 | |
| 11 | Hyderabad | 0·09 | 71·0 | 0·04 | 76·8 | 0·75 | 83·6 | 0·67 | 88·7 | 1·15 | 90·4 | 4·85 | 83·7 | |
| Poona | 0·06 | 70·0 | 0·04 | 74·2 | 0·05 | 80·7 | 0·54 | 85·5 | 1·65 | 85·3 | 4·73 | 80·6 | ||
| Belgaum | 0·06 | 70·3 | 0·02 | 74·0 | 0·35 | 78·9 | 1·72 | 81·8 | 2·62 | 80·5 | 6·59 | 74·3 | ||
| Bellary | 0·13 | 76·0 | 0·04 | 79·5 | 0·22 | 86·1 | 0·58 | 90·4 | 1·70 | 89·8 | 1·85 | 85·1 | ||
| Bangalore | 0·19 | 67·9 | 0·11 | 72·0 | 0·54 | 77·3 | 1·15 | 81·2 | 4·02 | 80·1 | 3·45 | 75·6 | ||
| Trichinopoly | 0·26 | 77·0 | 0·90 | 80·0 | 0·55 | 85·1 | 1·53 | 89·2 | 3·04 | 89·7 | 1·62 | 88·3 | ||
| 12 | Cochin (West Coast) | 0·59 | 80·0 | 0·62 | 81·2 | 2·44 | 83·7 | 4·37 | 84·7 | 13·30 | 83·2 | 28·41 | 79·5 | |
| Madras (East Coast) | 0·89 | 76·0 | 0·28 | 77·2 | 0·39 | 80·6 | 0·62 | 85·1 | 2·12 | 89·3 | 2·11 | 89·3 | ||
| 13 | Rangoon | 0·17 | 76·3 | 0·34 | 78·9 | 0·28 | 83·6 | 1·83 | 87·0 | 9·42 | 84·9 | 17·51 | 81·3 | |
| 14 | Mandalay | 0·08 | 69·7 | 0·07 | 74·8 | 0·21 | 82·4 | 1·37 | 89·4 | 5·56 | 89·0 | 6·21 | 86·5 | |
| No. | Station | July | August | September | October | November | December | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rain- fall | Mean Tem- pera- ture | Rain- fall | Mean Tem- pera- ture | Rain- fall | Mean Tem- pera- ture | Rain- fall | Mean Tem- pera- ture | Rain- fall | Mean Tem- pera- ture | Rain- fall | Mean Tem- pera- ture | ||
| 1 | Simla | 17·55 | 65·0° | 17·98 | 63·5° | 6·56 | 62·4° | 1·22 | 56·8° | 0·54 | 49·7° | 0·74 | 45·8° |
| 2 | Peshawar (N.) | 1·79 | 99·0 | 2·70 | 88·4 | 0·64 | 82·8 | 0·11 | 72·9 | 0·57 | 60·6 | 0·34 | 53·0 |
| Lahore (Mid.) | 6·67 | 89·5 | 5·83 | 87·4 | 2·49 | 84·9 | 0·26 | 76·6 | 0·10 | 63·7 | 0·38 | 56·1 | |
| Multan (S.) | 2·94 | 93·1 | 1·58 | 91·1 | 0·42 | 88·5 | 0·00 | 70·9 | 0·10 | 67·8 | 0·20 | 58·6 | |
| 3 | Meerut | 9·54 | 86·3 | 10·59 | 84·5 | 5·74 | 83·2 | 0·42 | 76·4 | 0·08 | 65·3 | 0·32 | 58·6 |
| Agra | 11·50 | 86·6 | 7·67 | 84·5 | 4·91 | 84·3 | 0·47 | 80·4 | 0·05 | 60·5 | 0·19 | 62·1 | |
| Allahabad | 12·33 | 85·4 | 11·10 | 84·1 | 6·05 | 83·8 | 1·83 | 78·8 | 0·17 | 68·2 | 0·32 | 61·2 | |
| Benares | 10·74 | 85·5 | 11·83 | 84·3 | 6·59 | 84·2 | 2·30 | 79·3 | 0·36 | 68·7 | 0·24 | 61·4 | |
| Jhansi | 12·60 | 84·5 | 12·50 | 82·6 | 6·80 | 83·1 | 0·70 | 80·5 | 0·12 | 70·4 | 0·13 | 64·3 | |
| 4 | Patna | 11·75 | 85·1 | 11·30 | 84·4 | 7·40 | 84·7 | 3·25 | 80·5 | 0·17 | 70·7 | 0·13 | 62·6 |
| Hazaribagh | 14·16 | 79·0 | 13·11 | 78·3 | 8·76 | 78·3 | 3·41 | 75·0 | 0·20 | 67·2 | 0·22 | 66·9 | |
| 5 | Calcutta | 12·46 | 83·2 | 12·95 | 82·6 | 9·33 | 82·6 | 4·39 | 80·5 | 0·66 | 72·9 | 0·24 | 66·1 |
| Dhubri | 16·17 | 83·1 | 13·76 | 82·3 | 13·35 | 81·4 | 3·50 | 79·0 | 0·26 | 71·8 | 0·10 | 65·3 | |
| Sibsagar | 17·10 | 84·5 | 16·19 | 83·8 | 12·22 | 82·6 | 4·84 | 78·0 | 0·98 | 69·1 | 0·57 | 61·1 | |
| 6 | Jaipur | 9·37 | 84·4 | 10·07 | 85·0 | 4·40 | 82·7 | 0·30 | 78·9 | 0·24 | 68·8 | 0·08 | 62·8 |
| 7 | Kurrachi | 3·47 | 86·1 | 1·55 | 83·8 | 0·54 | 83·6 | 0·00 | 82·2 | 0·09 | 75·0 | 0·16 | 69·0 |
| 8 | Deesa | 10·99 | 84·4 | 7·60 | 81·8 | 4·83 | 83·1 | 0·35 | 81·5 | 0·16 | 75·6 | 0·06 | 68·6 |
| 9 | Khandwa | 8·82 | 81·0 | 7·14 | 79·8 | 7·56 | 80·2 | 1·73 | 78·0 | 0·31 | 70·4 | 0·56 | 65·3 |
| Jubulpur | 20·80 | 80·1 | 16·12 | 79·3 | 8·77 | 79·9 | 2·07 | 75·6 | 0·50 | 66·6 | 0·38 | 60·6 | |
| Nagpur | 14·73 | 80·9 | 10·25 | 81·0 | 10·13 | 81·2 | 2·95 | 78·9 | 0·90 | 71·8 | 0·64 | 66·8 | |
| 10 | Bombay | 27·17 | 80·7 | 11·43 | 80·3 | 11·81 | 80·2 | 2·47 | 81·8 | 0·66 | 79·7 | 0·09 | 76·8 |
| 11 | Hyderabad | 6·90 | 78·6 | 8·17 | 78·4 | 5·99 | 78·4 | 3·08 | 77·3 | 1·76 | 72·5 | 0·27 | 69·1 |
| Poona | 6·87 | 76·3 | 3·22 | 75·7 | 5·21 | 76·3 | 4·80 | 77·5 | 1·31 | 72·4 | 0·26 | 68·6 | |
| Belgaum | 15·37 | 71·2 | 8·74 | 71·2 | 4·64 | 71·9 | 6·39 | 73·7 | 2·11 | 71·6 | 0·13 | 69·6 | |
| Bellary | 1·93 | 82·6 | 2·58 | 82·1 | 4·09 | 81·7 | 4·29 | 80·1 | 2·13 | 76·0 | 0·14 | 73·0 | |
| Bangalore | 4·59 | 73·7 | 5·80 | 73·6 | 4·72 | 73·5 | 7·15 | 72·9 | 3·59 | 70·3 | 0·55 | 68·1 | |
| Trichinopoly | 1·50 | 87·1 | 4·67 | 86·2 | 3·21 | 85·4 | 7·49 | 82·4 | 5·37 | 79·1 | 2·55 | 76·7 | |
| 12 | Cochin (West Coast) | 21·51 | 78·6 | 13·31 | 78·7 | 9·38 | 79·2 | 14·01 | 80·1 | 6·77 | 80·6 | 1·81 | 80·3 |
| Madras (East Coast) | 3·87 | 87·0 | 4·56 | 85·5 | 4·69 | 85·2 | 11·00 | 82·1 | 13·21 | 78·7 | 5·28 | 76·7 | |
| 13 | Rangoon | 21·68 | 80·3 | 18·19 | 80·3 | 16·04 | 80·7 | 6·74 | 81·4 | 2·98 | 80·1 | 0·09 | 77·5 |
| 14 | Mandalay | 3·17 | 86·1 | 3·88 | 85·3 | 6·54 | 84·8 | 5·08 | 83·1 | 1·28 | 76·9 | 0·28 | 70·5 |
| No. | Station | Remarks |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Simla | Hill station, with practically temperate climate. Not malarious. |
| 2 | Peshawar (N.) | Punjab Stations.—Intensely hot in summer, quite cold in winter; rainfall scanty. Malaria rifefrom August to November; sometimes of a very virulent type. |
| Lahore (Mid.) | ||
| Multan (S.) | ||
| 3 | Meerut | North-West Provinces.—Hot and dry from April to mid-June; then to September moderate rain; coolwith bright sun, November to March. Malarious from August to November, but seldom of a severe type. |
| Agra | ||
| Allahabad | ||
| Benares | ||
| Jhansi | ||
| 4 | Patna | Upper Bengal.—Intermediate in climate and salubrity between N.W.P. and Lower Bengal. |
| Hazaribagh | ||
| 5 | Calcutta | Lower Bengal and Assam.—Moist, except for a few weeks in March and April; heavy and prolongedrains, but seldom with intense heat. Malaria prolonged, and often of a severe type. |
| Dhubri | ||
| Sibsagar | ||
| 6 | Jaipur | Rajputana.—Closely resembles the Southern Punjab. |
| 7 | Kurrachi | Seaport of Sind.—Waterless and desert; but climate modified by proximity to sea. Exceptionally little malariapreviously to the introduction of a regular water supply. |
| 8 | Deesa | Gujarat.—Scanty rainfall, July, August; heat of prolonged drought modified by proximity to sea. Malariamoderate, more or less throughout the year, with two maxima—in February and October respectively. |
| 9 | Khandwa | Central India.—Prolonged dry season, intensely hot in May and June; rainfall moderate. Malariaautumnal, prolonged far into cold weather, but seldom particularly virulent. |
| Jubulpur | ||
| Nagpur | ||
| 10 | Bombay | Considerable rainfall, almost confined to three months. Not very malarious. |
| 11 | Hyderabad | Southern plateau.—Scanty rainfall, but no great annual variation of temperature; intense heat ofcentral region modified by sea breeze as ghauts are approached. Malaria worst in August, prolonged far into cool season, but rarely ofvirulent type. |
| Poona | ||
| Belgaum | ||
| Bellary | ||
| Bangalore | ||
| Trichinopoly | ||
| 12 | Cochin (West Coast) | Southern littoral.—Climate uniform and moist. No marked malaria-free season, but disease seldomspecially severe. |
| Madras (East Coast) | ||
| 13 | Rangoon | Lower Burmah.—Resembles Indian Southern littoral in climate, but disease often of severe type. |
| 14 | Mandalay | Climate resembles that of Southern Indian plateau. Malaria from June to December, worst in August; disease often ofvirulent type. |
In the third zone, that of Bengal, the cold weather is short, but even in Calcutta there are two months during which ordinary European clothing becomes desirable. There is a short hot weather, relieved by a rainy period, the “chota barsât,” about Easter, but the heat never approaches that of the western part of the continental triangle. The rainfall is extremely heavy towards the east, as in Assam, so that extensive floods are common, and malaria necessarily very common and often serious.
In the northern part of the peninsular triangle we find the same tendency to dryness in the west and moisture in the east, Khathiawar and Surat having but moderate rainfalls, while that of Orissa is very heavy; but in neither is either the fierce heat or bracing cold weather of the northern triangle to be met with.
Between the two lie the “Central” Provinces, which, apart from some favoured spots, such as Saugor and Chindwara, which have an elevation of over 2,000 feet, undoubtedly possess one of the vilest climates in India, or in the world. The hot, dry weather is severe and prolonged, and towards the burst of the monsoon is combined with a moist atmosphere without any alleviation of the heat. The writer has personally verified in the Nerbudah valley a temperature of 105° F. (40·6° C.) at 4.30 a.m. in the open, the observation being taken carefully with a swung Kew thermometer.
The so-called cold weather lasts barely two months, and the only time of the year that by any stretch of politeness can be said to be pleasant, is that of the rains, which probably rather by force of contrast than by virtue of any real superiority to the same season elsewhere, includes days when the air seems really refreshing.
The entire coast and the greater part of the surface of the southern portion of the peninsula have a warm, equable climate with a considerable rainfall. Portions of Haidrababad and Mysore, in the plateau of the Deccan, approach continental conditions, being somewhat dry and arid, and occasionally visited by droughts, but the climate of the greater part of the country is profoundly influenced by its proximity to the great oceans that wash its coasts. In this inland plateau the distribution of the rainfall has the further peculiarity of being much later than elsewhere, the rainiest month in Mysore being not July, as in most other localities throughout India, but November: this corresponds to the second rainy season, the first rainy season being represented by a somewhat smaller maximum in August. There is no very marked difference between the climates of the eastern and western coasts, though as will be seen on comparing the figures for Chochin and Madras in the subjoined [table], the monthly rainfall is somewhat differently distributed.
| Colombo. Lat. 6° 50′ N.; Long. 80° 0′ E. Observatory a few Feetabove Sea-level. | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Months | Mean Monthly Maxima | Mean Monthly Minima | Relative Humidity | Mean Monthly Rainfall | |||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | ||
| January | 89·8 | 32·1 | 72·6 | 22·6 | 80 | 3·72 | 94·6 |
| February | 91·9 | 33·2 | 74·4 | 23·5 | 75 | 0·63 | 16·0 |
| March | 94·0 | 34·4 | 75·7 | 24·3 | 73 | 3·71 | 94·1 |
| April | 90·0 | 33·2 | 76·2 | 24·5 | 83 | 9·73 | 247·5 |
| May | 89·8 | 32·1 | 78·7 | 25·9 | 86 | 16·0 | 406·4 |
| June | 87·4 | 30·7 | 78·5 | 25·8 | 84 | 7·83 | 199·3 |
| July | 86·3 | 30·2 | 76·5 | 24·7 | 84 | 6·77 | 171·5 |
| August | 87·2 | 30·7 | 77·3 | 25·2 | 83 | 7·35 | 186·7 |
| September | 86·9 | 30·5 | 76·5 | 24·7 | 83 | 4·00 | 101·6 |
| October | 89·1 | 31·8 | 75·4 | 24·1 | 82 | 9·47 | 241·0 |
| November | 88·4 | 31·3 | 74·3 | 23·4 | 80 | 9·25 | 234·9 |
| December | 85·5 | 29·7 | 73·1 | 22·9 | 82 | 5·20 | 132·1 |
These climatic conditions are naturally found in their most typical form on the island of Ceylon, the climatic data of which are epitomised in the above table for the capital of the island, Colombo, which is situated on the western coast.
The total rainfall is about 88 ins. (2,237 mm.), and the mean annual temperature 80° F. (26·7 C.).
The bursting of the south-west monsoon, which is one of the main factors in determining the sequence of seasons in India, takes place in Ceylon in the latter half of May, and gradually creeps northward, reaching Bombay early in June, and finding its way inland in the latter half of that month. Traditionally, the 15th June is the date for the advent of the rains in Northern India, but it is rarely that the hopes of the anxious denizens of the broiling plains are fulfilled by its appearance at so early a date, and the end of the month probably more nearly approaches the average. On rare occasions the rain may not come till the 15th July, and the last month of waiting in such years is always a time of much tedium and suffering, as the absence of precipitation does not prevent the air from becoming saturated with moisture, which, combined with unabated high temperature, renders the lives of all subjected to it barely tolerable.
India is fortunately well provided with hill-stations, Bombay being the only presidency which is badly off in this respect. There the two or three health resorts reach an elevation of no more than from 4,000 to 5,000 ft., and are practically utilised only during the hot, dry season preceding the burst of the monsoon. Once the rains are established the health-seeker has to leave these stations for Poona, a large station on the summit of the western ghauts, where, thanks to the pleasant sea-breeze, the climate during the rains, if rather too warm for choice, is on the whole very pleasant.
Madras possesses excellent sanatoria in the Nihilgerris, the principal hill-station of Ootacamand, at an elevation of over 6,000 ft., being in many respects the best of the Indian hill-stations. Owing to its southerly position it enjoys an admirable climate all the year round, and unlike the Himalayan stations, which are perched on steep spurs and peaks, is situated on a wide, rolling table-land, so that it is possible to drive about in ordinary carriages, and even to follow the hounds, though, it must be confessed, the hunting is much more like that to be got with the Dartmoor hounds than in “the Shires.”
| Temperature Table of Indian Stations Expressed in Metric System. | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Place | Eleva- tion, Metres | Mean Annual Temper- ature | Coldest Month | Warmest Month | |||||
| Name | Temper- ature | Name | Temper- ature | ||||||
| Bengal | - | Darjeeling | 2,107 | 12·2 | Jan. | 5·0 | July | 17·2 | |
| Calcutta | 6 | 25·4 | Dec.-Jan. | 18·4 | May | 29·5 | |||
| Saugor Dl | 7 | 25·7 | Dec. | 19·2 | May | 29·5 | |||
| Dacca | 6 | 25·4 | Jan. | 18·9 | July | 28·4 | |||
| Chittagong | 26 | 24·9 | Jan. | 19·1 | May | 27·8 | |||
| Assam | - | Sibsagar | 101 | 19·1 | Jan. | 14·3 | July | 28·3 | |
| Goalpara | 118 | 23·6 | Jan. | 17·2 | July | 27·2 | |||
| Silchar | 31 | 22·4 | Jan. | 14·3 | July | 28·4 | |||
| Oussa and Central Provinces | - | False Point | 4 | 25·4 | Dec. | 19·2 | June | 28·9 | |
| Kutták | 24 | 26·7 | Dec. | 20·4 | May | 30·9 | |||
| Jubulpur | 404 | 24·1 | Dec. | 15·7 | May | 32·7 | |||
| Pachmari | 1,070 | 20·9 | Dec. | 13·7 | May | 29·3 | |||
| Nagpur | 312 | 26·2 | Dec. | 19·3 | May | 34·4 | |||
| Sironcha | 122 | 27·6 | Dec. | 20·6 | May | 35·0 | |||
| Punjab | - | Peshawar | 420 | 21·7 | Jan. | 10·8 | June | 32·8 | |
| Lahore | 150 | 22·8 | Jan. | 12·2 | June | 33·3 | |||
| Multán | 130 | 23·9 | Jan. | 13·3 | June | 34·7 | |||
| United Provinces | - | Meerut | 100 | 22·8 | Jan. | 57·4 | June | 32·8 | |
| Jhánsi | 200 | 23·3 | Jan. | 63·3 | June | 34·2 | |||
| Western Presidency | - | Bombay | 11 | 26·4 | Jan. | 22·8 | May | 29·3 | |
| Poona | 561 | 24·3 | Jan. | 20·2 | April | 29·2 | |||
| Sholapur | 485 | 26·1 | Jan. | 21·4 | May | 31·8 | |||
| Secunderabád | 544 | 25·7 | Jan. | 20·8 | May | 31·8 | |||
| Eastern Presidency | - | Vizagapatám | 9 | 28·2 | Jan. | 24·0 | May | 31·1 | |
| Belgaum | 769 | 22·4 | Jan. | 20·6 | April | 35·9 | |||
| Bellary | 450 | 26·9 | Jan. | 22·5 | April | 31·8 | |||
| Madras | 7 | 27·7 | Jan. | 24·2 | May-June | 30·7 | |||
| Trichinopoly | 78 | 28·1 | Jan. | 24·6 | April | 31·2 | |||
| Mercára | 1,152 | 19·8 | Jan. | 18·4 | April | 22·7 | |||
| Wellington | 1,890 | 16·2 | Jan. | 12·8 | May | 18·8 | |||
| Dodabetta Peak | 2,633 | 11·2 | Jan. | 9·7 | May | 13·8 | |||
| Agustia Peak | 1,890 | 14·3 | Jan. | 12·2 | April | 16·3 | |||
| Tevandrum | 4 | 25·5 | Jan. | 24·5 | April | 27·0 | |||
The Northern, or sub-tropical, triangle possesses a large number of elevated health stations, varying from 5,000 to 9,000 ft., from Darjeeling, north of Calcutta, to Thandiani, near Peshawar. All of these afford an excellent refuge from the extreme heat of the plains, but the eastern stations have so heavy a rainfall as to make them barely tenable during the rains, although Assam possesses, in Shillong, a delightful health resort, not unlike Ootacamand in miniature, where the rainfall is comparatively moderate and it is possible to drive about the station, if one is not too particular as to the size and magnificence of one’s equipage. With this exception, however, it is better, provided the choice be an open one, to resort to one of the western Himalayan stations, as in the others the period of the rains is somewhat trying even to adults, and is especially badly borne by children.
The principal data of the climates of the regions described above may be gathered in detail from an inspection of the table on [pages 56, 57], as the places therein mentioned include one or more towns in each of the regions into which we have, for purposes of description, divided the Indian peninsula. Owing to the size of page it is impossible to adhere to our general plan of tabulating the facts in both the English and Continental scales, and in place of duplicating the table according to the metric nomenclature, it has been thought better to reproduce a [table] of the same character from Hann’s “Klimatologie,” as by this course the facts are expressed from a different point of view, and it enables us to some extent to supplement the original list with the data of a number of additional places.
Lastly, the table on [next page], from Blanford, is reproduced, as it illustrates well the remarkable differences of climate in the matter of annual ranges of temperature that are to be found within the confines of the Indian peninsula.
The Bay of Bengal naturally has a climate which generally resembles that of the surrounding coasts. During the south-west monsoon the winds are strong, and there is generally a heavy sea running, but throughout the period of north-easterly winds, from October to May, a calm sea with moderate breezes will as a rule be met with, the pleasant weather being interrupted only by occasional cyclonic storms during the first half of the period. Short spells of rather bad weather due to disturbances of this sort will be met with in every year, and it is rare for a season to pass without rather heavy weather, but the really serious storms, which meet the popular notions of what a “cyclone” should be, are fortunately rather rare. Of these dangerous disturbances, the greatest number occur in October, but they are not unknown even in the period of the south-west monsoon. Out of 111 noticeable revolving storms “in the Bay” that have occurred in 139 years, Blanford states that the monthly distribution has been as follows:—
| Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apl. | May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2 | 0 | 2 | 9 | 21 | 10 | 3 | 4 | 6 | 31 | 18 | 9 |
| Table of Mean and Absolute Extreme Temperatures in CertainIndian Stations. | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Place | Annual Range of Temperature | Mean Maximum Temperature | Mean Minimum Temperature | Absolute Maximum Temperature | Absolute Minimum Temperature | |||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | |
| Leh | 94 | 52·2 | 90 | 32·2 | -4 | -20·0 | 93 | 33·9 | -17 | -27·2 |
| Quetta | 84 | 46·6 | 99 | 37·2 | 15 | -9·4 | 103 | 39·4 | 11 | -11·8 |
| Simla | 63 | 35·0 | 88 | 31·1 | 25 | -3·9 | 94·5 | 34·7 | 20 | -6·8 |
| Peshawar | 86 | 47·8 | 115 | 46·1 | 29 | -1·7 | 119 | 48·3 | 24·5 | -4·1 |
| Multan | 80 | 44·5 | 114 | 45·6 | 30 | 1·1 | 118 | 47·8 | 29·1 | -1·7 |
| Lahore | 83 | 46·1 | 117 | 47·2 | 30 | 1·1 | 120 | 49·0 | 30 | -1·2 |
| Jacobabad | 86 | 47·8 | 118 | 47·8 | 32 | 0·0 | 121 | 49·4 | 29 | -1·6 |
| Kurrachi | 62 | 34·5 | 107 | 41·7 | 45 | 7·2 | 117·5 | 47·5 | 41 | 5·0 |
| Mount Abu | 57 | 31·7 | 96 | 35·6 | 39 | 3·9 | 101 | 38·3 | 32·6 | 0·4 |
| Deesa | 72 | 40·0 | 112 | 44·4 | 40 | 4·4 | 118·5 | 48·1 | 34·2 | 1·2 |
| Agra | 76 | 42·3 | 116 | 46·7 | 40 | 4·4 | 120·5 | 49·2 | 36·4 | 2·4 |
| Calcutta | 54 | 30·0 | 102 | 38·9 | 48 | 8·9 | 105·5 | 40·8 | 45 | 7·2 |
| Sibsagar | 57 | 31·6 | 99 | 37·2 | 42 | 5·6 | 102 | 38·9 | 40 | 4·4 |
| Nagpur | 69 | 38·3 | 115 | 46·1 | 46 | 7·8 | 117·5 | 47·5 | 43·2 | 6·2 |
| Bombay | 34 | 18·9 | 95 | 35·0 | 61 | 16·1 | 100 | 37·9 | 53·2 | 11·8 |
| Sholapur | 63 | 35·0 | 110 | 43·3 | 47 | 8·3 | 112 | 44·4 | 42·9 | 6·0 |
| Darjeeling | 48 | 26·7 | 78 | 25·6 | 30 | -1·1 | 84 | 29·0 | 26·0 | -3·3 |
| Madras | 48 | 26·6 | 108 | 42·2 | 60 | 15·6 | 113 | 45·0 | 57·5 | 14·2 |
| Wellington | 43 | 23·9 | 80 | 26·7 | 37 | 2·8 | 81 | 27·2 | 34·2 | 1·2 |
| Colombo | 25 | 13·9 | 93 | 33·9 | 68 | 20·0 | 95·5 | 35·4 | 65·8 | 18·8 |
| Newera Eliya | 42 | 23·3 | 77 | 25·0 | 35 | 1·7 | 79 | 26·1 | 0·0 | 0·0 |
| Akyab | 45 | 25·0 | 96 | 35·6 | 51 | 10·6 | 99 | 37·3 | 47·4 | 8·5 |
| Rangoon | 46 | 25·6 | 104 | 40·0 | 58 | 14·4 | 106·5 | 41·5 | 55·8 | 13·2 |
| Port Blair | 26 | 14·4 | 95 | 35·0 | 69 | 20·6 | 96·5 | 35·8 | 65·8 | 18·8 |
It will be noted that there is a second maximum in May, so that one of the most important factors in determining these storms is obviously the change of the monsoon. Their influence rarely reaches far inland, so that one rarely hears of serious damage being inflicted much further inland than Calcutta, and even there, the havoc seldom goes beyond the uprooting of a few trees and the unroofing of crazy native huts. At sea these storms are no light danger, but it is to be doubted if they ever approach the terrific visitations that are to be met with in the West Indies.
The Indo-Malay Peninsula.
—The climate of the coast of Arakan and Lower Burmah generally resembles that of the other side of the Bay of Bengal, but has a much heavier rainfall, as may be seen from an inspection of the following table of four ports situated on the west coast of the peninsula with that of Madras.
| Table showing Comparison of Rainfall on West and East Coasts,Bay of Bengal. | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Madras (West Coast of Bay) | Port Blair Island (nearer Burmah) | Akyab (East Coast of Bay to North) | Moulmein (East Coast of Bay, middle) | Selangor (East Coast of Bay to South) | ||||||
| Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | |
| January | 0·98 | 28 | 0·91 | 23 | 0·13 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 7·37 | 187 |
| February | 0·33 | 8 | 1·30 | 33 | 0·19 | 5 | 0·08 | 2 | 6·03 | 153 |
| March | 0·39 | 10 | 0·39 | 10 | 0·54 | 13 | 0·13 | 3 | 7·84 | 199 |
| April | 0·59 | 15 | 2·40 | 61 | 1·63 | 41 | 2·76 | 70 | 10·04 | 255 |
| May | 2·20 | 56 | 15·08 | 404 | 12·21 | 310 | 19·68 | 500 | 10·72 | 272 |
| June | 2·09 | 53 | 17·08 | 455 | 51·63 | 1,311 | 38·38 | 975 | 3·04 | 77 |
| July | 3·78 | 96 | 16·54 | 419 | 50·98 | 1,295 | 43·98 | 1,115 | 3·98 | 101 |
| August | 4·42 | 112 | 15·20 | 386 | 38·57 | 980 | 43·0 | 1,092 | 7·68 | 195 |
| September | 4·68 | 119 | 19·65 | 498 | 22·98 | 584 | 30·32 | 770 | 7·18 | 182 |
| October | 10·08 | 274 | 11·80 | 300 | 12·40 | 315 | 8·39 | 218 | 11·17 | 283 |
| November | 13·70 | 348 | 9·49 | 241 | 3·89 | 99 | 1·49 | 38 | 11·01 | 280 |
| December | 5·13 | 130 | 5·33 | 135 | 6·59 | 15 | 0·13 | 3 | 9·77 | 248 |
| Year | 49·12 | 1,246 | 116·73 | 2,965 | 195·72 | 4,971 | 188·32 | 4,781 | 101·30 | 2,573 |
The more even distribution and the appearance of two maxima as the Equator is approached are also well shown in this table, which further shows that the north-east coast of the Bay of Bengal includes some of the rainiest places on the face of the globe.
Although the Burmese coast has so moist a climate, the greater part of the moisture pouring in from the sea is precipitated on the rather high range of hills that extends along the entire length of this peninsula, at no great distance from the coast; so that as we ascend the Irrawaddy, the rainfall steadily diminishes, until in the far inland regions of Upper Burmah we get a climate reproducing, in many respects, that of north-western India, though of course to a much less marked degree. This change from extreme moisture to moderate dryness may be followed by comparing the three following climatic tables of stations in Burmah.
| Climatic Table of Burmese Stations. | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Rangoon, near Coast. Lat. 16° 30′ N. | Mandalay, Inland. Lat. 22° N. | Bhamo, Chinese Frontier. Lat. 24° 20′ N. | ||||||
| Mean Monthly Maxima | Mean Monthly Minima | Mean Monthly Rainfall | Mean Monthly Maxima | Mean Monthly Minima | Mean Monthly Rainfall | Mean Monthly Maxima | Mean Monthly Minima | Mean Monthly Rainfall | |
| January | 89·1 | 64·2 | 0·11 | 84·1 | 56·0 | 0·06 | 77·2 | 48·5 | 0·71 |
| February | 92·8 | 65·9 | 0·23 | 89·9 | 60·1 | 0·08 | 82·2 | 53·1 | 0·39 |
| March | 96·6 | 71·1 | 0·16 | 97·7 | 67·9 | 0·21 | 89·0 | 60·1 | 0·69 |
| April | 98·6 | 76·2 | 1·74 | 102·3 | 77·8 | 1·19 | 93·9 | 67·6 | 1·65 |
| May | 91·9 | 77·3 | 11·73 | 99·0 | 79·0 | 5·26 | 93·7 | 72·7 | 6·15 |
| June | 86·5 | 76·5 | 18·30 | 95·0 | 78·5 | 5·71 | 90·5 | 74·9 | 13·35 |
| July | 85·3 | 75·8 | 21·37 | 94·2 | 78·4 | 3·26 | 87·8 | 75·1 | 19·17 |
| August | 85·1 | 75·7 | 19·65 | 93·3 | 77·6 | 4·16 | 88·1 | 75·4 | 16·40 |
| September | 85·7 | 75·9 | 15·89 | 92·8 | 76·9 | 6·21 | 90·1 | 74·5 | 8·79 |
| October | 87·7 | 75·6 | 7·12 | 91·8 | 74·8 | 4·54 | 88·5 | 69·6 | 3·47 |
| November | 87·6 | 72·3 | 2·52 | 86·7 | 67·2 | 1·67 | 81·8 | 59·2 | 0·93 |
| December | 87·3 | 67·3 | 0·07 | 82·3 | 59·3 | 0·28 | 76·3 | 50·7 | 0·44 |
| Year | 89·5 | 72·8 | 98·89 | 92·4 | 71·1 | 32·63 | 82·6 | 65·1 | 72·14 |
Conditions of space make it difficult here to express the data in both scales, accordingly the English scale only is given. The higher rainfall of Bhamo as compared with Mandalay is attributable to its proximity to the great range of hills which divide Burmah from China.
Straits Settlements.
—Singapore has, or had, a yacht club, “The Equatorial,” the course for whose regattas was supposed to be “the Line,” so that the climate of this colony is necessarily of the equatorial type. There is practically no seasonal change, as although the maxima of rainfall occur in March-April and December, the other months have also an amount of precipitation not far short of these specially rainy months. The annual range of temperature is under 18° F. (10° C), and though the climate is rather moist, excessive heat is never met with; the mean maximum of April, the warmest month, being but 89° F. The main climatic facts may be gathered from the subjoined table:—
| Singapore. Lat. 1° 16′ N.; Long. 103° 53′ E. Observatory a fewFeet above the Sea. | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Mean Temperature | Mean Maximum Temperature | Mean Minimum Temperature | Relative Humidity % | Rainfall | Number of Rainy Days | ||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | |||
| January | 78·2 | 25·7 | 85·6 | 29·8 | 71·7 | 22·0 | 79 | 10·30 | 261·6 | 16 |
| February | 79·0 | 26·1 | 87·1 | 30·6 | 71·6 | 21·9 | 79 | 6·18 | 156·3 | 9 |
| March | 79·9 | 26·6 | 88·0 | 31·1 | 73·3 | 23·0 | 80 | 8·41 | 213·7 | 14 |
| April | 81·2 | 27·3 | 89·0 | 31·7 | 74·8 | 23·7 | 79 | 8·39 | 213·5 | 15 |
| May | 82·7 | 28·2 | 88·9 | 31·6 | 76·4 | 24·6 | 79 | 5·58 | 141·3 | 13 |
| June | 80·9 | 27·1 | 86·7 | 30·4 | 75·6 | 24·3 | 81 | 6·37 | 161·7 | 16 |
| July | 81·7 | 27·6 | 87·5 | 30·8 | 75·4 | 24·1 | 76 | 7·74 | 196·6 | 13 |
| August | 80·8 | 27·0 | 86·3 | 30·2 | 74·9 | 23·8 | 78 | 6·83 | 173·0 | 14 |
| September | 80·5 | 26·9 | 86·9 | 30·5 | 74·2 | 23·5 | 77 | 5·83 | 148·2 | 12 |
| October | 80·4 | 26·8 | 87·1 | 30·7 | 74·1 | 23·4 | 79 | 8·61 | 218·8 | 17 |
| November | 79·3 | 26·3 | 86·1 | 30·1 | 73·6 | 23·2 | 82 | 9·24 | 234·5 | 18 |
| December | 77·4 | 25·2 | 83·2 | 28·5 | 73·5 | 23·1 | 89 | 10·84 | 275·5 | 17 |
| Year | 80·1 | 26·7 | 86·9 | 30·5 | 74·0 | 26·7 | 80 | 93·99 | 2387 | 174 |
| Figures for 1896 | Averages of 10 years | |||||||||
During January and February the wind is mainly from the north-east, but varies greatly, often veering round to the north-west. The south-west monsoon, known here as the “Java winds,” comes on about April and continues only to July, after which month, till November, the winds are again very variable, the most common directions being south-south-west, south-east, and west.
Considering its proximity to the Equator the climate is wonderfully pleasant, the nights being always cool enough to sleep at ease, and though there is generally a pleasant breeze, the island enjoys an almost complete immunity from storms.
Siam
, owing to its geographical position, is to some extent preserved from the heat, rain, and devastating cyclones common in adjoining countries, the high mountains with which it is almost completely surrounded, cutting it off from most of their effects. The coolest month is December, though the absolute minimum may occur at any time from November to February; and the hottest, April.
The lowest temperature recorded during ten years by Staff-Surg. J. Campbell, R.N., from whose observations these notes are compiled, was 57° F. (13·9° C), and the highest 97·5° F. (36·4° C). December is the driest, and September the moistest month of the year, and hail fell once in fifteen years. Droughts are rare. The south-west monsoon becomes weak in September. Early in October northerly breezes set in, varying at first to east and west of north, and by November the north-east monsoon is established, to reach its strongest in December, and then gradually failing till early in March, when the “Kiti” breezes—south to south-south-west—usher in the monsoon. From May to August the winds are sometimes boisterous. The above remarks apply to Lower Siam and to Bangkok in particular, for which the table below, compiled from Campbell’s figures, gives the main climatic data.
| Bangkok. Lat. 13° 58′ N.; Long. 100° 34′ W.Near Sea-level. | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Mean Temperature | Mean Maximum Temperature | Mean Minimum Temperature | Relative Humidity | Rainfall | Number of Rainy days | ||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | |||
| January | 76·1 | 24·5 | 87·7 | 30·9 | 69·4 | 20·7 | 75 | 0·09 | 2·4 | 2 |
| February | 79·1 | 26·2 | 88·6 | 31·5 | 74·1 | 23·4 | 78 | 0·56 | 14·2 | 7 |
| March | 82·5 | 28·1 | 93·0 | 33·9 | 74·5 | 23·6 | 74 | 0·83 | 21·4 | 1 |
| April | 83·4 | 28·5 | 94·1 | 34·5 | 79·0 | 26·1 | 75 | 2·42 | 51·1 | 10 |
| May | 82·3 | 27·9 | 89·7 | 32·0 | 76·8 | 24·8 | 78 | 10·54 | 268·0 | 20 |
| June | 82·3 | 27·9 | 89·4 | 31·8 | 78·1 | 25·7 | 78 | 7·72 | 195·7 | 16 |
| July | 81·4 | 27·4 | 88·1 | 31·2 | 76·2 | 24·5 | 78 | 8·02 | 204·0 | 26 |
| August | 81·4 | 27·4 | 89·0 | 31·7 | 76·2 | 24·5 | 79 | 5·65 | 143·5 | 17 |
| September | 80·3 | 26·8 | 88·6 | 31·5 | 76·7 | 24·8 | 82 | 11·30 | 287·0 | 22 |
| October | 80·1 | 26·7 | 87·3 | 30·7 | 75·1 | 24·0 | 82 | 7·46 | 189·3 | 14 |
| November | 76·8 | 24·9 | 83·7 | 28·8 | 70·3 | 21·3 | 77 | 2·36 | 59·8 | 6 |
| December | 74·8 | 23·8 | 81·6 | 27·6 | 63·3 | 17·4 | 74 | 0·09 | 2·4 | 2 |
| Year | 80·1 | 26·6 | 88·4 | 31·3 | 74·1 | 23·4 | 77 | 67·04 | 1703 | 143 |
Some authorities make the rainfall of Bangkok considerably less, but Campbell’s observations extended over several years and may perhaps be preferred. The delta of the Menam River is annually flooded between June and November, and the spring levels are close to the surface all the year round. North of the delta of the Menam is the Korat Plateau, some 700 feet above the sea-level, a wilderness of shadeless bush, interspersed with salt marshes. One of the main drawbacks of the country is the scarcity of potable water, the supplies both in the Menam delta and on the Korat being almost always brackish and a nearly certain cause of digestive disturbance for Europeans, who thus have to rely greatly on aerated waters imported from the Straits.
Upper Siam, on the other hand, enjoys a dry climate with cool nights, but speaking generally the climate is an exceptionally trying one for European residents.
Cochin China
has a moist, hot climate. During the dry season, which lasts from November to April, the temperature varies from 95° F. during the day to 63° F. at night (35° to 17° C.), whereas during the rains, which last from May to October, the range of variation is only between 86° and 68° F. (30° to 20° C.); the relative humidity at this season reaching 89 per cent. Further north, in Tongking, the range of temperature is wider, from 99° to 18° F. (36° to -7° C.). The rainfall is much heavier than in Siam; Saigon, lat. 10° 47′ N., receiving its maximum of 17·7 ins. (423 mm.) in September and a total rainfall of 74 ins. (1,873 mm.); while at Hue, lat. 16° 33′ N., the wettest month is October, with 26·15 ins. (664 mm.), and a total of 102 ins. (2,592 mm.). Further north, at Hai-fong, in lat. 20° 57′ N., the most rainy month is August, with 14·8 ins. (374 mm.). July falls but little short of this, but the total is less than that of the other two stations, amounting to no more than 64 ins. (1,627 mm.).
The change to the north-east monsoon in November is not unfrequently marked by sudden and devastating storms. The climate has a very bad reputation, malaria, dysentery of a peculiarly deadly type, and diseases due to internal worms, being very common, especially during the rainy season.
China.
—Owing to the backward state of the country, there is singularly little information of a definite character available with respect to the enormous Chinese Empire, the entire southern half of which comes within the scope of the tropical climatologist. In the south, regular observations are carried on in the British colony of Hong Kong, and in the north at Zi-ka-Wei, near Shanghai, an admirably conducted observatory is conducted by the Jesuit missionaries, who so often enrol themselves as the pioneers of science.
Speaking generally, however, whether in the case of littoral or continental climates, those of China appear to compare favourably with localities of the same latitude in India and the Indo-Malay peninsula.
The following are the figures for the island of Hong Kong for the year 1901, as I am unable to discover any collated statistics.
| Hong Kong. Lat. 22° 12′ N., Long. 114° 13′ E. Near Sea-level. | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Monthly Maxima | Monthly Minima | Relative Humidity | Monthly Rainfall | |||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | ||
| January | 68·5 | 20·3 | 62·5 | 16·9 | 83 | 0·68 | 17·4 |
| February | 59·5 | 13·3 | 50·5 | 10·3 | 48 | 0·76 | 19·3 |
| March | 67·9 | 19·9 | 60·4 | 15·7 | 77 | 1·27 | 32·1 |
| April | 75·4 | 24·1 | 69·1 | 20·7 | 89 | 9·03 | 229·9 |
| May | 81·8 | 27·7 | 73·7 | 23·2 | 85 | 14·10 | 358·1 |
| June | 85·9 | 29·9 | 78·2 | 25·7 | 80 | 2·33 | 59·7 |
| July | 87·0 | 30·6 | 78·5 | 25·8 | 81 | 5·58 | 141·0 |
| August | 85·7 | 29·8 | 76·9 | 24·9 | 84 | 14·00 | 355·6 |
| September | 86·0 | 30·0 | 76·4 | 24·6 | 76 | 3·89 | 99·1 |
| October | 82·6 | 28·2 | 73·6 | 23·2 | 68 | 2·50 | 63·5 |
| November | 75·4 | 24·1 | 64·9 | 18·2 | 64 | 0·77 | 19·5 |
| December | 66·9 | 19·3 | 57·5 | 14·2 | 66 | 0·83 | 21·2 |
In the Journal of the Royal Army Medical Corps, vol. i., No. 1, Major S. F. Clark writes: “The climate of Hong Kong varies in the different places. At the Peak, 1,500 feet above the sea, it is always bearable in summer, and is quite crisp in winter, an occasional film of ice being sometimes visible in the mornings. In fact, if one had not to descend to the lower levels for work, it would be no hardship to live at the Peak, where the fog is really the main trouble. Children do well up there, but get very white down below.
“In the city the summer is very trying. From May to September, both inclusive, the sun is strong—reaching 94° or so in July and August—and the humidity of the air is practically at saturation point. With the breeze cut off by the Peak the situation is thus by no means pleasant, and cases of heat apoplexy always occur at this time. The temperature averages 86° to 88° during these months, and the nights also are stiflingly hot. By the help of punkahs, electric fans, rickshaws and chairs, the work of the colony goes on. The summer is also the rainy and typhoon season, and these visitations luckily cool the air for some days. The rain is very heavy at times, but of late years droughts have prevailed. For the other seven months the climate is not unpleasant, and in December, January and February, is quite cold, without reaching freezing point. The humidity of the air, however, is always considerable. This dampness of the air, especially foggy weather at the Peak, is very destructive to clothing, books, &c., and tin-lined boxes are essential. Ladies’ garments require much care to preserve them from destruction.”
It is, however, fortunately possible for most people to live at “the Peak,” between which and the town there is frequent communication by means of cable tram.
Considering that Hong Kong lies well to the south of Calcutta, it must be confessed that the climate is wonderfully good, and one cannot but think that Major Clark would wish himself back in Hong Kong were he to negotiate an exchange to almost any station in the plains of India.
On the mainland, at Canton, the climate is much less uniform, the north-east wind of the cold season rendering the nights singularly cold for so southerly a position.
The China seas are visited by revolving storms of a most violent character, known locally as typhoons, but as in those of the Bay of Bengal, their more serious effects do not appear to extend far inland.
The Island of Formosa, with a mean annual temperature of 74·6° F. (23·7° C.), has a typically marine climate, the difference between the coldest and hottest months, February and June, being but from 67·7° F. (19·8° C.) to 81° F. (27·1° C.), or only 13·5° F. (7·3° C.). The south-west monsoon bursts towards the end of May, and the rainfall, especially in the north of the island, is very heavy and evenly distributed, though there is a distinct dry, winter season in the south, as may be seen by the contrast of the rainfall of the following two Formosan stations—Kilung, in lat. 25° 8′ N., and Takao Anping, in 22° 47′ N. (Hann).
| Rainfall in the Island of Formosa. | |||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | April | May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | ||||
| Kilung | - | Ins. | 17·53 | 14·98 | 14·98 | 8·68 | 10·74 | 9·33 | 7·72 | 7·53 | 16·53 | 9·84 | 11·61 | 11·63 | |
| Mm. | 445 | 379 | 379 | 220 | 273 | 237 | 196 | 191 | 420 | 249 | 294 | 294 | |||
| Takao | - | Ins. | 6·67 | 0·58 | 1·64 | 2·48 | 9·45 | 13·58 | 14·65 | 14·63 | 4·69 | 1·54 | 0·49 | 1·08 | |
| Mm. | 17 | 13 | 41 | 63 | 240 | 345 | 372 | 370 | 119 | 39 | 12 | 27 | |||
The total annual rainfall is 122 ins. (3,581 mm.) for Kilung, and 65·25 ins. (1,658 mm.) for Takao Anping.
Further north, the monsoon bursts somewhat later, very much in the same way as it does in India; but here, again, the climate is much cooler than would be met with west of the Malay Peninsula in the same latitudes.
| Zi-ka-Wei. Lat. 31° 12′ N.; Time 8 Hrs. 5 Mins. 43 Secs. East ofGreenwich. Elevation of Observatory, 22 Feet above the Sea. | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Mean Monthly Temperature | Maximum Temperatures | Minimum Temperatures | Relative Humidity | Rainfall | Number of Rainy Days | ||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | |||
| January | 37·0 | 2·8 | 60·0 | 15·6 | 20·0 | -6·7 | 78 | 2·03 | 51·8 | 10 |
| February | 39·4 | 4·0 | 61·9 | 16·6 | 23·8 | -4·9 | 79 | 2·44 | 62·0 | 11 |
| March | 46·0 | 7·8 | 74·1 | 23·4 | 29·0 | -1·7 | 77 | 3·29 | 83·6 | 13 |
| April | 56·5 | 13·6 | 84·0 | 28·9 | 36·9 | 2·7 | 77 | 3·49 | 88·8 | 13 |
| May | 65·5 | 18·6 | 88·5 | 31·4 | 46·4 | 8·0 | 76 | 3·64 | 92·0 | 13 |
| June | 73·4 | 23·0 | 95·0 | 34·9 | 57·3 | 14·1 | 79 | 6·78 | 172·0 | 14 |
| July | 80·6 | 27·0 | 98·5 | 36·9 | 67·5 | 19·7 | 80 | 4·74 | 120·1 | 11 |
| August | 80·1 | 26·8 | 97·4 | 36·3 | 67·0 | 19·4 | 80 | 6·08 | 154·6 | 11 |
| September | 72·8 | 22·7 | 92·0 | 33·3 | 56·6 | 13·7 | 79 | 4·89 | 124·3 | 12 |
| October | 63·2 | 17·3 | 83·5 | 28·6 | 41·4 | 5·2 | 76 | 3·23 | 82·0 | 10 |
| November | 52·0 | 11·1 | 73·4 | 23·0 | 29·9 | -1·2 | 76 | 1·94 | 49·2 | 8 |
| December | 41·7 | 5·5 | 65·0 | 18·3 | 21·8 | -5·7 | 76 | 1·15 | 29·2 | 7 |
| Year | 59·0 | 15·0 | 99·4 | 27·3 | 20·0 | -6·7 | 78 | 43·68 | 1109·1 | 131 |
The above table, which is drawn up from the observations of several years, shows, apart from the remarkably low temperatures, an amount of both diurnal and annual variation that is very remarkable in a place so close to the sea. Strictly speaking, indeed, it should not come in the category of hot climates at all, but in the absence of other accurate material it is valuable for the purpose of showing how soon tropical temperatures are left behind as we proceed northward along the Pacific coast of Asia.
The Malay Archipelago.
—Consists of a number of large islands situated on either side of the Equator, and generally too close to it to enjoy the benefits of a well-developed monsoon.
| Batavia. Lat. 6° 11′ S.; Long. 106° 53′ E. | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Mean Temperature | Absolute Maxima | Absolute Minima | Relative Humidity | Mean Monthly Rainfall | Number of Rainy Days | ||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | |||
| January | 77·6 | 25·4 | 91·5 | 33·1 | 68·4 | 20·4 | 87·1 | 13·75 | 350 | 22·5 |
| February | 77·6 | 25·4 | 90·5 | 32·5 | 69·1 | 20·7 | 87·5 | 12·56 | 319 | 20·7 |
| March | 78·5 | 25·8 | 90·6 | 32·6 | 70·3 | 21·2 | 85·9 | 7·53 | 191 | 17·4 |
| April | 79·4 | 26·3 | 90·5 | 32·5 | 70·3 | 21·2 | 85 | 4·78 | 121 | 14·1 |
| May | 79·5 | 26·4 | 91·1 | 32·9 | 70·3 | 21·2 | 83·0 | 3·48 | 88 | 9·2 |
| June | 79·4 | 26·3 | 90·5 | 32·5 | 68·6 | 20·4 | 83·1 | 3·64 | 92 | 9·1 |
| July | 78·5 | 25·8 | 90·0 | 32·2 | 67·0 | 19·4 | 80·8 | 2·53 | 64 | 6·9 |
| August | 78·9 | 26·0 | 92·4 | 33·4 | 67·0 | 19·4 | 77·7 | 1·49 | 38 | 8·0 |
| September | 79·5 | 26·4 | 94·0 | 34·4 | 66·0 | 18·9 | 77·5 | 2·74 | 69 | 7·3 |
| October | 79·7 | 26·8 | 95·0 | 35·0 | 69·0 | 20·6 | 79·0 | 4·19 | 106 | 10·0 |
| November | 79·1 | 26·2 | 96·0 | 35·6 | 68·2 | 20·2 | 82·0 | 5·08 | 127 | 13·7 |
| December | 78·2 | 25·7 | 92·5 | 33·6 | 70·0 | 21·1 | 84·8 | 9·03 | 229 | 19·0 |
| Year | 78·9 | 26·0 | 96·0 | 35·6 | 68·2 | 20·2 | 82·8 | 70·71 | 1,796 | 154·9 |
South of lat. 10°-12°, a north-west monsoon, developing in October or November, takes the place of the south-west monsoon appearing in May in northern latitudes, and when we are sufficiently far from the Equator to be clear of the zone of calms and variable winds, it is the development of this wind that determines the appearance of the rainy season.
This, however, does not so much affect the Malay Archipelago, as nearly the whole of it is within the zone of double annual rainy seasons, and the winds on which they depend to temper the tropical heat are mainly land and sea breezes of necessarily very variable direction.
The Dutch have long had a first-class observatory established at Batavia, the capital of Java, and their results being thus of the first value may be very well taken as a type of the weather conditions of the islands to the south of the Equator, while the [table] already furnished of Singapore will serve sufficiently to illustrate the northern portion of the Archipelago.
A mild, equable, damp climate, not so hot as would be met with at a corresponding distance north of the line, never cool, and equally free from excessive heat, but very enervating; and unfortunately the health records of these islands are by no means satisfactory.
From January to early April the winds are usually from the north-west, and from May to October north-east, the remaining two months of the year being characterised by winds of very variable direction.
The two following tables will give some idea of the temperature and rainfall of a few sites in this Archipelago, arranged progressively in their order north and south of the Equator.
As examples of places in this archipelago which chance to have a special interest for English-speaking people on both sides of the Atlantic, I give below fuller data of the climates of Manila in America’s new acquisition of the Philippines, based on from 16 to 34 years of Spanish records; and of Port Moresley, in the newly established British colony in New Guinea, which naturally cannot as yet do more than furnish a single year’s experience:—
| Manila. Lat. 14° 36′ N.; Long. 120° 58′E. Near Sea-level. | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Mean Monthly Temperature | Absolute Monthly Maxima | Absolute Monthly Minima | Relative Humidity | Mean Monthly Rainfall | ||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | ||
| January | 77·0 | 25·0 | 93·0 | 33·9 | 62·1 | 16·7 | 77·7 | 1·19 | 29·4 |
| February | 77·7 | 25·4 | 95·7 | 35·4 | 61·0 | 16·1 | 74·1 | 0·41 | 10·3 |
| March | 80·4 | 26·8 | 95·9 | 35·5 | 63·3 | 17·4 | 71·7 | 0·74 | 18·8 |
| April | 82·9 | 28·2 | 99·0 | 37·2 | 66·0 | 18·9 | 70·9 | 1·14 | 29·1 |
| May | 83·3 | 28·5 | 100·0 | 37·8 | 71·1 | 21·7 | 76·9 | 4·20 | 106·7 |
| June | 82·0 | 27·8 | 97·0 | 36·1 | 70·9 | 21·6 | 81·5 | 9·62 | 244·1 |
| July | 80·8 | 27·1 | 94·8 | 34·9 | 70·0 | 21·1 | 84·9 | 14·57 | 369·3 |
| August | 80·8 | 27·1 | 94·3 | 34·5 | 69·1 | 20·6 | 84·4 | 13·87 | 351·8 |
| September | 80·4 | 26·8 | 93·7 | 34·3 | 70·5 | 21·4 | 85·6 | 14·93 | 378·9 |
| October | 80·4 | 26·8 | 94·8 | 34·8 | 68·7 | 20·4 | 82·6 | 7·54 | 191·6 |
| November | 79·0 | 26·1 | 92·1 | 33·4 | 64·9 | 18·2 | 81·6 | 5·13 | 129·7 |
| December | 77·4 | 25·2 | 91·9 | 33·2 | 60·3 | 15·7 | 80·7 | 2·13 | 53·5 |
| Year | 77·0 | 26·8 | 100 | 37·8 | 60·3 | 15·7 | 97·4 | 75·46 | 1,916·6 |
| Table of Temperatures in Malay Archipelago. | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Place | Island | Latitude | Mean Annual Temperature | Coldest Month | Hottest Month | Difference | ||||||
| Name | Temperature | Name | Temperature | |||||||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | |||||
| Bayombong | Lugon | 16° 29′ N. | 76·1 | 24·8 | December | 70·8 | 21·6 | May | 80·0 | 26·7 | 9·2 | 5·1 |
| C. Boliano | „ | 16° 23′ N. | 77·5 | 25·3 | „ | 73·6 | 23·2 | „ | 81·3 | 27·4 | 7·5 | 4·2 |
| Manila | „ | 14° 35′ N. | 79·5 | 26·4 | January | 76·1 | 24·5 | „ | 82·9 | 28·2 | 6·6 | 3·7 |
| Malion | „ | 18° 9′ N. | 77·6 | 25·4 | „ | 74·2 | 23·4 | „ | 81·6 | 27·6 | 7·5 | 4·2 |
| Iloilo | Sebu | 10° 42′ N. | 79·8 | 26·6 | „ | 77·1 | 25·1 | „ | 82·4 | 28·0 | 5·2 | 2·9 |
| Carlotta | Negros | 10° 25′ N. | 77·5 | 25·3 | December | 75·5 | 24·2 | „ | 80·6 | 27·0 | 5·1 | 2·8 |
| Bohol | Bohol | 9° 30′ N. | 78·6 | 25·9 | February | 76·2 | 24·5 | June | 80·6 | 27·0 | 4·5 | 2·5 |
| Sandakan | Borneo | 5° 49′ N. | 80·5 | 26·9 | Dec.-Jan. | 79·0 | 26·1 | Apl.-May | 81·9 | 27·7 | 2·9 | 1·6 |
| Papar | „ | 6° 49′ N. | 77·6 | 25·4 | „„ | 76·1 | 24·5 | June | 79·3 | 26·3 | 3·2 | 1·8 |
| Padang | Sumatra | 0° 56′ S. | 79·8 | 26·6 | November | 79·1 | 26·2 | May | 81·0 | 27·2 | 1·8 | 1·0 |
| Palembang | „ | 2° 50′ S. | 80·6 | 27·0 | January | 79·8 | 26·6 | „ | 81·4 | 27·4 | 1·4 | 0·8 |
| Baryermassing | „ | 3° 34′ S. | 79·9 | 27·1 | December | 80·0 | 26·7 | „ | 81·9 | 27·7 | 1·8 | 1·0 |
| Amboina | Seram | 3° 41′ S. | 79·3 | 26·3 | July | 77·4 | 25·2 | February | 81·0 | 27·2 | 3·6 | 2·0 |
| Lahat | Sumatra | 3° 48′ S. | 78·9 | 26·0 | January | 79·1 | 26·2 | April | 81·2 | 27·3 | 2·3 | 1·3 |
| North Coast | New Guinea | 4° 54′ S. | 79·0 | 26·1 | August | 77·5 | 25·3 | March | 79·8 | 26·6 | 2·8 | 1·3 |
| Batavia | Java | 6° 11′ S. | 78·6 | 25·9 | January | 77·5 | 25·3 | May-Oct. | 79·5 | 26·4 | 1·9 | 1·1 |
| Buitenzorg | „ | 6° 37′ S. | 77·0 | 25·0 | February | 78·0 | 25·5 | Sept. | 77·7 | 25·5 | 1·8 | 1·0 |
| Banjoewangie | „ | 8° 17′ S. | 79·9 | 26·7 | July | 78·9 | 26·0 | April | 81·2 | 27·3 | 2·3 | 1·3 |
| South coast | New Guinea | 9° 28′ S. | 80·5 | 26·9 | August | 77·5 | 25·3 | December | 82·6 | 28·2 | 5·2 | 2·9 |
The remarkable uniformity of these climates, albeit with a slightly more distinct tendency to variation as one recedes from the Equator, are well illustrated in these tables, as also is the dependence of season on purely local conditions in these latitudes.
| Table showing Monthly Rainfall of Localities in the MalayArchipelago. | ||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Place | Singkel, S. W. coast, Sumatra | Kota Raja, N. coast, Sumatra | Sarawak, N. coast, Borneo | Sandakan, British N. Borneo | Menado, N. Peninsula, Celebes | Ternata, Small Island off Jilolo | Benkulen, S. W. coast, Sumatra | Bangawanji, Java | Kupang, N. coast of Timor | |||||||||
| Latitude | 2° 11′ N. | 5° 32′ N. | 1° 28′ N. | 5° 49′ N. | 1° 30′ N. | 0° 47′ N. | 3° 47′ S. | 8° 13′ S. | 10° 10′ S. | |||||||||
| Longitude | 97° 45′ E. | 95° 20′ E. | 110° 8′ E. | 118° 12′ E. | 124° 50′ E. | 127° 23′ E. | 102° 15′ E. | 114° 23′ E. | 123° 34′ E. | |||||||||
| Month | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. |
| January | 11·23 | 285 | 5·98 | 151 | 27·17 | 690 | 21·43 | 544 | 18·78 | 478 | 7·83 | 199 | 12·40 | 315 | 7·57 | 192 | 16·15 | 423 |
| February | 10·68 | 271 | 3·13 | 79 | 23·67 | 601 | 10·33 | 262 | 13·27 | 337 | 7·98 | 201 | 9·83 | 249 | 7·57 | 192 | 15·03 | 404 |
| March | 14·64 | 372 | 3·32 | 84 | 10·14 | 257 | 7·53 | 192 | 10·67 | 271 | 6·30 | 160 | 11·34 | 288 | 5·38 | 138 | 7·60 | 193 |
| April | 15·97 | 406 | 4·58 | 116 | 10·04 | 255 | 4·37 | 111 | 8·08 | 205 | 10·33 | 262 | 10·35 | 263 | 4·08 | 104 | 2·38 | 60 |
| May | 14·45 | 367 | 5·55 | 141 | 9·09 | 231 | 5·32 | 135 | 6·58 | 167 | 8·89 | 226 | 10·33 | 262 | 4·97 | 126 | 1·85 | 47 |
| June | 13·18 | 335 | 3·28 | 82 | 8·73 | 222 | 8·32 | 211 | 7·08 | 179 | 8·89 | 226 | 9·15 | 233 | 4·62 | 117 | 0·38 | 10 |
| July | 11·46 | 291 | 4·38 | 111 | 4·78 | 121 | 9·62 | 244 | 4·93 | 125 | 5·38 | 137 | 7·13 | 181 | 3·03 | 77 | 0·17 | 4 |
| August | 15·28 | 388 | 4·84 | 123 | 8·86 | 225 | 6·98 | 176 | 4·78 | 121 | 4·73 | 120 | 9·48 | 241 | 2·48 | 63 | 0·13 | 3 |
| September | 16·75 | 426 | 7·29 | 185 | 7·78 | 198 | 10·08 | 256 | 3·24 | 82 | 4·07 | 103 | 9·82 | 249 | 2·67 | 68 | 0·04 | 1 |
| October | 20·16 | 512 | 7·48 | 190 | 9·92 | 252 | 10·07 | 255 | 4·93 | 125 | 6·58 | 167 | 14·22 | 361 | 2·60 | 66 | 0·47 | 12 |
| November | 19·64 | 499 | 8·24 | 209 | 13·56 | 345 | 16·45 | 418 | 8·08 | 205 | 8·32 | 211 | 13·53 | 344 | 2·77 | 70 | 3·34 | 85 |
| December | 16·37 | 416 | 9·17 | 233 | 25·12 | 663 | 19·14 | 486 | 16·45 | 418 | 9·28 | 236 | 13·60 | 349 | 7·97 | 202 | 10·44 | 265 |
| Year | 179·62 | 4,562 | 67·08 | 1,704 | 159·45 | 4,050 | 129·73 | 3,296 | 106·82 | 2,713 | 88·51 | 2,248 | 131·30 | 3,335 | 55·12 | 1,415 | 59·34 | 1,507 |
| Table showing Monthly Rainfall of Localities in the MalayArchipelago. | ||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Place | Singkel, S. W. coast, Sumatra | Kota Raja, N. coast, Sumatra | Sarawak, N. coast, Borneo | Sandakan, British N. Borneo | Menado, N. Peninsula, Celebes | |||||||||||||
| Latitude | 2° 11′ N. | 5° 32′ N. | 1° 28′ N. | 5° 49′ N. | 1° 30′ N. | |||||||||||||
| Longitude | 97° 45′ E. | 95° 20′ E. | 110° 8′ E. | 118° 12′ E. | 124° 50′ E. | |||||||||||||
| Month | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | ||||||||
| January | 11·23 | 285 | 5·98 | 151 | 27·17 | 690 | 21·43 | 544 | 18·78 | 478 | ||||||||
| February | 10·68 | 271 | 3·13 | 79 | 23·67 | 601 | 10·33 | 262 | 13·27 | 337 | ||||||||
| March | 14·64 | 372 | 3·32 | 84 | 10·14 | 257 | 7·53 | 192 | 10·67 | 271 | ||||||||
| April | 15·97 | 406 | 4·58 | 116 | 10·04 | 255 | 4·37 | 111 | 8·08 | 205 | ||||||||
| May | 14·45 | 367 | 5·55 | 141 | 9·09 | 231 | 5·32 | 135 | 6·58 | 167 | ||||||||
| June | 13·18 | 335 | 3·28 | 82 | 8·73 | 222 | 8·32 | 211 | 7·08 | 179 | ||||||||
| July | 11·46 | 291 | 4·38 | 111 | 4·78 | 121 | 9·62 | 244 | 4·93 | 125 | ||||||||
| August | 15·28 | 388 | 4·84 | 123 | 8·86 | 225 | 6·98 | 176 | 4·78 | 121 | ||||||||
| September | 16·75 | 426 | 7·29 | 185 | 7·78 | 198 | 10·08 | 256 | 3·24 | 82 | ||||||||
| October | 20·16 | 512 | 7·48 | 190 | 9·92 | 252 | 10·07 | 255 | 4·93 | 125 | ||||||||
| November | 19·64 | 499 | 8·24 | 209 | 13·56 | 345 | 16·45 | 418 | 8·08 | 205 | ||||||||
| December | 16·37 | 416 | 9·17 | 233 | 25·12 | 663 | 19·14 | 486 | 16·45 | 418 | ||||||||
| Year | 179·62 | 4,562 | 67·08 | 1,704 | 159·45 | 4,050 | 129·73 | 3,296 | 106·82 | 2,713 | ||||||||
| Place | Ternata, Small Island off Jilolo | Benkulen, S. W. coast, Sumatra | Bangawanji, Java | Kupang, N. coast of Timor | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Latitude | 0° 47′ N. | 3° 47′ S. | 8° 13′ S. | 10° 10′ S. | ||||
| Longitude | 127° 23′ E. | 102° 15′ E. | 114° 23′ E. | 123° 34′ E. | ||||
| Month | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. |
| January | 7·83 | 199 | 12·40 | 315 | 7·57 | 192 | 16·15 | 423 |
| February | 7·98 | 201 | 9·83 | 249 | 7·57 | 192 | 15·03 | 404 |
| March | 6·30 | 160 | 11·34 | 288 | 5·38 | 138 | 7·60 | 193 |
| April | 10·33 | 262 | 10·35 | 263 | 4·08 | 104 | 2·38 | 60 |
| May | 8·89 | 226 | 10·33 | 262 | 4·97 | 126 | 1·85 | 47 |
| June | 8·89 | 226 | 9·15 | 233 | 4·62 | 117 | 0·38 | 10 |
| July | 5·38 | 137 | 7·13 | 181 | 3·03 | 77 | 0·17 | 4 |
| August | 4·73 | 120 | 9·48 | 241 | 2·48 | 63 | 0·13 | 3 |
| September | 4·07 | 103 | 9·82 | 249 | 2·67 | 68 | 0·04 | 1 |
| October | 6·58 | 167 | 14·22 | 361 | 2·60 | 66 | 0·47 | 12 |
| November | 8·32 | 211 | 13·53 | 344 | 2·77 | 70 | 3·34 | 85 |
| December | 9·28 | 236 | 13·60 | 349 | 7·97 | 202 | 10·44 | 265 |
| Year | 88·51 | 2,248 | 131·30 | 3,335 | 55·12 | 1,415 | 59·34 | 1,507 |
The gradual development of a dry season as one proceeds southward from the Equator, as well as the gradual diminution of the rainfall that accompanies it, is very instructive.
| Port Moresley, British New Guinea. S.E. Coast. | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Mean Monthly Temperature | Mean Maximum Temperature | Mean Minimum Temperature | Monthly Rainfall | Direction of Wind | ||||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | ||||
| January | 89 | 31·7 | 91 | 32·8 | 75 | 23·9 | 11·68 | 296·7 | N.W. | ||
| February | 86 | 30·0 | 90 | 32·2 | 72 | 22·2 | 11·88 | 301·2 | N.W. | ||
| March | 86 | 30·0 | 90 | 32·2 | 74 | 23·3 | 10·15 | 257·8 | N.W. | ||
| April | 86 | 30·0 | 88 | 31·1 | 74 | 23·3 | 2·40 | 61·0 | - | N.W. & S.E. | |
| May | 86 | 30·0 | 87 | 30·6 | 72 | 22·2 | 2·96 | 73·0 | S.E. | ||
| June | 83 | 28·3 | 87 | 30·6 | 71 | 21·7 | Wanting | S.E. | |||
| July | 82 | 27·8 | 83 | 28·3 | 68·5 | 20·3 | 5·94 | 151·0 | S.E. | ||
| August | 84 | 28·9 | 82 | 27·8 | 68 | 20·0 | 1·45 | 36·8 | S.E. | ||
| September | 85 | 29·4 | 86 | 30·0 | 71 | 21·7 | 0·12 | 2·7 | S.E. | ||
| October | 84 | 28·9 | 87 | 30·6 | 71 | 21·7 | 0·16 | 4·0 | S.E. | ||
| November | 88 | 31·1 | 88 | 31·1 | 71 | 21·7 | 0·60 | 15·2 | S.E. | ||
| December | 88 | 31·1 | 91 | 32·8 | 73 | 22·8 | 6·88 | 174·8 | N.W. | ||
The rainfall, therefore, appears to be from 56-60 ins., and the reporter remarks:—
“On the sea coast, the experience so far gained seems to prove that the climate of the western portion (of the island) is rainy. Port Moresley is apparently near the centre of a dry belt that extends 100-150 miles along the coast. Eastward of this the climate becomes more rainy as far as the East Cape. The north-east coast, as far as Cape Nelson, is drier, and beyond this again, more rainy—Mamlaro is a wet district. As far as known, the mountain region is more rainy. Thunder storms are more frequent and mist and drizzle also prevail on the high lands.”
Exploration in New Guinea is, however, a pursuit which requires the traveller to brave to an exceptional extent the dangers of poisonous snakes and other venomous vermin.
Capt. I. A. Lawson (“Wanderings in the Interior of New Guinea,” Chapman and Hall, London, 1875) describes an apparently undoubted case of death from scorpion sting in an adult, and states that large numbers of Papuans are killed by them. He saw several scorpions ten inches long. The patient became comatose. After about three hours, thin watery, almost colourless, blood began to flow from his ears, eyes and nose, which exhaled a horrible stench, and the man died. He measured one scorpion thirteen inches long, and a second exceeded ten inches.
Australia.
—The greater part, fortunately, of the island continent is typically “a white man’s country,” the temperature of latitudes south of the line being so much lower than those of the northern hemisphere that only the extreme northern part of the country comes within our limits.
One would expect, for example, Brisbane, lying in 27° 28′ S., to be very hot, but an inspection of the table below shows that it is only in the north of Queensland that one may expect to meet anything approaching a tropical climate.
Unfortunately the Queensland official statistics do not appear to have been collated, but the year chosen seems to be a fairly representative one. This deficiency is the more surprising as, in a country so often affected with destructive droughts, one would have expected that every effort would have been made to elucidate, by carefully drawn-up normal tables, the usual sequence of good and bad seasons.
| Brisbane, Queensland. | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Mean Temperature | Mean Maximum Temperature | Mean Minimum Temperature | Relative Humidity | Rainfall | Number of Rainy Days | ||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | |||
| January | 72·2 | 22·3 | 80·9 | 27·1 | 63·4 | 17·4 | 66 | 1·40 | 35·6 | 10 |
| February | 76·7 | 24·8 | 86·2 | 30·1 | 67·2 | 19·5 | 64 | 0·75 | 19·1 | 4 |
| March | 79·7 | 26·5 | 88·9 | 31·6 | 70·4 | 21·3 | 62 | 1·38 | 35·0 | 10 |
| April | 78·4 | 25·7 | 87·0 | 30·6 | 69·8 | 21·0 | 66 | 2·67 | 67·4 | 7 |
| May | 74·3 | 23·5 | 84·2 | 29·0 | 64·4 | 18·0 | 61 | 0·63 | 16·0 | 2 |
| June | 69·7 | 20·9 | 80·5 | 26·9 | 58·9 | 14·9 | 64 | 0·17 | 4·3 | 7 |
| July | 64·7 | 18·2 | 75·9 | 24·3 | 53·5 | 11·9 | 68 | 0·47 | 11·9 | 3 |
| August | 63·0 | 17·2 | 75·1 | 24·0 | 50·8 | 10·4 | 69 | 0·06 | 1·5 | 2 |
| September | 60·4 | 15·7 | 71·1 | 21·8 | 49·7 | 9·8 | 70 | 0·55 | 14·0 | 9 |
| October | 60·4 | 15·7 | 71·5 | 21·9 | 49·3 | 9·6 | 67 | 0·98 | 24·9 | 10 |
| November | 67·0 | 19·4 | 76·9 | 24·9 | 57·1 | 14·0 | 71 | 1·30 | 33·0 | 7 |
| December | 68·9 | 20·5 | 78·6 | 25·9 | 59·2 | 15·1 | 64 | 3·25 | 82·5 | 9 |
Unfortunately, the greater part of the interior of the country is an almost waterless desert, the development of which, unless subterranean sources of water can be tapped, seems almost hopeless, and almost the whole west coast shares in this terrible disability, and would probably have remained as deserted as the interior but for the recent discoveries of its richness in gold. Even in the extreme north, at Port Darwin, the climate is by no means unendurable for a place within 121⁄2 degrees of the line, and the mean rainfall, 63·21 ins., is very moderate for a place so situated.
| Port Darwin, Northern Territory. | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Mean Temperature | Absolute Maximum | Absolute Minimum | Rainfall | Number of Rainy Days | ||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | ||
| January | 84·4 | 29·1 | 93·6 | 34·3 | 73·0 | 22·8 | 15·85 | 402·6 | 23 |
| February | 83·5 | 28·6 | 93·9 | 34·3 | 73·4 | 23·0 | 13·77 | 374·8 | 14 |
| March | 84·6 | 29·3 | 91·4 | 33·0 | 71·0 | 21·7 | 10·10 | 258·5 | 26 |
| April | 84·4 | 29·1 | 97·8 | 36·5 | 69·2 | 20·7 | 4·36 | 110·6 | 6 |
| May | 81·5 | 27·5 | 95·2 | 35·1 | 66·6 | 19·2 | 1·04 | 26·6 | — |
| June | 78·7 | 25·9 | 92·4 | 33·5 | 59·9 | 15·5 | 0·08 | 1·7 | 3 |
| July | 76·8 | 24·9 | 88·1 | 31·2 | 58·6 | 14·8 | 0·01 | 0·3 | — |
| August | 79·3 | 26·3 | 92·0 | 33·3 | 63·7 | 17·6 | 0·12 | 3·0 | — |
| September | 82·8 | 28·2 | 94·1 | 34·5 | 67·9 | 19·9 | 0·43 | 10·9 | 1 |
| October | 85·7 | 29·8 | 96·7 | 35·9 | 72·4 | 22·4 | 2·19 | 54·5 | 8 |
| November | 86·0 | 30·0 | 97·0 | 36·1 | 72·4 | 22·4 | 5·21 | 132·2 | 4 |
| December | 85·5 | 29·7 | 95·4 | 35·2 | 73·7 | 23·2 | 10·27 | 260·4 | 16 |
The climate of the tropical portion of Western Australia will be sufficiently indicated by the following table for Wyndham, in lat. 15° 27′ S.
| Month | Mean Monthly Maxima | Mean Monthly Minima | Mean Rainfall Monthly | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | |
| January | 98·0 | 36·7 | 78·8 | 26·0 | 5·32 | 134·7 |
| February | 98·7 | 37·0 | 78·7 | 25·9 | 4·24 | 106·8 |
| March | 98·2 | 36·8 | 79·4 | 26·3 | 4·02 | 102·8 |
| April | 98·1 | 36·7 | 76·8 | 24·9 | Nil | |
| May | 93·1 | 34·0 | 71·2 | 21·8 | Nil | |
| June | 89·1 | 31·8 | 67·7 | 19·8 | 0·15 | 3·8 |
| July | 88·7 | 31·5 | 62·8 | 17·0 | Nil | |
| August | 91·8 | 33·2 | 66·8 | 19·3 | Nil | |
| September | 97·0 | 36·1 | 74·0 | 23·3 | 0·04 | 1·2 |
| October | 100·3 | 37·9 | 78·9 | 26·0 | Nil | |
| November | 101·3 | 38·5 | 80·3 | 26·8 | 4·32 | 109·4 |
| December | 100·1 | 37·8 | 80·4 | 26·9 | 2·47 | 62·3 |
The total annual rainfall here only amounts to 20·54 ins. (521·8 mm.); and Freemantle, in lat. 32° S., on the coast, only receives 28·15 ins. (715 mm.); and Coolgardie, far in the interior, but 7·18 ins. (181·7 mm.); but the temperature records of neither of the two last-mentioned places quite entitles them to be considered in the light of hot countries.
From 20° to 25° south latitude the coast is even drier; Cossach, in latitude 20° 40′ S., receiving but 9·3 ins. (247 mm.), and Carnarvon, in latitude 24° 52′ S., but 7·83 ins. (199 mm.). In these localities the perceptible rainfall occurs in June and July. In the summer (January, February) some of these places are no doubt very hot, but the nights are nearly always fairly cool. In many of these places water is so scarce that a bath is a luxury scarcely attainable by any but the very rich, the precious fluid having to be eked out at what seems to us a fabulous price per gallon, or even pint. This difficulty is, however, being met in some places by enormous engineering works, and colonists may be met with who have a good deal to say in favour of these apparently inhospitable shores.
Pacific Islands.
—The pages of Stevenson and Ralf Bolderwood have so familiarised us with the delights of these favoured spots—where it is always summer, but rarely oppressively hot—that it is probable that the general public have a better idea of their climates than is the case with almost any other tropical region. Owing to their comparatively small economic importance, it is, however, impossible to do more than supply a pair of tables illustrative of the climate of a few of the better-known spots.
| Table of Temperature of Pacific Islands. | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Island or Place | Latitude | Warmest Month | Coldest Month | Difference | |||||
| Name | Mean Temperature | Name | Mean Temperature | ||||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | ||||
| Kauai | 22° 15′ N. | August | 76·4 | 24·6 | January | 66·5 | 19·2 | 9·9 | 5·5 |
| Honolulu | 21° 18′ N. | August | 77·5 | 25·3 | January | 69·5 | 20·8 | 7·5 | 4·4 |
| Hilo | 19° 40′ N. | Aug.-Sept. | 74·4 | 23·5 | January | 71·5 | 21·9 | 2·9 | 1·6 |
| Jaluit | 5° 55′ N. | Jan.-Feb. | 81·0 | 27·2 | June | 80·5 | 26·9 | 0·7 | 0·4 |
| Apia | 13° 49′ S. | Feb.-Mar. | 78·6 | 25·9 | July | 75·5 | 24·2 | 3·2 | 1·8 |
| Papiti | 17° 32′ S. | March | 78·5 | 25·8 | July | 73·5 | 23·1 | 4·8 | 2·7 |
| Vanua Levu | 16° 38′ S. | December | 80·5 | 26·9 | July-Aug. | 76·0 | 24·4 | 4·3 | 2·4 |
| Levuka | 17° 4′ S. | December | 79·5 | 26·4 | July | 74·5 | 23·6 | 5·2 | 2·9 |
| Tana | 19° 28′ S. | March | 79·7 | 26·6 | July | 69·0 | 20·6 | 10·8 | 6·0 |
| Tongatabu | 21° 8′ S. | February | 79·0 | 26·1 | August | 68·5 | 20·3 | 10·4 | 5·8 |
| Noumea | 22° 16′ S. | February | 80·0 | 26·7 | August | 68·0 | 20·0 | 11·4 | 6·7 |
| Oparu | 27° 36′ S. | March | 72·5 | 22·3 | September | 65·3 | 18·5 | 7·2 | 4·0 |
The places have also been selected so as to illustrate the changes in season we met with in passing from North to South, and indicate much the same sequence that has already been noticed in the case of the Malay Archipelago, but the temperatures are several degrees lower in the case of each corresponding latitude, so that, while the Malay Islands are stormy and trying, the Polynesian groups are amongst the most pleasant of the warm climates of the world. Except in the Marshall groups, and in some of the Fijis, the rainfall is moderate for localities situated so near the equator.
| Table of Rainfall of Pacific Islands. | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Honolulu, Hawaii | Marshall Group | Apia, Samoa | Fiji, Qara Valu | New Hebrides, Tongatabu | New Caledonia, Noumea | ||||||
| Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | |
| January | 4·03 | 102 | 11·46 | 291 | 16·42 | 417 | 22·48 | 571 | 9·18 | 233 | 3·98 | 101 |
| February | 4·58 | 116 | 11·90 | 300 | 20·23 | 514 | 17·48 | 450 | 6·83 | 173 | 4·38 | 110 |
| March | 3·77 | 96 | 17·92 | 455 | 12·68 | 321 | 36·97 | 932 | 6·37 | 162 | 4·58 | 116 |
| April | 3·14 | 79 | 14·15 | 359 | 8·66 | 220 | 31·26 | 794 | 10·35 | 263 | 5·20 | 132 |
| May | 3·15 | 80 | 20·20 | 513 | 6·97 | 177 | 10·95 | 276 | 8·19 | 208 | 5·18 | 130 |
| June | 1·82 | 46 | 15·58 | 396 | 5·39 | 137 | 24·10 | 612 | 8·12 | 206 | 4·18 | 106 |
| July | 2·53 | 64 | 15·44 | 392 | 3·32 | 84 | 12·76 | 324 | 1·66 | 42 | 3·32 | 84 |
| August | 2·28 | 58 | 13·58 | 345 | 6·18 | 157 | 32·95 | 835 | 3·68 | 93 | 2·38 | 60 |
| September | 1·85 | 47 | 13·45 | 342 | 8·54 | 217 | 14·65 | 372 | 7·08 | 180 | 2·83 | 72 |
| October | 2·28 | 58 | 15·47 | 293 | 6·97 | 177 | 19·28 | 490 | 7·18 | 182 | 2·56 | 65 |
| November | 5·16 | 131 | 11·30 | 387 | 12·20 | 310 | 7·14 | 181 | 3·58 | 91 | 3·03 | 77 |
| December | 4·93 | 125 | 17·48 | 444 | 17·63 | 447 | 17·48 | 444 | 4·45 | 113 | 3·23 | 82 |
| Year | 39·45 | 1,002 | 177·87 | 4,517 | 125·15 | 3,178 | 247·85 | 6,281 | 76·62 | 1,946 | 44·68 | 1,135 |
Qara Valu has been selected as having the heaviest rainfall recorded in this part of the world, and it must not be imagined that such a chronic downpour is in any way typical of the Fiji Islands, most of which have a comparatively moderate rainfall; Bua with 98·35 ins. (2,497 mm.), and Lesuha with 97·15 ins. (2,465 mm.), being fairer examples; but there is the same tendency to a comparatively even distribution throughout the year.
These islands are, it is almost needless to remark, occasionally visited by terrible tornadoes, but are normally continuously under the influence of the trade winds, which here do not suffer from interruption, during the summer solstice, from disturbance due to the area of low pressure that originates from the superheating of land and water over Australia and the islands and confined seas that intervene between it and the Asiatic continent.
The American Continent.
—Like the islands of the Pacific, climatic data in America are characterised by lower levels than are met with in the great land masses of Europe, Asia, and Africa. As a result of this we find that, although we know that New York can produce a most discreditable array of cases of sunstroke in the height of summer, it is only the extreme southern portion of the United States that really merits the title to belong to the category of hot climates. There are doubtless to be met with fiercely hot places in Mexico, and malarious foci in the isthmus of Darien, which may rival anything to be met with in the old world, but speaking generally, climates are generally milder than those of corresponding places on this side of the “herring pond.”
Commencing with the Southern United States, all that need be described in the present work is the belt extending from California in the west to Florida in the east.
| Los Angeles, California. | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Monthly Means | Absolute Maxima | Absolute Minima | Relative Humidity % | Monthly Rainfall | Number of Rainy Days | ||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | |||
| January | 54 | 12·2 | 87 | 30·6 | 30 | -1·1 | 66 | 2·80 | 71·1 | 6 |
| February | 55 | 12·8 | 88 | 31·1 | 28 | -2·2 | 69 | 2·82 | 71·3 | 6 |
| March | 57 | 13·9 | 99 | 37·2 | 31 | -0·6 | 73 | 2·72 | 68·7 | 7 |
| April | 60 | 15·6 | 99 | 37·2 | 38 | 3·3 | 73 | 1·10 | 27·9 | 4 |
| May | 63 | 17·2 | 103 | 39·4 | 41 | 5·0 | 74 | 0·51 | 12·7 | 3 |
| June | 67 | 19·4 | 100 | 37·8 | 46 | 7·8 | 73 | 0·10 | 2·5 | 1 |
| July | 71 | 21·7 | 109 | 42·8 | 50 | 10·0 | 74 | 0·02 | 0·0 | 0 |
| August | 72 | 22·2 | 106 | 41·1 | 51 | 10·6 | 74 | 0·04 | 0·1 | 0 |
| September | 70 | 21·1 | 108 | 42·2 | 44 | 6·7 | 72 | 0·04 | 0·1 | 0 |
| October | 64 | 17·8 | 96 | 35·6 | 40 | 4·4 | 71 | 0·81 | 20·4 | 3 |
| November | 60 | 15·6 | 96 | 35·6 | 34 | 1·1 | 64 | 1·47 | 36·9 | 3 |
| December | 56 | 13·3 | 88 | 31·1 | 30 | -1·1 | 65 | 3·28 | 82·7 | 6 |
The climate of California is undoubtedly one of the finest in the world. Like the rest of the western seaboard of America, the rainfall is small, but there is always sufficient water for cultivation by the agency of irrigation; and the clearness of the atmosphere and genial temperature renders this State the ideal of the physician in search for health resorts. Apart, indeed, from the excitements of “euchre” and the germs introduced by the Chinese settler, it seems difficult to understand why anyone should suffer illness in such a climate as that of Los Angeles, whose principal characteristics are epitomised in the above table. Let us hope, however, that “Ah Sin” has not driven the angels too far away for recall by the rapidly advancing sanitation of American civilisation.
With a total rainfall of only 15·43 ins. (392 mm.), and a remarkably high percentage of hours of sunshine, even during the rainy months, one begins to understand how it is that a Californian fellow-member of the Golf Club of Rome used to complain of the “gloom” of a Roman winter. The one drawback is the enormous daily range of over 50° F., which must be necessarily trying to delicate subjects who neglect obvious precautions; but avoidance of the fierce heat out of doors of the afternoon, and the chill that follows sunset, should suffice to neutralise this defect. Across the sierras, in Texas the rainfall remains very scanty, amounting to no more than 9·8 ins. (250 mm.) in the district of El Paso, but improves steadily as we approach the eastern frontier, where it reaches 52 ins. (1,320 mm.) at Galveston, on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico. This place is regarded as a health resort for the Southern States; Dr. Solly, the American authority on medical climatology, writes:—
“The climate of Galveston, in the Gulf of Mexico, is warm, mild and humid. Occasionally, there are winters when the temperature does not fall below 32°. During the past twenty years there have been thirteen years in which the temperature has not fallen below 24°, and but two years below 20°. The seasonal mean temperatures are: Winter, 55°; Spring, 69°; Summer, 83°; Autumn, 71°. The annual mean is 70°. Monthly mean for January, 53°; for July, 84°. The extreme temperature record is 98°, and the minimum 20°. The mean rainfall is 51 inches, distributed as follows: Winter, 11·5 inches; Spring, 10·2 inches; Summer, 13·3 inches; Autumn, 16·6 inches. The heaviest rain takes place in September, and the least in February and July. The mean annual relative humidity is 77 per cent.; for Winter, 81 per cent. Wind movement averages 11·1 miles, the prevailing winds being from S. and S.E. The highest winds occur in winter and blow from the N., but the average ‘northers’ of upper Texas are but little felt in the Gulf of Mexico.”
Proceeding westward along the Mexican Gulf we find the climate grows steadily moister, New Orleans, which is placed very nearly in the middle of its northern coast, presenting the following climatic factors.
| New Orleans. Lat. 29° 58′ N. Long.90° 11′ W. | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Monthly Mean Temperature | Monthly Absolute Maxima | Monthly Absolute Minima | Relative Humidity | Mean Monthly Rainfall | Number of Rainy Days | ||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | |||
| January | 58·8 | 14·8 | 82 | 27·8 | 15 | -9·4 | 79 | 5·17 | 130·9 | 11 |
| February | 58·1 | 14·4 | 82 | 27·8 | 25 | -3·9 | 81 | 4·56 | 115·7 | 10 |
| March | 62·0 | 16·7 | 84 | 28·9 | 30 | -1·1 | 76 | 5·35 | 135·9 | 9 |
| April | 69·0 | 20·6 | 88 | 31·1 | 38 | 3·3 | 76 | 5·28 | 133·5 | 8 |
| May | 74·6 | 23·7 | 92 | 33·3 | 53 | 11·7 | 74 | 4·76 | 120·7 | 9 |
| June | 80·3 | 26·8 | 97 | 36·1 | 58 | 14·4 | 78 | 6·49 | 165·0 | 14 |
| July | 82·2 | 27·9 | 99 | 37·2 | 67 | 19·4 | 78 | 6·50 | 165·1 | 16 |
| August | 81·5 | 27·5 | 96 | 35·6 | 63 | 17·2 | 79 | 6·02 | 153·6 | 14 |
| September | 78·3 | 25·7 | 95 | 35·0 | 56 | 13·3 | 77 | 4·70 | 119·4 | 11 |
| October | 69·8 | 21·0 | 90 | 32·2 | 40 | 4·4 | 74 | 3·25 | 82·5 | 7 |
| November | 60·7 | 15·9 | 85 | 29·4 | 30 | -1·1 | 79 | 4·30 | 109·2 | 9 |
| December | 55·5 | 13·1 | 81 | 27·2 | 20 | -6·7 | 80 | 4·38 | 111·7 | 4 |
| Year | 68·8 | 20·4 | 99 | 37·2 | 15 | -9·4 | 78 | 60·52 | 153·7 | 128 |
The amenity of the climate of Florida is proverbial, as the maxima rarely run so high, and the annual and daily range is much smaller than is the case further west, owing to the effect of the Gulf Stream, which sweeps out past its projecting shore. On this account there is an almost entire absence of frost, and the State has become celebrated for its cultivation of oranges, a fruit which is at once nipped by any approach to freezing point. Dr. Solly describes it as follows:—
“The climate is marine in character, and is very equable and temperate for its latitude. The mean annual temperature runs from 69° at Sanford to 79·8° at Jacksonville; for the winter, the variation is from 54·6° at Pensacola to 66·5°, at Jupiter. Frost, snow and ice are very rare. Annual rainfall varies from 53·19 inches at Pensacola to 57·16 at Cedar Keys; of this, one half usually occurs in the summer. The mean relative humidity varies from 76 per cent. at Pensacola to 80 at Cedar Keys. In the winter months it is from 76 to 87 per cent. The total number of rainy days ranged from 103·8 at Cedar Keys to 124·1 at Pensacola, and the number of cloudy days in the same places was 66.8 and 84·5. Dr. Hall, while admitting the prevalence of malaria, states that there are many places quite free from it, and that it is generally diminishing.”
Mexico.
—Extending, as it does, completely across the southern portion of the North American Continent, the climate of Mexico presents the same sequence from the drought of the eastern to the moderately ample rainfall of the western coasts; and here too, there are places in the central highlands that are much drier than any to be found on either coast. These points are illustrated in the table on following page.
The corresponding data as to temperature are given below.
| Table of Temperatures of Mexican Stations. | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Place | Mean Annual Temperature | Coldest Month | Warmest Month | |||||
| Name | Mean Temperature | Name | Mean Temperature | |||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | |||
| Mazatlan | 74·5 | 23·6 | January | 66·1 | 19 | July | 81·6 | 27·6 |
| Culiacan | 76·5 | 24·8 | January | 65·0 | 18·3 | July | 84·5 | 29·2 |
| Leon | 65·5 | 18·5 | December | 56·4 | 13·5 | May | 73·6 | 23·2 |
| Mexico | 59·5 | 15·4 | December | 53·6 | 12·0 | May | 64·5 | 18·1 |
| Puebla | 60·0 | 15·6 | January | 53·1 | 11·8 | May | 64·5 | 18·2 |
| Matamoros | 73·5 | 23·2 | January | 62·6 | 17·0 | July | 84·2 | 29·0 |
| Montery | 70·4 | 21·3 | January | 54·6 | 12·6 | June | 82·0 | 27·8 |
| Vera Cruz | 76·6 | 24·8 | December | 70·5 | 21·4 | August | 81·3 | 27·4 |
| Cordoba | 69·0 | 20·6 | January | 64·4 | 18·0 | May | 73·5 | 23·1 |
Central America and the Isthmus of Panama.
—This portion of the American continent is notoriously unhealthy, especially along the only routes practicable for an inter-oceanic canal.
It is said that the construction of the railway across Panama cost a human life for every sleeper that was laid.
Much of this is due to malaria, but yellow fever also frequently attacked the workers, and it is to be hoped that as both these diseases are known to be capable of transmission only by the agency of mosquitoes, that a rational prophylaxis against the bites of these insects will form part of the sanitary programme of the huge work that is now being proceeded with. In any case, when the new canal comes to be finished it will behove passengers by the mail boats to provide themselves with mosquito nets for this portion of the voyage.
| Rainfall Table of Mexican Stations. | ||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Place | Pacific Coast | Central Plateau | Atlantic Coast | |||||||||||
| Mazatlan | Chihuahua | Leon | Mexico | Oxaca | Matamoros | Vera Cruz | ||||||||
| Latitude, N. | 23° 11′ | 28° 38′ | 21° 7′ | 19° 26′ | 16° 57′ | 25° 49′ | 19° 12′ | |||||||
| Longitude, W. | 106° 24′ | 106° 30′ | 101° 40′ | 99° 8′ | 94° 42′ | 97° 38′ | 96° 8′ | |||||||
| Elevation | 30 ft. | 4,650 ft. | 5,850 ft. | 7,400 ft. | 5,150 ft. | 63 ft. | 48 ft. | |||||||
| Scale | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. |
| January | 1·34 | 34 | 1·49 | 38 | 0·36 | 9 | 0·16 | 4 | 0·13 | 3 | 1·58 | 40 | 0·39 | 10 |
| February | 0·24 | 6 | 0·28 | 7 | 0·34 | 8 | 0·24 | 6 | 0·55 | 14 | 2·34 | 59 | 0·55 | 14 |
| March | 0·24 | 6 | 0·0 | 0 | 0·36 | 9 | 0·59 | 15 | 0·59 | 15 | 2·44 | 62 | 0·60 | 18 |
| April | 0·04 | 1 | 0·24 | 6 | 0·28 | 7 | 0·59 | 15 | 1·77 | 45 | 2·24 | 57 | 0·13 | 3 |
| May | 0·28 | 7 | 1·38 | 35 | 1·14 | 29 | 2·02 | 51 | 3·94 | 100 | 2·22 | 56 | 4·26 | 108 |
| June | 1·85 | 47 | 8·51 | 216 | 4·88 | 124 | 4·09 | 104 | 8·64 | 219 | 3·63 | 92 | 12·48 | 317 |
| July | 6·54 | 166 | 6·04 | 153 | 5·68 | 144 | 4·09 | 104 | 4·09 | 104 | 2·37 | 60 | 14·81 | 376 |
| August | 10·35 | 257 | 5·24 | 133 | 5·91 | 150 | 4·83 | 123 | 4·26 | 108 | 1·66 | 42 | 8·74 | 222 |
| September | 8·63 | 219 | 1·08 | 27 | 5·07 | 129 | 3·97 | 101 | 5·94 | 151 | 7·04 | 179 | 11·62 | 295 |
| October | 3·15 | 80 | 1·14 | 29 | 1·69 | 43 | 1·68 | 43 | 2·92 | 74 | 4·45 | 113 | 9·03 | 229 |
| November | 0·48 | 12 | 0·0 | 0 | 0·39 | 10 | 0·43 | 11 | 0·39 | 10 | 4·47 | 114 | 3·24 | 82 |
| December | 0·91 | 23 | 0·08 | 2 | 0·36 | 9 | 0·16 | 4 | 0·03 | 1 | 2·24 | 57 | 2·03 | 51 |
| Year | 33·92 | 863 | 25·44 | 646 | 26·39 | 671 | 22·97 | 581 | 33·21 | 844 | 36·66 | 931 | 67·92 | 1,728 |
The north-east Trades dominate the Atlantic coast of these regions throughout the year, but on the Pacific side, during the summer months, a southerly breeze takes its place.
The rainfall is very heavy, but even here, in spite of the narrowness of the dividing belt of land, the comparative dryness of the Southern or Pacific coast is quite obvious, as may be seen from a glance at the [table] on the following page.
The rainfall, it will be noted, varies greatly owing to small local differences of environment, and includes at least one place far up on the world’s list of the wettest spots.
The stifling heat and damp of Greytown used to be well known to naval officers of the last generation, and it is probably a fortunate circumstance for their successors that the harbour has now so silted up as to be useless, for at one time it was frequently visited by our men-of-war.
The corresponding temperature records, given below, do not run very high, but the places on the Atlantic shore are extremely enervating on account of the extreme dampness of the air.
| Table of Temperatures in Localities in Central America. | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Place | Absolute Mean Annual Maxima | Absolute Mean Annual Minima | Coldest Month | Warmest Month | ||||||
| Name | Mean Temperature | Name | Mean Temperature | |||||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | |||
| San Salvador | 93·4 | 34·1 | 56 | 13·3 | December | 70·2 | 21·2 | April | 75·2 | 24 |
| Taboga Island | 96·5 | 35·8 | 66·4 | 19·1 | February | 77·2 | 25·1 | June | 80·2 | 26·8 |
| San José | 88·5 | 31·4 | 50·2 | 10·1 | December | 65·6 | 18·7 | May | 68·7 | 20·4 |
| Coban | 88·3 | 31·3 | 40·2 | 4·5 | December | 62·3 | 16·8 | May | 68·8 | 20·5 |
| Guatemala | 87·5 | 30·8 | 45·6 | 7·6 | January | 62·0 | 16·7 | May | 68·5 | 20·3 |
| Quezaltenango | 76·4 | 24·6 | 26·7 | -3·0 | January | 50·2 | 10·1 | May | 62·0 | 16·7 |
| Belize | 91·2 | 32·9 | 59·6 | 15·4 | December | 74·5 | 23·6 | August | 82·5 | 28·1 |
| Colon | 94·3 | 34·5 | 66·0 | 18·9 | November | 78·5 | 25·8 | June | 79·8 | 26·6 |
| Gamboa | 96·6 | 35·9 | 57·2 | 14·0 | February | 76·8 | 24·9 | June | 80·4 | 26·8 |
| Rainfall Table for Central America. | ||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Place | San Salvador | Taboga Island | Rivas | San José | Guatemala | Coban | Belize | Greytown | Colon | |||||||||
| Situation | Pacific Coast of Salvador | Pacific, off Panama | Costa Rica, near Pacific Coast | Costa Rica, near Pacific Coast | Guatemala, Inland | Guatemala, Inland | Atlantic Coast, British Honduras | Atlantic Coast, Costa Rica | Atlantic Coast, Panama | |||||||||
| Latitude, N. | 13° 39′ | 8° 52′ | 11° 30′ | 90° 56′ | 14° 38′ | 15° 30′ | 17° 32′ | 10° 30′ | 9° 22′ | |||||||||
| Longitude, W. | 89° 13′ | 79° 31′ | 85° 47′ | 84° 8′ | 90° 31′ | 90° 25′ | 88° 10′ | 83° 22′ | 79° 55′ | |||||||||
| Elevation (feet) | 2,970 | near sea-level | 1,500 | 3,600 | 4,810 | 2,500 | near sea-level | near sea-level | near sea-level | |||||||||
| Scale | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. |
| January | 0·07 | 2 | 0·48 | 12 | 0·38 | 10 | 0·38 | 10 | 0·42 | 11 | 5·36 | 136 | 5·78 | 147 | 21·39 | 543 | 1·88 | 48 |
| February | 0·07 | 2 | 0·03 | 1 | 0·01 | 2 | 0·13 | 3 | 0·13 | 3 | 4·58 | 116 | 3·08 | 78 | 5·78 | 147 | 1·49 | 38 |
| March | 0·59 | 15 | 0·16 | 4 | 0·19 | 5 | 0·83 | 22 | 0·88 | 20 | 3·67 | 93 | 1·54 | 39 | 4·75 | 120 | 1·30 | 33 |
| April | 1·54 | 39 | 0·87 | 22 | 0·33 | 8 | 1·17 | 30 | 2·38 | 60 | 2·44 | 62 | 1·54 | 39 | 10·39 | 264 | 2·65 | 68 |
| May | 7·83 | 199 | 5·27 | 134 | 7·53 | 191 | 7·98 | 203 | 4·97 | 126 | 7·22 | 183 | 3·24 | 83 | 12·73 | 328 | 11·40 | 290 |
| June | 10·01 | 255 | 5·17 | 131 | 11·11 | 282 | 10·16 | 258 | 10·36 | 263 | 12·47 | 317 | 8·18 | 208 | 16·63 | 422 | 13·67 | 347 |
| July | 13·22 | 336 | 4·43 | 112 | 7·47 | 190 | 7·98 | 203 | 9·18 | 232 | 12·22 | 310 | 9·09 | 231 | 29·87 | 760 | 14·14 | 359 |
| August | 11·58 | 293 | 5·67 | 144 | 8·13 | 206 | 9·81 | 249 | 9·28 | 236 | 8·28 | 210 | 8·18 | 208 | 20·03 | 509 | 14·64 | 372 |
| September | 11·34 | 288 | 7·22 | 183 | 9·42 | 239 | 12·13 | 308 | 9·73 | 247 | 9·53 | 242 | 8·63 | 219 | 9·29 | 236 | 12·40 | 315 |
| October | 6·66 | 169 | 6·83 | 173 | 16·88 | 429 | 12·68 | 322 | 7·38 | 187 | 9·82 | 249 | 12·68 | 322 | 14·42 | 366 | 13·54 | 345 |
| November | 2·60 | 66 | 5·54 | 140 | 3·88 | 99 | 4·57 | 116 | 0.78 | 20 | 8·90 | 226 | 9·14 | 232 | 20·96 | 530 | 23·18 | 589 |
| December | 0·48 | 12 | 4·73 | 120 | 1·48 | 38 | 2·10 | 53 | 0·24 | 6 | 6·66 | 169 | 7·08 | 180 | 26·57 | 675 | 11·98 | 304 |
| Year | 65·97 | 1,676 | 46·37 | 1,178 | 66·88 | 1,699 | 70·97 | 1,777 | 55·55 | 1,411 | 98·94 | 2,313 | 78·18 | 1,986 | 192·67 | 4,895 | 122·37 | 3,108 |
| Rainfall Table for Central America. | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Place | San Salvador | Taboga Island | Rivas | San José | Guatemala | |||||
| Situation | Pacific Coast of Salvador | Pacific, off Panama | Costa Rica, near Pacific Coast | Costa Rica, near Pacific Coast | Guatemala, Inland | |||||
| Latitude, N. | 13° 39′ | 8° 52′ | 11° 30′ | 90° 56′ | 14° 38′ | |||||
| Longitude, W. | 89° 13′ | 79° 31′ | 85° 47′ | 84° 8′ | 90° 31′ | |||||
| Elevation (feet) | 2,970 | near sea-level | 1,500 | 3,600 | 4,810 | |||||
| Scale | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. |
| January | 0·07 | 2 | 0·48 | 12 | 0·38 | 10 | 0·38 | 10 | 0·42 | 11 |
| February | 0·07 | 2 | 0·03 | 1 | 0·01 | 2 | 0·13 | 3 | 0·13 | 3 |
| March | 0·59 | 15 | 0·16 | 4 | 0·19 | 5 | 0·83 | 22 | 0·88 | 20 |
| April | 1·54 | 39 | 0·87 | 22 | 0·33 | 8 | 1·17 | 30 | 2·38 | 60 |
| May | 7·83 | 199 | 5·27 | 134 | 7·53 | 191 | 7·98 | 203 | 4·97 | 126 |
| June | 10·01 | 255 | 5·17 | 131 | 11·11 | 282 | 10·16 | 258 | 10·36 | 263 |
| July | 13·22 | 336 | 4·43 | 112 | 7·47 | 190 | 7·98 | 203 | 9·18 | 232 |
| August | 11·58 | 293 | 5·67 | 144 | 8·13 | 206 | 9·81 | 249 | 9·28 | 236 |
| September | 11·34 | 288 | 7·22 | 183 | 9·42 | 239 | 12·13 | 308 | 9·73 | 247 |
| October | 6·66 | 169 | 6·83 | 173 | 16·88 | 429 | 12·68 | 322 | 7·38 | 187 |
| November | 2·60 | 66 | 5·54 | 140 | 3·88 | 99 | 4·57 | 116 | 0.78 | 20 |
| December | 0·48 | 12 | 4·73 | 120 | 1·48 | 38 | 2·10 | 53 | 0·24 | 6 |
| Year | 65·97 | 1,676 | 46·37 | 1,178 | 66·88 | 1,699 | 70·97 | 1,777 | 55·55 | 1,411 |
| Place | Coban | Belize | Greytown | Colon | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Situation | Guatemala, Inland | Atlantic Coast, British Honduras | Atlantic Coast, Costa Rica | Atlantic Coast, Panama | ||||
| Latitude, N. | 15° 30′ | 17° 32′ | 10° 30′ | 9° 22′ | ||||
| Longitude, W. | 90° 25′ | 88° 10′ | 83° 22′ | 79° 55′ | ||||
| Elevation (feet) | 2,500 | near sea-level | near sea-level | near sea-level | ||||
| Scale | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. |
| January | 5·36 | 136 | 5·78 | 147 | 21·39 | 543 | 1·88 | 48 |
| February | 4·58 | 116 | 3·08 | 78 | 5·78 | 147 | 1·49 | 38 |
| March | 3·67 | 93 | 1·54 | 39 | 4·75 | 120 | 1·30 | 33 |
| April | 2·44 | 62 | 1·54 | 39 | 10·39 | 264 | 2·65 | 68 |
| May | 7·22 | 183 | 3·24 | 83 | 12·73 | 328 | 11·40 | 290 |
| June | 12·47 | 317 | 8·18 | 208 | 16·63 | 422 | 13·67 | 347 |
| July | 12·22 | 310 | 9·09 | 231 | 29·87 | 760 | 14·14 | 359 |
| August | 8·28 | 210 | 8·18 | 208 | 20·03 | 509 | 14·64 | 372 |
| September | 9·53 | 242 | 8·63 | 219 | 9·29 | 236 | 12·40 | 315 |
| October | 9·82 | 249 | 12·68 | 322 | 14·42 | 366 | 13·54 | 345 |
| November | 8·90 | 226 | 9·14 | 232 | 20·96 | 530 | 23·18 | 589 |
| December | 6·66 | 169 | 7·08 | 180 | 26·57 | 675 | 11·98 | 304 |
| Year | 98·94 | 2,313 | 78·18 | 1,986 | 192·67 | 4,895 | 122·37 | 3,108 |
The West Indies.
—These islands are all under the influence of the north-east Trades, and enjoy a mild but rather moist climate, with comparatively little variation through the year. Nearly all of them are extremely healthy for places in the Tropics, although they are occasionally visited by devastating outbreaks of yellow fever.
The Americans have, however, proved in the case of Havana that it is quite possible to reduce the risk of this disease to a minimum by the adoption of appropriate measures against the mosquitoes that carry the disease, and it ought to be possible for any one, who takes the matter in earnest, to insure himself almost completely against this danger.
In the north, among the lesser Antilles, the Trade wind has an almost purely easterly direction. During the months from June to November terrific revolving storms, known as hurricanes, are of not uncommon occurrence and constitute one of the gravest drawbacks to cultivation, besides often causing much injury to life. So enormous is the force of the wind during these visitations that even objects of great weight and small surface are set in motion, it being an absolute fact that huge Admiralty anchors have been shifted from the position in which they lay in the dockyard at Port Royal in Jamaica.
| Havana, Cuba. Lat. 23° 9′ N.; Long. 82° 23′W. Near Sea-level. | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Mean Temperature | Absolute Maxima | Absolute Minima | Relative Humidity | Rainfall | Number of Rainy Days | ||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | |||
| January | 70·3 | 21·3 | 84·4 | 29·1 | 52·3 | 11·3 | 75 | 2·71 | 68·7 | 7·5 |
| February | 72·0 | 22·2 | 87·6 | 30·9 | 51·4 | 10·7 | 73 | 2·27 | 57·2 | 5·7 |
| March | 73·2 | 22·9 | 91·4 | 33·0 | 55 | 12·8 | 70 | 1·83 | 46·0 | 5·5 |
| April | 76·1 | 24·5 | 93·6 | 34·3 | 52·9 | 11·6 | 69 | 2·83 | 72·0 | 4·6 |
| May | 78·8 | 26·0 | 99·0 | 37·2 | 64·4 | 18·0 | 71 | 4·47 | 113·2 | 9·3 |
| June | 81·5 | 27·5 | 97·7 | 36·5 | 69·1 | 20·6 | 76 | 7·16 | 181·7 | 12·8 |
| July | 82·4 | 28·0 | 100·6 | 38·2 | 71·2 | 21·8 | 74 | 5·06 | 128·5 | 12·7 |
| August | 82·2 | 27·9 | 98·6 | 37·0 | 69·8 | 21·0 | 75 | 6·02 | 153·1 | 12·6 |
| September | 80·7 | 27·0 | 96·1 | 35·6 | 70·9 | 21·6 | 79 | 6·71 | 171·0 | 15·4 |
| October | 78·1 | 25·7 | 91·9 | 33·2 | 61·9 | 16·6 | 78 | 7·42 | 188·5 | 15·1 |
| November | 75·3 | 24·0 | 88·7 | 31·5 | 56·5 | 13·6 | 77 | 3·08 | 78·3 | 10·2 |
| December | 71·4 | 21·8 | 86·0 | 30·0 | 51·8 | 11·0 | 74 | 2·15 | 54·6 | 8·5 |
| Year | 76·3 | 24·8 | 100·6 | 38·2 | 51·4 | 10·8 | 74 | 51·73 | 1313·5 | 119·9 |
It is unfortunately impossible, from considerations of space, to do more than give a few examples of the climatic conditions to be met with, but those selected may suffice to give a general idea of what may be expected, as no very great differences will be found, in spite of the large area over which these islands are scattered.
Jamaica, a table for which is given below, has a rather heavier rainfall of 70 ins. (1,778 mm.), but not so high as that of Martinique, 94·5 ins. (2,399 mm.), though even this cannot be considered high for a tropical climate. Of the other islands, Nassau in the Bahamas has 54·41 ins. (1,382 mm.); Port Au Prince, Haiti, 55 ins. (1,397 mm.); St. Croix, 46·56 ins. (1,183 mm.); St. Kitts, 51 ins. (1,295 mm.); Guadeloupe, 64·4 ins. (1,635 mm.); and Barbados, 57·74 ins. (1,467 mm.)—figures which serve well to indicate the general uniformity of climate throughout the group.
The table for Jamaica is as follows, but it must be remembered that most of the troops are now quartered at camps at a moderate elevation above the town, where it is considerably cooler than at the sea level.
| Kingston, Jamaica. Lat. 17° 50′ N.; Long.76° 42′ W. | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Mean Monthly Maxima | Mean Monthly Minima | Mean Relative Humidity % | Mean Monthly Rainfall | ||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | 7 a.m. | 4 p.m. | Ins. | Mm. | |
| January | 86·2 | 30·1 | 66·7 | 19·3 | 84 | 63 | 3·79 | 96·4 |
| February | 85·3 | 29·5 | 67·0 | 19·4 | 81 | 65 | 2·62 | 66·5 |
| March | 85·4 | 29·6 | 67·8 | 19·9 | 84 | 65 | 2·86 | 73·0 |
| April | 86·5 | 30·3 | 71·1 | 21·8 | 83 | 66 | 4·50 | 114·3 |
| May | 87·8 | 31·0 | 73·2 | 22·9 | 73 | 70 | 9·56 | 243·0 |
| June | 89·0 | 31·7 | 73·4 | 23·0 | 72 | 66 | 4·77 | 121·1 |
| July | 89·8 | 32·0 | 73·3 | 22·9 | 73 | 60 | 6·51 | 165·6 |
| August | 89·9 | 32·1 | 73·3 | 22·9 | 80 | 63 | 7·12 | 181·0 |
| September | 89·3 | 31·8 | 74·1 | 23·4 | 83 | 68 | 10·37 | 263·0 |
| October | 88·0 | 31·1 | 73·5 | 23·1 | 88 | 69 | 6·50 | 165·1 |
| November | 87·3 | 30·7 | 70·9 | 22·2 | 85 | 68 | 6·53 | 176·0 |
| December | 85·6 | 29·8 | 68·2 | 20·2 | 83 | 58 | 5·53 | 140·0 |
Even Trinidad, the most southerly of all the islands in no way rivals the East Indies either in temperature or rainfall, the total of the latter being 65·5 ins. (1,663 mm.). Its hottest months, March and September, have a mean temperature of 78·5° F. (25·8° C.), and its coldest, February, of 75·4° F. (24° C.); the absolute extreme temperature of the year being 89·5° F. (31·9° C.) and 64° F. (17·9° C.). The highest temperature for any island is 100° F. (37·8° C.) at Havana, but from its landlocked position this place appertains more to the climatic conditions of the mainland than to the islands in general.
South America.
—The greater part of the tropical portion of the southern division of the western continent comes within the influence of the north-east Trades, which sweep up from the sea an enormous volume of watery vapour, which is precipitated gradually as the air current passes across the land. The second great factor in the determination of its climate is the position of the enormous mountain range of the Andes, quite close to the western coast, and of such a height as to cut off practically the last drops of moisture brought by the Trades, so as to leave the narrow belt of country between the Andes and the Pacific with a rainfall so scanty as to be in some instances almost negligible, as is the case with Lima, amounting to little more than an inch and a half in the year. So vast, however, is the amount of moisture imported by the Trades that the supply lasts out well, quite to the foot of the Andes, the rainfall of Manaos, half-way across, being rather greater than that of the east coast; but once the mountains are passed the change is abrupt and enormous. Unfortunately, however, when one sets one’s self to plot out the change as represented by a line of observations carried across the continent, one finds one’s self at once met by the difficulty that there is very little exact information to be obtained, as the all-absorbing interests of the ever-changing political barometer leaves the population little time to study the mercurial instrument, and they appear to be much fonder of playing with repeating rifles than with aneroids. Practically speaking, there is little exact information to be obtained for places at any distance from the coast, and on this account the tables given below refer almost exclusively to the littoral regions, and any attempt at anything beyond remarks of the most general character is out of the question.
Quite at the southern boundary of our limits we have the first-class observatory of San Paolo, which although but little outside the geographical, tropical zone, enjoys a temperature which shows that we are rapidly leaving warm climates behind, for the climate is already milder than most localities in the subtropical zone of the old world.
| San Paolo. 23° 33′ S.; 46° 38′ W.E.F., 2,400. | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Mean Monthly Temperature | Mean Monthly Maxima | Mean Monthly Minima | Relative Humidity | Mean Monthly Rainfall | Number of Rainy Days | ||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | |||
| January | 68·2 | 20·1 | 77·2 | 25·1 | 61·7 | 16·5 | 86 | 7·08 | 180 | 18 |
| February | 68·9 | 20·5 | 78·8 | 26·0 | 62·7 | 17·0 | 86 | 8·23 | 208 | 12 |
| March | 67·4 | 19·6 | 77·2 | 25·1 | 61·8 | 16·6 | 87 | 5·96 | 152 | 19 |
| April | 63·5 | 17·5 | 73·4 | 23·0 | 57·5 | 14·2 | 87 | 2·84 | 72 | 14 |
| May | 61·0 | 16·1 | 72·0 | 22·2 | 52·3 | 11·2 | 80 | 1·90 | 48·3 | 6 |
| June | 56·8 | 13·8 | 69·7 | 20·9 | 47·5 | 8·6 | 80 | 0·48 | 12·3 | 4 |
| July | 61·0 | 16·1 | 71·0 | 21·7 | 52·8 | 11·6 | 78 | 1·93 | 48·9 | 10 |
| August | 61·0 | 16·1 | 69·7 | 20·9 | 55·2 | 12·9 | 83 | 2·30 | 58·4 | 17 |
| September | 62·0 | 16·7 | 72·8 | 22·7 | 55·0 | 12·8 | 81 | 1·02 | 26·2 | 7 |
| October | 65·8 | 18·8 | 78·0 | 28·6 | 58·5 | 14·7 | 79 | 0·77 | 20·0 | 5 |
| November | 64·4 | 18·0 | 76·0 | 24·4 | 57·2 | 14·0 | 79 | 3·57 | 89·5 | 14 |
| December | 80·5 | 26·9 | 79·0 | 26·1 | 63·5 | 17·5 | 84 | 8·74 | 222 | 23 |
With a total rainfall of 44·77 ins. (1,137 mm.) and absolute extremes of temperature of 98° F. (36·5° C.) and 55° F. (12·9° C), the climate, though perhaps not bracing, can never be unpleasant. The shore is here washed by a warm southerly current from the equatorial regions, whereas on the west coast the inshore current is a northerly one from the antarctic regions. On this account it is necessary to go a good deal to the geographical north to select a place on the west coast for comparison of the rainfall in the same isotherm.
| Molendo. Lat. 17° 5′ S.; Long. 72° 0′ W. (The Port of Arequipain South of Peru.) | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Mean Monthly Temperature | Mean Monthly Maxima | Mean Monthly Minima | Monthly Rainfall | ||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | |
| January | 72·3 | 22·4 | 79·4 | 26·3 | 66·7 | 19·3 | 0 | 0 |
| February | 72·8 | 22·7 | 79·5 | 26·4 | 67·5 | 19·7 | 0·08 | 2 |
| March | 71·5 | 21·9 | 78·0 | 25·6 | 66·0 | 18·9 | 0 | 0 |
| April | 68·2 | 20·1 | 74·8 | 23·8 | 63·4 | 17·4 | 0·08 | 2 |
| May | 65·8 | 18·8 | 72·7 | 22·7 | 62·8 | 17·1 | 0·17 | 4 |
| June | 63·0 | 17·2 | 68·5 | 20·3 | 57·8 | 14·3 | 0·6 | 1 |
| July | 60·9 | 16·0 | 66·0 | 18·9 | 55·7 | 13·2 | 0 | 0 |
| August | 59·5 | 15·3 | 65·0 | 18·3 | 54·7 | 12·6 | 0·23 | 6 |
| September | 61·2 | 16·2 | 67·0 | 19·4 | 56·0 | 13·3 | 0·06 | 1 |
| October | 63·3 | 17·4 | 70·0 | 21·1 | 57·3 | 14·1 | 0·08 | 2 |
| November | 66·3 | 19·1 | 73·0 | 22·8 | 60·2 | 15·7 | 0·08 | 2 |
| December | 70·8 | 21·6 | 78·2 | 25·7 | 64·7 | 18·2 | 0·06 | 1 |
| Year | 60·4 | 19·1 | 72·7 | 22·6 | 61·0 | 16·1 | 0·83 | 21 |
| Table of Temperature Data of Places in South America. | |||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Place | Latitude | Longitude | Eleva- tion in Feet | Mean Temperature of Year | Maximum Temperature of Year | Minimum Temperature of Year | Hottest Month | Coldest Month | |||||||
| Name | Mean Temperature | Name | Mean Temperature | ||||||||||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | ||||||
| Northern Coast, on Atlantic Seaboard. | |||||||||||||||
| Caracas, Venezuela | 10° 30′ N. | 66° 55′ W. | 3,000 | 71·2 | 21·8 | 79·7 | 26·5 | 57·8 | 14·3 | May | 74·0 | 23·3 | January | 68·5 | 20·3 |
| La Guayra, port | 10° 37′ N. | 67° 0′ W. | — | 78·2 | 25·7 | — | — | — | — | September | 80·7 | 27·0 | Feb.-Mar. | 75·7 | 24·3 |
| Tovar | 10° 26′ N. | 67° 20′ W. | 6,000 | 58.0 | 14·4 | — | — | — | — | April | 59·6 | 15·3 | January | 54·5 | 12·5 |
| Western Littoral—Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. | |||||||||||||||
| Medellin | 6° 10′ N. | 75° 45′ W. | 4,676 | 70·0 | 21·1 | 85·0 | 29·4 | 56·5 | 13·6 | February | 71·0 | 21·7 | November | 68·5 | 20·3 |
| Bogota | 4° 35′ N. | 71° 14′ W. | 8,650 | 58·0 | 14·4 | 72·0 | 22·2 | 45·8 | 7·7 | Mar.-April | 58·7 | 14·8 | July | 56·8 | 13·8 |
| Quito | 0° 14′ S. | 78° 32′ W. | 9,300 | 56·3 | 13·5 | 73·5 | 23·1 | 38·2 | 3·4 | Dec.-Jan. | 56·7 | 13·7 | Sept.-Oct. | 56·2 | 13·4 |
| Antisana | 0° 21′ S. | 78° 6′ W. | 13,200 | 40·8 | 4·9 | 52·0 | 11·0 | 21·0 | -6·2 | January | 43·2 | 6·2 | July-Aug. | 37·3 | 3·0 |
| Guayaquil | 2° 10′ S. | 79° 56′ W. | — | 80·7 | 27·0 | 95·0 | 35·0 | 66·2 | 19·0 | January | 83·4 | 28·5 | July | 77·8 | 25·5 |
| Lima | 12° 4′ S. | 79° 21′ W. | 530 | 66·2 | 19·0 | 88·2 | 31·2 | 48·5 | 9·2 | February | 73·7 | 23·2 | July | 59·0 | 15·0 |
| Anca | 18° 25′ S. | 70° 22′ W. | — | 67·5 | 19·7 | 82·4 | 28·0 | 56·0 | 13·3 | Dec.-Jan. | 71·7 | 22·0 | August | 63·2 | 17·3 |
| Salta | 24° 46′ S. | 65° 24′ W. | 4,000 | 63·2 | 17·3 | 109·4 | 43·0 | 23·0 | -5·0 | December | 72·2 | 22·3 | June | 50·8 | 10·5 |
| Copiapo | 27° 22′ S. | 70° 23′ W. | 1,200 | 61·5 | 16·4 | 87·3 | 30·7 | 37·4 | 3·0 | January | 69·8 | 21·0 | July | 53·2 | 11·8 |
| North-East Coast—British Guiana. | |||||||||||||||
| Georgetown | 6° 50′ N. | 58° 8′ W. | — | 79·0 | 26·1 | 90·0 | 32·2 | 70·0 | 21·1 | Sept.-Oct. | 80·7 | 27·0 | Jan.-Feb. | 77·5 | 25·3 |
| Dutch Guiana. | |||||||||||||||
| Burnside | 5° 53′ N. | 50° 23′ W. | — | 78·7 | 25·9 | 92·8 | 33·8 | 68·7 | 20·4 | October | 80·0 | 26·7 | February | 77·3 | 25·2 |
| Paramaribo | 5° 44′ N. | 50° 13′ W. | — | 78·7 | 25·9 | 94·4 | 34·6 | 67·8 | 19·9 | September | 80·8 | 27·1 | January | 77·2 | 25·1 |
| French Guiana. | |||||||||||||||
| Cayenne | 4° 56′ N. | 52° 18′ W. | — | 79·5 | 26·4 | 94·4 | 34·6 | 68·0 | 20·0 | Sept.-Oct. | 81·4 | 27·4 | January | 77·5 | 25·3 |
| Brazil, Amazon Coast. | |||||||||||||||
| Para | 1° 30′ S. | 48° 24′ W. | — | 78·5 | 25·8 | — | — | — | — | June | 79·5 | 26·4 | January | 77·7 | 25·4 |
| Interior of Brazil. | |||||||||||||||
| Manaos | 3° 8′ S. | 60° 0′ W. | 150 | 79·0 | 26·0 | — | — | — | — | November | 79·8 | 26·6 | April | 77·0 | 25·0 |
| San Antonio | 9° 5′ S. | 64° 0′ W. | — | 78·0 | 25·6 | — | — | — | — | October | 79·4 | 26·3 | June | 76·8 | 24·9 |
| Peruvian frontier | 11° 30′ S. | 68° 30′ W. | 650 | 77·4 | 25·2 | — | — | — | — | December | 80·0 | 26·7 | June | 72·2 | 22·3 |
| Cuyaba | 15° 86′ S. | 56° 7′ W. | 700 | 77·5 | 25·3 | 105·8 | 41·0 | 48·2 | 9·0 | Sept.-Oct. | 80·7 | 27·0 | June | 69·5 | 20·8 |
| Uberaba | 19° 44′ S. | 47° 45′ W. | 2,600 | 70·3 | 21·3 | 96·8 | 36·0 | 36·5 | 2·5 | February | 74·2 | 23·4 | July | 64·0 | 17·8 |
| Western Central Brazil. | |||||||||||||||
| Pernambuco | 8° 4′ S. | 34° 51′ W. | — | 78·5 | 25·8 | 97·5 | 36·4 | 64·5 | 18·1 | February | 81·7 | 27·6 | July | 73·7 | 23·2 |
| Victoria | 8° 9′ S. | 35° 27′ W. | 550 | 76·7 | 24·8 | 99·4 | 37·4 | 57·3 | 14·1 | February | 79·5 | 26·4 | July | 72·8 | 22·7 |
| Colony of Isabella | 8° 45′ S. | 35° 42′ W. | 750 | 74·2 | 23·4 | 91·2 | 32·9 | 56·2 | 13·4 | February | 76·6 | 24·7 | July | 70·0 | 21·1 |
| Bahia | 12° 59′ S. | 38° 36′ W. | 200 | 77·8 | 25·5 | 89·0 | 31·7 | 70·7 | 21·5 | February | 80·8 | 27·1 | July | 73·7 | 23·2 |
| Rio Janeiro | 22° 54′ S. | 43° 10′ W. | 200 | 72·5 | 22·3 | 97·7 | 36·6 | 55·2 | 12·9 | February | 77·2 | 25·1 | July | 67·5 | 19·7 |
| Joinville | 26° 19′ S. | 49° 43′ W. | — | 68·0 | 20·0 | — | — | — | — | February | 75·5 | 24·2 | July | 61·5 | 16·4 |
| Villa Formosa | 26° 13′ S. | 58° 5′ W. | 250 | 70·2 | 21·2 | 100·3 | 38·0 | 37·7 | 3·2 | January | 79·2 | 26·2 | July | 61·3 | 16·3 |
| Table of Temperature Data of Places in South America. | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Place | Latitude | Longitude | Eleva- tion in Feet | Mean Temperature of Year | Maximum Temperature of Year | Minimum Temperature of Year | |||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | F. | C. | ||||
| Northern Coast, on Atlantic Seaboard. | |||||||||
| Caracas, Venezuela | 10° 30′ N. | 66° 55′ W. | 3,000 | 71·2 | 21·8 | 79·7 | 26·5 | 57·8 | 14·3 |
| La Guayra, port | 10° 37′ N. | 67° 0′ W. | — | 78·2 | 25·7 | — | — | — | — |
| Tovar | 10° 26′ N. | 67° 20′ W. | 6,000 | 58.0 | 14·4 | — | — | — | — |
| Western Littoral—Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. | |||||||||
| Medellin | 6° 10′ N. | 75° 45′ W. | 4,676 | 70·0 | 21·1 | 85·0 | 29·4 | 56·5 | 13·6 |
| Bogota | 4° 35′ N. | 71° 14′ W. | 8,650 | 58·0 | 14·4 | 72·0 | 22·2 | 45·8 | 7·7 |
| Quito | 0° 14′ S. | 78° 32′ W. | 9,300 | 56·3 | 13·5 | 73·5 | 23·1 | 38·2 | 3·4 |
| Antisana | 0° 21′ S. | 78° 6′ W. | 13,200 | 40·8 | 4·9 | 52·0 | 11·0 | 21·0 | -6·2 |
| Guayaquil | 2° 10′ S. | 79° 56′ W. | — | 80·7 | 27·0 | 95·0 | 35·0 | 66·2 | 19·0 |
| Lima | 12° 4′ S. | 79° 21′ W. | 530 | 66·2 | 19·0 | 88·2 | 31·2 | 48·5 | 9·2 |
| Anca | 18° 25′ S. | 70° 22′ W. | — | 67·5 | 19·7 | 82·4 | 28·0 | 56·0 | 13·3 |
| Salta | 24° 46′ S. | 65° 24′ W. | 4,000 | 63·2 | 17·3 | 109·4 | 43·0 | 23·0 | -5·0 |
| Copiapo | 27° 22′ S. | 70° 23′ W. | 1,200 | 61·5 | 16·4 | 87·3 | 30·7 | 37·4 | 3·0 |
| North-East Coast—British Guiana. | |||||||||
| Georgetown | 6° 50′ N. | 58° 8′ W. | — | 79·0 | 26·1 | 90·0 | 32·2 | 70·0 | 21·1 |
| Dutch Guiana. | |||||||||
| Burnside | 5° 53′ N. | 50° 23′ W. | — | 78·7 | 25·9 | 92·8 | 33·8 | 68·7 | 20·4 |
| Paramaribo | 5° 44′ N. | 50° 13′ W. | — | 78·7 | 25·9 | 94·4 | 34·6 | 67·8 | 19·9 |
| French Guiana. | |||||||||
| Cayenne | 4° 56′ N. | 52° 18′ W. | — | 79·5 | 26·4 | 94·4 | 34·6 | 68·0 | 20·0 |
| Brazil, Amazon Coast. | |||||||||
| Para | 1° 30′ S. | 48° 24′ W. | — | 78·5 | 25·8 | — | — | — | — |
| Interior of Brazil. | |||||||||
| Manaos | 3° 8′ S. | 60° 0′ W. | 150 | 79·0 | 26·0 | — | — | — | — |
| San Antonio | 9° 5′ S. | 64° 0′ W. | — | 78·0 | 25·6 | — | — | — | — |
| Peruvian frontier | 11° 30′ S. | 68° 30′ W. | 650 | 77·4 | 25·2 | — | — | — | — |
| Cuyaba | 15° 86′ S. | 56° 7′ W. | 700 | 77·5 | 25·3 | 105·8 | 41·0 | 48·2 | 9·0 |
| Uberaba | 19° 44′ S. | 47° 45′ W. | 2,600 | 70·3 | 21·3 | 96·8 | 36·0 | 36·5 | 2·5 |
| Western Central Brazil. | |||||||||
| Pernambuco | 8° 4′ S. | 34° 51′ W. | — | 78·5 | 25·8 | 97·5 | 36·4 | 64·5 | 18·1 |
| Victoria | 8° 9′ S. | 35° 27′ W. | 550 | 76·7 | 24·8 | 99·4 | 37·4 | 57·3 | 14·1 |
| Colony of Isabella | 8° 45′ S. | 35° 42′ W. | 750 | 74·2 | 23·4 | 91·2 | 32·9 | 56·2 | 13·4 |
| Bahia | 12° 59′ S. | 38° 36′ W. | 200 | 77·8 | 25·5 | 89·0 | 31·7 | 70·7 | 21·5 |
| Rio Janeiro | 22° 54′ S. | 43° 10′ W. | 200 | 72·5 | 22·3 | 97·7 | 36·6 | 55·2 | 12·9 |
| Joinville | 26° 19′ S. | 49° 43′ W. | — | 68·0 | 20·0 | — | — | — | — |
| Villa Formosa | 26° 13′ S. | 58° 5′ W. | 250 | 70·2 | 21·2 | 100·3 | 38·0 | 37·7 | 3·2 |
| Table of Temperature Data of Places in South America. | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Place | Latitude | Longitude | Eleva- tion in Feet | Hottest Month | Coldest Month | ||||
| Name | Mean Temperature | Name | Mean Temperature | ||||||
| F. | C. | F. | C. | ||||||
| Northern Coast, on Atlantic Seaboard. | |||||||||
| Caracas, Venezuela | 10° 30′ N. | 66° 55′ W. | 3,000 | May | 74·0 | 23·3 | January | 68·5 | 20·3 |
| La Guayra, port | 10° 37′ N. | 67° 0′ W. | — | September | 80·7 | 27·0 | Feb.-Mar. | 75·7 | 24·3 |
| Tovar | 10° 26′ N. | 67° 20′ W. | 6,000 | April | 59·6 | 15·3 | January | 54·5 | 12·5 |
| Western Littoral—Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. | |||||||||
| Medellin | 6° 10′ N. | 75° 45′ W. | 4,676 | February | 71·0 | 21·7 | November | 68·5 | 20·3 |
| Bogota | 4° 35′ N. | 71° 14′ W. | 8,650 | Mar.-April | 58·7 | 14·8 | July | 56·8 | 13·8 |
| Quito | 0° 14′ S. | 78° 32′ W. | 9,300 | Dec.-Jan. | 56·7 | 13·7 | Sept.-Oct. | 56·2 | 13·4 |
| Antisana | 0° 21′ S. | 78° 6′ W. | 13,200 | January | 43·2 | 6·2 | July-Aug. | 37·3 | 3·0 |
| Guayaquil | 2° 10′ S. | 79° 56′ W. | — | January | 83·4 | 28·5 | July | 77·8 | 25·5 |
| Lima | 12° 4′ S. | 79° 21′ W. | 530 | February | 73·7 | 23·2 | July | 59·0 | 15·0 |
| Anca | 18° 25′ S. | 70° 22′ W. | — | Dec.-Jan. | 71·7 | 22·0 | August | 63·2 | 17·3 |
| Salta | 24° 46′ S. | 65° 24′ W. | 4,000 | December | 72·2 | 22·3 | June | 50·8 | 10·5 |
| Copiapo | 27° 22′ S. | 70° 23′ W. | 1,200 | January | 69·8 | 21·0 | July | 53·2 | 11·8 |
| North-East Coast—British Guiana. | |||||||||
| Georgetown | 6° 50′ N. | 58° 8′ W. | — | Sept.-Oct. | 80·7 | 27·0 | Jan.-Feb. | 77·5 | 25·3 |
| Dutch Guiana. | |||||||||
| Burnside | 5° 53′ N. | 50° 23′ W. | — | October | 80·0 | 26·7 | February | 77·3 | 25·2 |
| Paramaribo | 5° 44′ N. | 50° 13′ W. | — | September | 80·8 | 27·1 | January | 77·2 | 25·1 |
| French Guiana. | |||||||||
| Cayenne | 4° 56′ N. | 52° 18′ W. | — | Sept.-Oct. | 81·4 | 27·4 | January | 77·5 | 25·3 |
| Brazil, Amazon Coast. | |||||||||
| Para | 1° 30′ S. | 48° 24′ W. | — | June | 79·5 | 26·4 | January | 77·7 | 25·4 |
| Interior of Brazil. | |||||||||
| Manaos | 3° 8′ S. | 60° 0′ W. | 150 | November | 79·8 | 26·6 | April | 77·0 | 25·0 |
| San Antonio | 9° 5′ S. | 64° 0′ W. | — | October | 79·4 | 26·3 | June | 76·8 | 24·9 |
| Peruvian frontier | 11° 30′ S. | 68° 30′ W. | 650 | December | 80·0 | 26·7 | June | 72·2 | 22·3 |
| Cuyaba | 15° 86′ S. | 56° 7′ W. | 700 | Sept.-Oct. | 80·7 | 27·0 | June | 69·5 | 20·8 |
| Uberaba | 19° 44′ S. | 47° 45′ W. | 2,600 | February | 74·2 | 23·4 | July | 64·0 | 17·8 |
| Western Central Brazil. | |||||||||
| Pernambuco | 8° 4′ S. | 34° 51′ W. | — | February | 81·7 | 27·6 | July | 73·7 | 23·2 |
| Victoria | 8° 9′ S. | 35° 27′ W. | 550 | February | 79·5 | 26·4 | July | 72·8 | 22·7 |
| Colony of Isabella | 8° 45′ S. | 35° 42′ W. | 750 | February | 76·6 | 24·7 | July | 70·0 | 21·1 |
| Bahia | 12° 59′ S. | 38° 36′ W. | 200 | February | 80·8 | 27·1 | July | 73·7 | 23·2 |
| Rio Janeiro | 22° 54′ S. | 43° 10′ W. | 200 | February | 77·2 | 25·1 | July | 67·5 | 19·7 |
| Joinville | 26° 19′ S. | 49° 43′ W. | — | February | 75·5 | 24·2 | July | 61·5 | 16·4 |
| Villa Formosa | 26° 13′ S. | 58° 5′ W. | 250 | January | 79·2 | 26·2 | July | 61·3 | 16·3 |
In contrast with the fairly liberal rainfall of the east coast we find places almost as rainless as Waddy Halfa in the Soudan.
Arequipa, e.g., though situated high up on the Andes, is nearly as dry as Lima, but receives a few trifling showers during the height of summer and autumn (January to March).
| Arequipa. Lat. 16° 24′ S.; Long. 71° 30′ W.E.F., 7,680. | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Mean Monthly Temperature | Relative Humidity | Monthly Rainfall | ||
| F. | C. | Ins. | Mm. | ||
| January | 56·5 | 13·6 | 65 | 1·08 | 27 |
| February | 55·4 | 13·0 | 69 | 5·28 | 134 |
| March | 56·0 | 13·3 | — | 0·84 | 21 |
| April | 53·2 | 11·8 | 71 | 0 | 0 |
| May | 49·0 | 9·4 | — | 0 | 0 |
| June | 47·5 | 8·6 | 44 | 0 | 0 |
| July | 51·0 | 10·6 | 45 | 0 | 0 |
| August | 53·0 | 11·7 | 52 | 0 | 0 |
| September | 56·0 | 13·3 | 55 | 0·03 | 1 |
| October | 56·7 | 13·7 | 59 | 0 | 0 |
| November | 57·2 | 14·0 | — | 0 | 0 |
| December | 56·8 | 13·8 | 65 | 0·03 | 1 |
| Year | 54·2 | 12·3 | 59 | 7·28 | 185 |
These Western figures must serve as a specimen, though only for a single year; for as already remarked, meteorology is but fitfully studied in South America.
Many towns and districts, especially on the northern and eastern coasts, are at a considerable elevation above the sea, and in estimating the probable climate of such localities the following scale of diminution of mean temperature for height in the equatorial Andes may be of service:—
| Elevation in Feet | - | Sea-level | 1,500 | 4,500 | 7,000 | 10,000 | 13,000 | 17,000 | 20,000 | |
| Tempera- ture F. | - | 80° | 77° | 68° | 59° | 50° | 40° | 32° | 20° | |
Or expressed in the metric system:—
| Elevation in Metres | - | Sea-level | 490 | 1,420 | 2,320 | 3,270 | 4,190 | 5,120 | 6,040 | |
| Tempera- ture C. | - | 27° | 25° | 20° | 15° | 10° | 5° | 0° | -5° | |
The tables given on [pages 92, 93], compiled from Hann’s “Klimatologie” include some of the better-known sites in South America, but it will be observed that we are wofully wanting in detailed information as to places in the interior, by far the majority being places on the coast.
The small variation and remarkable uniformity of temperature in places spread over so large an area, when situated at all near the same level above the sea, is very remarkable, as also is the fact that nothing approaching the excessive temperature of Africa, the other great Southern Peninsula, is to be met with here.
Guiana, Venezuela, and the other countries of the north and north-eastern coasts, are no doubt steamy and unhealthy, but the greater part of Brazil seems to possess a climate by no means prohibitive of European energy, though doubtless the deltas of the great rivers, like similar situations elsewhere, are best avoided from the point of view of health.
Tables of the rainfall of a few places in each of the regions included in the preceding table will be found below:—
| Rainfall in Places on N. and N.E. Coast, South America. | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Place | Cartagena, Colombia | Caracas, Venezuela (3,000 ft.) | George Town, Brit. Guiana | Paramaribo, Dutch Guiana | Cayenne, French Guiana | Para, Brazil | ||||||
| Month | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. |
| January | 0 | 0 | 0·37 | 9 | 6·92 | 176 | 9·93 | 252 | 14·23 | 361 | 11·97 | 303 |
| February | 0 | 0 | 0·33 | 8 | 4·88 | 124 | 6·12 | 155 | 12·43 | 316 | 11·02 | 280 |
| March | 0·19 | 5 | 0·28 | 7 | 5·42 | 138 | 7·48 | 190 | 15·53 | 394 | 12·98 | 329 |
| April | 0·13 | 3 | 1·03 | 26 | 6·43 | 163 | 9·82 | 249 | 15·16 | 385 | 13·37 | 340 |
| May | 5·18 | 132 | 2·17 | 55 | 10·95 | 279 | 11·97 | 304 | 19·25 | 489 | 7·64 | 194 |
| June | 4·83 | 124 | 4·57 | 116 | 11·96 | 303 | 11·88 | 300 | 14·84 | 377 | 4·18 | 106 |
| July | 3·12 | 79 | 4·82 | 122 | 9·07 | 230 | 9·27 | 235 | 6·64 | 169 | 2·78 | 71 |
| August | 5·0 | 127 | 3·63 | 92 | 7·02 | 178 | 7·08 | 180 | 2·68 | 68 | 2·04 | 52 |
| September | 7·23 | 184 | 5·37 | 136 | 2·60 | 66 | 2·68 | 68 | 1·12 | 28 | 2·63 | 67 |
| October | 10·95 | 279 | 5·02 | 128 | 2·38 | 60 | 2·83 | 72 | 1·33 | 34 | 2·44 | 62 |
| November | 5·37 | 136 | 2·60 | 66 | 5·68 | 144 | 4·03 | 102 | 4·72 | 120 | 3·52 | 90 |
| December | 0·98 | 25 | 1·03 | 26 | 10·92 | 277 | 9·48 | 241 | 10·64 | 270 | 5·08 | 129 |
| Year | 43·67 | 1,094 | 31·14 | 791 | 84·23 | 2,138 | 92·43 | 2,348 | 118·53 | 3,011 | 79·64 | 2,023 |
| Rainfall, Western Littoral-Colombia, Ecuador and Peru. | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Place | Medellin, Colombia | Quito, Ecuador | Lima, Peru | Iquitos, East Slope of Andes | Salta, Peru | Tucuman, Peru | ||||||
| Month | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. |
| January | 2·18 | 55 | 3·24 | 82 | 0·07 | 1 | 10·24 | 260 | 5·68 | 144 | 7·38 | 187 |
| February | 2·52 | 64 | 3·88 | 99 | 0 | 0 | 9·83 | 250 | 5·44 | 138 | 6·63 | 168 |
| March | 5·28 | 134 | 4·84 | 123 | 0 | 0 | 12·24 | 311 | 4·64 | 118 | 6·27 | 159 |
| April | 6·93 | 176 | 6·95 | 177 | 0 | 0 | 6·48 | 165 | 0·92 | 23 | 1·78 | 45 |
| May | 7·77 | 197 | 4·62 | 117 | 0·13 | 3 | 10·00 | 254 | 0·37 | 9 | 1·14 | 29 |
| June | 6·62 | 168 | 1·33 | 34 | 0·37 | 9 | 7·43 | 189 | 0·03 | 1 | 0·52 | 13 |
| July | 4·13 | 105 | 1·08 | 27 | 0·39 | 10 | 6·53 | 167 | 0 | 0 | 0·52 | 13 |
| August | 5·13 | 130 | 2·22 | 56 | 0·33 | 8 | 4·62 | 117 | 0·07 | 2 | 0·23 | 6 |
| September | 6·42 | 163 | 2·57 | 65 | 0·27 | 7 | 8·70 | 221 | 0·27 | 7 | 0·63 | 16 |
| October | 7·37 | 187 | 3·87 | 98 | 0·13 | 3 | 7·24 | 184 | 0·48 | 12 | 3·14 | 79 |
| November | 5·87 | 149 | 3·97 | 101 | 0 | 0 | 8·52 | 216 | 1·88 | 48 | 4·33 | 110 |
| December | 2·67 | 68 | 3·57 | 91 | 0 | 0 | 11·47 | 291 | 2·93 | 74 | 5·75 | 146 |
| Year | 62·88 | 1,596 | 42·13 | 1,070 | 1·64 | 41 | 103·33 | 2,625 | 22·64 | 575 | 38·23 | 971 |
| Rainfall, Interior and East Coast. | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Place | Merida, Yucatan— Interior | Manaos, Brazil— Interior | Cuyaba, Brazil— Interior | Pernambuco, Coast, Brazil | Bahia, Coast, Brazil | Rio Janeiro, Coast, Brazil | ||||||
| Month | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. | Ins. | Mm. |
| January | 1·02 | 26 | 9·37 | 238 | 10·03 | 255 | 4·34 | 110 | 3·58 | 91 | 4·68 | 119 |
| February | 0·53 | 13 | 9·84 | 250 | 8·58 | 218 | 5·98 | 152 | 3·43 | 87 | 4·34 | 110 |
| March | 0·70 | 1 | 11·88 | 301 | 8·70 | 221 | 5·92 | 150 | 7·87 | 200 | 5·38 | 137 |
| April | 0·17 | 4 | 13·08 | 332 | 3·52 | 90 | 10·96 | 277 | 14·34 | 364 | 4·57 | 116 |
| May | 0·96 | 24 | 7·33 | 186 | 2·14 | 54 | 14·81 | 378 | 12·28 | 312 | 3·63 | 92 |
| June | 5·88 | 149 | 6·02 | 153 | 0·72 | 18 | 15·18 | 386 | 11·54 | 293 | 1·85 | 47 |
| July | 3·86 | 98 | 2·88 | 72 | 0·34 | 8 | 28·27 | 718 | 8·98 | 228 | 1·64 | 41 |
| August | 7·76 | 197 | 2·40 | 61 | 0·37 | 9 | 12·60 | 320 | 4·93 | 125 | 1·85 | 47 |
| September | 4·50 | 114 | 1·74 | 44 | 3·63 | 92 | 6·83 | 173 | 3·15 | 80 | 2·28 | 58 |
| October | 2·95 | 75 | 4·13 | 105 | 4·27 | 108 | 1·03 | 26 | 4·88 | 124 | 3·08 | 78 |
| November | 4·12 | 104 | 7·65 | 194 | 7·68 | 195 | 1·14 | 29 | 6·83 | 173 | 4·28 | 109 |
| December | 1·24 | 31 | 10·48 | 266 | 8·67 | 220 | 2·04 | 52 | 3·63 | 92 | 5·43 | 138 |
| Year | 33·86 | 860 | 85·12 | 2,202 | 59·00 | 1,498 | 117·00 | 2,971 | 85·39 | 2,169 | 43·00 | 1,091 |
Bermuda
(St. George), lat. 32° 22′ N., long. 64° 30′ W.—This group of Islands is becoming a favourite health resort with Americans, who are able in a couple of days (600 sea miles) to exchange the turmoil of Wall Street for the holy calm of the Atlantic. The climate is extremely pleasant, without being too relaxing, the mean temperature of the year being 69·4° F. (20·7° C).
| Jan. | April | August | October |
|---|---|---|---|
| 62° F. (16·6° C.) | 64° F. (17·8° C.) | 79° F. (26·2° C.) | 69·5° F. (20·7° C.) |
The month of March, with a mean of 61° F. (16° C.), is cooler than February, and the absolute annual extremes of temperature are 91·5° F. (33° C.), and 43° F. (6° C.). The relative humidity stands very constantly about 70 per cent., and the cloudiness of the sky rather higher. The general direction of the wind is S.W., bearing more to the north in winter, and southerly in summer and autumn. There are on the average 159 days on which rain falls during the year, producing a total of 45·28 ins. (1,150 mm.) of rain; the most rainy month being October, and the least so April and June. There is very little variation during the twenty-four hours, so that the climate is well suited for delicate chests.
These islands depend for water almost entirely on rain caught and stored in tanks, so that the amount obtained during the last shower is said to be one of the main subjects of conversation and interest among the islanders.
Madeira
(Funchal). Lat. 32° 37′, Long. 16° 55′ W.—Situated off the coast of Africa, in nearly the same latitude as the preceding, this well-known health resort has a slightly lower mean annual temperature of 65·5° F. (18·6° C.); the mean of the coldest month, February, being 59·6° F. (15·4° C.), and of the hottest, August, 72·7° F. (22·6° C.)
During twenty-five years the absolute extremes of temperature were 90·7° F. (32·7° C.) and 43·6° F. (6·5° C.). The air is drier than that of Bermuda, the relative humidity averaging 68 per cent.; March, with 65 per cent., being the driest, and July, with 70 per cent., the moistest month.
The amount and distribution of the rainfall is as below:—
| Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apl. | May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. | Nov. | Dec. | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rainfall | - | Ins. | 4·18 | 3·18 | 2·87 | 2·13 | 0·92 | 0·53 | 0·03 | 0·08 | 0·67 | 2·38 | 5·28 | 4·67 | |
| Mm. | 106 | 81 | 73 | 54 | 23 | 13 | 1 | 2 | 17 | 60 | 134 | 119 | |||
| No. of rainy days | 10·7 | 8·6 | 9·4 | 7·3 | 5·3 | 2·3 | 0·8 | 1·0 | 3·3 | 7·9 | 10·5 | 11·6 | |||
The total rainfall is thus under 27 inches, and owing to the occurrence of east winds coming from the African desert, the air often becomes very dry during its continuance. Madeira has earned a high reputation for the treatment of cases of consumption, but has been less recommended for such cases since the introduction of the open-air treatment; and it should be recognised that neither this nor any other climate can do more than retard the progress of advanced cases. It is an excellent country, however, in which to live in the open air, and cases that find Funchal too relaxing can obtain a somewhat more bracing climate on the higher ground of the interior of the island.
In any case Madeira forms an excellent resort for those who, without being actually ailing, find themselves unable to withstand the damp and cold of our English winters.
Notes on the Observation of Meteorological Data.
Few houses will now be found without a thermometer and barometer, and many people are fond of keeping a register of their observations. Moreover, where the observer chances to be stationed in an out-of-the-way place, even a casual domestic register of this sort may be of considerable value. . . . The instruments required are the wet and dry bulb thermometers, a rain gauge, and a barometer.
Those who have to move about in the backwaters of civilisation, will probably find the mercurial barometer rather a “white elephant,” as it requires great care and attention whenever it is necessary to move it; and for such, a good aneroid is a more desirable possession. It is, of course, important that the instrument should be compared, whenever opportunity occurs, with a standard mercurial instrument; but for merely observing extent of fluctuation an aneroid is quite accurate enough for all practical purposes. The rain gauge must of course be set up in some open and unsheltered position near the ground level, and the thermometers should be hung in a north verandah (for the northern hemisphere) against a piece of felt which will help to protect them from the heat radiated from the wall. The aneroid, on the other hand, may be hung in any position where it is well protected from the weather—on the ground-floor. The direction of the wind can easily be observed by means of a small triangular flag or burgee hoisted to a pole, which, unless the neighbourhood be a very open one, is best lashed up in a tree so as to project above its branches.
Those, however, who desire to take up the study of their local meteorology seriously, will do well to obtain a little pamphlet, entitled “Hints to Meteorological Observers,” by W. Marriott, published at 1s. 6d., under the auspices of the Royal Meteorological Society, by E. Stanford, 12, Long Acre, W.C., which contains complete instructions on the subject.
From the point of view of the tropical resident, it is unfortunate that some of the tables in this publication are hardly carried high enough, but the instructions will enable anyone to amplify them. On this account, I append a table for calculating relative humidity of a less elaborate sort, but more extended than that furnished in the pamphlet, as this is one of the most important of all climatic factors from a sanitary point of view.
The table is only worked out to half degrees of difference between the wet and dry bulb instruments, and for the most part to 4° intervals of the dry thermometer, but it is easy, by reading between the lines, to fill up the gaps, where any marked interval exists; and it will be observed that at the lower right-hand corner of the second table, the numbers progress in regular arithmetical progression, so that it is not difficult to infer the percentages in cases of somewhat higher degrees of temperature and dryness.
| Table for Calculating the Relative Humidity of the Atmosphere %by the Dry and Wet Bulb Thermometer. | |||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Difference of Wet and Dry Bulbs | Reading of the Dry Bulb Thermometer. | Difference of Wet and Dry Bulbs | |||||||||||||||||||||
| 32° | 34° | 36° | 38° | 40° | 44° | 48° | 52° | 56° | 60° | 64° | 68° | 72° | 76° | 80° | 84° | 88° | 92° | 96° | 100° | ||||
| 0·5 | 92 | 94 | 95 | 95 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 98 | 98 | 98 | 98 | 98 | 98 | 0·5 | ||
| 1 | 87 | 89 | 91 | 91 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 94 | 94 | 94 | 95 | 95 | 95 | 95 | 95 | 95 | 95 | 1 | ||
| 1·5 | 81 | 84 | 86 | 87 | 88 | 88 | 88 | 89 | 89 | 90 | 91 | 91 | 92 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 1·5 | ||
| 2 | 76 | 80 | 82 | 83 | 84 | 84 | 85 | 86 | 87 | 88 | 88 | 89 | 89 | 89 | 90 | 90 | 91 | 91 | 91 | 91 | 2 | ||
| 2·5 | 70 | 75 | 78 | 79 | 80 | 81 | 82 | 83 | 83 | 84 | 85 | 85 | 86 | 87 | 87 | 87 | 88 | 88 | 88 | 89 | 2·5 | ||
| 3 | 65 | 71 | 74 | 76 | 76 | 78 | 79 | 80 | 81 | 82 | 82 | 83 | 83 | 84 | 85 | 85 | 85 | 85 | 86 | 87 | 3 | ||
| 3·5 | 60 | 66 | 70 | 72 | 73 | 75 | 76 | 77 | 78 | 79 | 80 | 81 | 82 | 82 | 83 | 83 | 83 | 83 | 84 | 85 | 3·5 | ||
| 4 | 56 | 62 | 66 | 69 | 70 | 72 | 73 | 74 | 75 | 76 | 77 | 78 | 79 | 80 | 80 | 81 | 81 | 81 | 82 | 83 | 4 | ||
| 4·5 | 52 | 58 | 62 | 65 | 66 | 69 | 70 | 71 | 72 | 74 | 75 | 75 | 76 | 79 | 78 | 78 | 79 | 79 | 80 | 81 | 4·5 | ||
| 5 | 48 | 55 | 59 | 62 | 63 | 65 | 67 | 69 | 70 | 71 | 72 | 73 | 74 | 75 | 76 | 76 | 77 | 77 | 78 | 79 | 5 | ||
| 5·5 | 45 | 52 | 56 | 59 | 61 | 62 | 64 | 65 | 67 | 69 | 70 | 71 | 72 | 73 | 74 | 74 | 75 | 75 | 76 | 77 | 5·5 | ||
| 6 | 41 | 49 | 53 | 56 | 58 | 60 | 62 | 63 | 65 | 66 | 68 | 69 | 70 | 71 | 72 | 72 | 73 | 73 | 74 | 75 | 6 | ||
| 6·5 | 38 | 46 | 50 | 53 | 55 | 57 | 59 | 61 | 62 | 64 | 65 | 67 | 68 | 68 | 69 | 70 | 70 | 71 | 72 | 73 | 6·5 | ||
| 7 | 35 | 43 | 47 | 50 | 52 | 55 | 57 | 59 | 60 | 62 | 63 | 65 | 65 | 66 | 67 | 68 | 68 | 69 | 69 | 70 | 7 | ||
| 7·5 | 32 | 40 | 44 | 48 | 49 | 52 | 54 | 56 | 58 | 60 | 61 | 62 | 63 | 64 | 65 | 66 | 66 | 67 | 68 | 69 | 7·5 | ||
| 8 | 30 | 37 | 42 | 45 | 47 | 50 | 52 | 54 | 56 | 58 | 59 | 60 | 61 | 63 | 64 | 64 | 65 | 66 | 67 | 68 | 8 | ||
| 8·5 | 29 | 35 | 40 | 42 | 44 | 48 | 50 | 52 | 54 | 56 | 57 | 58 | 60 | 61 | 62 | 63 | 63 | 64 | 65 | 66 | 8·5 | ||
| 9 | 27 | 33 | 38 | 41 | 42 | 46 | 48 | 50 | 52 | 54 | 55 | 56 | 58 | 59 | 60 | 61 | 61 | 62 | 63 | 64 | 9 | ||
| 9·5 | 25 | 31 | 36 | 38 | 40 | 43 | 46 | 48 | 50 | 52 | 53 | 54 | 55 | 57 | 58 | 59 | 60 | 61 | 62 | 63 | 9·5 | ||
| 10 | 23 | 30 | 34 | 36 | 38 | 41 | 44 | 46 | 48 | 50 | 52 | 53 | 54 | 56 | 57 | 57 | 58 | 59 | 60 | 61 | 10 | ||
| 10·5 | 21 | 28 | 32 | 34 | 36 | 40 | 42 | 44 | 46 | 48 | 50 | 51 | 52 | 54 | 55 | 56 | 57 | 58 | 59 | 60 | 10·5 | ||
| 11 | 19 | 26 | 30 | 32 | 34 | 38 | 40 | 43 | 45 | 46 | 48 | 50 | 51 | 52 | 53 | 54 | 55 | 56 | 57 | 58 | 11 | ||
| 11·5 | 17 | 24 | 28 | 30 | 32 | 36 | 38 | 41 | 43 | 45 | 46 | 48 | 49 | 50 | 52 | 53 | 54 | 55 | 56 | 57 | 11·5 | ||
| 12 | 16 | 23 | 27 | 29 | 31 | 34 | 36 | 39 | 41 | 43 | 45 | 46 | 48 | 49 | 50 | 51 | 52 | 53 | 54 | 55 | 12 | ||
| 12·5 | 15 | 21 | 28 | 27 | 29 | 32 | 34 | 37 | 39 | 42 | 43 | 45 | 46 | 47 | 48 | 49 | 51 | 50 | 53 | 54 | 12·5 | ||
| 13 | 14 | 20 | 24 | 26 | 28 | 31 | 33 | 36 | 38 | 40 | 42 | 43 | 45 | 46 | 47 | 48 | 50 | 51 | 52 | 53 | 13 | ||
| 13·5 | 13 | 18 | 23 | 25 | 27 | 30 | 32 | 35 | 36 | 38 | 40 | 41 | 43 | 45 | 46 | 47 | 48 | 49 | 50 | 51 | 13·5 | ||
| 14 | 12 | 17 | 22 | 24 | 25 | 28 | 30 | 33 | 35 | 37 | 39 | 40 | 42 | 43 | 45 | 46 | 47 | 48 | 49 | 50 | 14 | ||
| 14·5 | 11 | 16 | 21 | 22 | 24 | 26 | 29 | 31 | 34 | 36 | 37 | 39 | 40 | 42 | 43 | 45 | 46 | 47 | 48 | 49 | 14·5 | ||
| 15 | 10 | 15 | 20 | 21 | 23 | 25 | 28 | 30 | 33 | 35 | 36 | 38 | 39 | 41 | 42 | 43 | 44 | 45 | 46 | 47 | 15 | ||
| 15·5 | 10 | 14 | 18 | 20 | 22 | 24 | 26 | 28 | 31 | 33 | 35 | 37 | 38 | 39 | 41 | 42 | 43 | 44 | 45 | 46 | 15·5 | ||
| 16 | 9 | 13 | 17 | 19 | 21 | 23 | 25 | 27 | 30 | 32 | 34 | 35 | 37 | 38 | 39 | 40 | 42 | 43 | 44 | 45 | 16 | ||
| 16·5 | 8 | 12 | 16 | 18 | 20 | 22 | 23 | 26 | 29 | 31 | 33 | 34 | 36 | 37 | 38 | 39 | 41 | 42 | 43 | 44 | 16·5 | ||
| 17 | 7 | 12 | 15 | 17 | 19 | 21 | 22 | 25 | 27 | 30 | 31 | 33 | 34 | 36 | 37 | 38 | 39 | 41 | 42 | 43 | 17 | ||
| 17·5 | 7 | 11 | 14 | 16 | 18 | 20 | 21 | 24 | 26 | 28 | 30 | 32 | 33 | 35 | 36 | 37 | 38 | 39 | 40 | 41 | 17·5 | ||
| 18 | 6 | 10 | 13 | 15 | 17 | 19 | 20 | 23 | 25 | 27 | 29 | 31 | 32 | 34 | 35 | 36 | 37 | 38 | 39 | 40 | 18 | ||
| 18·5 | — | — | — | — | — | — | 19 | 22 | 24 | 26 | 28 | 30 | 31 | 33 | 34 | 35 | 36 | 37 | 38 | 39 | 18·5 | ||
| 19 | — | — | — | — | — | — | 18 | 20 | 23 | 25 | 27 | 29 | 30 | 32 | 33 | 34 | 35 | 36 | 37 | 38 | 19 | ||
| 19·5 | — | — | — | — | — | — | 17 | 19 | 21 | 24 | 26 | 28 | 29 | 31 | 32 | 33 | 34 | 35 | 36 | 37 | 19·5 | ||
| 20 | — | — | — | — | — | — | 17 | 18 | 20 | 23 | 25 | 27 | 28 | 30 | 31 | 32 | 33 | 34 | 35 | 35 | 20 | ||
| Table for Calculating the Relative Humidity of the Atmosphere % by the Dry and Wet Bulb Thermometer. | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Difference of Wet and Dry Bulbs | Reading of the Dry Bulb Thermometer. | Difference of Wet and Dry Bulbs | |||||||||
| 32° | 34° | 36° | 38° | 40° | 44° | 48° | 52° | 56° | 60° | ||
| 0·5 | 92 | 94 | 95 | 95 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 96 | 97 | 97 | 0·5 |
| 1 | 87 | 89 | 91 | 91 | 92 | 92 | 92 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 1 |
| 1·5 | 81 | 84 | 86 | 87 | 88 | 88 | 88 | 89 | 89 | 90 | 1·5 |
| 2 | 76 | 80 | 82 | 83 | 84 | 84 | 85 | 86 | 87 | 88 | 2 |
| 2·5 | 70 | 75 | 78 | 79 | 80 | 81 | 82 | 83 | 83 | 84 | 2·5 |
| 3 | 65 | 71 | 74 | 76 | 76 | 78 | 79 | 80 | 81 | 82 | 3 |
| 3·5 | 60 | 66 | 70 | 72 | 73 | 75 | 76 | 77 | 78 | 79 | 3·5 |
| 4 | 56 | 62 | 66 | 69 | 70 | 72 | 73 | 74 | 75 | 76 | 4 |
| 4·5 | 52 | 58 | 62 | 65 | 66 | 69 | 70 | 71 | 72 | 74 | 4·5 |
| 5 | 48 | 55 | 59 | 62 | 63 | 65 | 67 | 69 | 70 | 71 | 5 |
| 5·5 | 45 | 52 | 56 | 59 | 61 | 62 | 64 | 65 | 67 | 69 | 5·5 |
| 6 | 41 | 49 | 53 | 56 | 58 | 60 | 62 | 63 | 65 | 66 | 6 |
| 6·5 | 38 | 46 | 50 | 53 | 55 | 57 | 59 | 61 | 62 | 64 | 6·5 |
| 7 | 35 | 43 | 47 | 50 | 52 | 55 | 57 | 59 | 60 | 62 | 7 |
| 7·5 | 32 | 40 | 44 | 48 | 49 | 52 | 54 | 56 | 58 | 60 | 7·5 |
| 8 | 30 | 37 | 42 | 45 | 47 | 50 | 52 | 54 | 56 | 58 | 8 |
| 8·5 | 29 | 35 | 40 | 42 | 44 | 48 | 50 | 52 | 54 | 56 | 8·5 |
| 9 | 27 | 33 | 38 | 41 | 42 | 46 | 48 | 50 | 52 | 54 | 9 |
| 9·5 | 25 | 31 | 36 | 38 | 40 | 43 | 46 | 48 | 50 | 52 | 9·5 |
| 10 | 23 | 30 | 34 | 36 | 38 | 41 | 44 | 46 | 48 | 50 | 10 |
| 10·5 | 21 | 28 | 32 | 34 | 36 | 40 | 42 | 44 | 46 | 48 | 10·5 |
| 11 | 19 | 26 | 30 | 32 | 34 | 38 | 40 | 43 | 45 | 46 | 11 |
| 11·5 | 17 | 24 | 28 | 30 | 32 | 36 | 38 | 41 | 43 | 45 | 11·5 |
| 12 | 16 | 23 | 27 | 29 | 31 | 34 | 36 | 39 | 41 | 43 | 12 |
| 12·5 | 15 | 21 | 28 | 27 | 29 | 32 | 34 | 37 | 39 | 42 | 12·5 |
| 13 | 14 | 20 | 24 | 26 | 28 | 31 | 33 | 36 | 38 | 40 | 13 |
| 13·5 | 13 | 18 | 23 | 25 | 27 | 30 | 32 | 35 | 36 | 38 | 13·5 |
| 14 | 12 | 17 | 22 | 24 | 25 | 28 | 30 | 33 | 35 | 37 | 14 |
| 14·5 | 11 | 16 | 21 | 22 | 24 | 26 | 29 | 31 | 34 | 36 | 14·5 |
| 15 | 10 | 15 | 20 | 21 | 23 | 25 | 28 | 30 | 33 | 35 | 15 |
| 15·5 | 10 | 14 | 18 | 20 | 22 | 24 | 26 | 28 | 31 | 33 | 15·5 |
| 16 | 9 | 13 | 17 | 19 | 21 | 23 | 25 | 27 | 30 | 32 | 16 |
| 16·5 | 8 | 12 | 16 | 18 | 20 | 22 | 23 | 26 | 29 | 31 | 16·5 |
| 17 | 7 | 12 | 15 | 17 | 19 | 21 | 22 | 25 | 27 | 30 | 17 |
| 17·5 | 7 | 11 | 14 | 16 | 18 | 20 | 21 | 24 | 26 | 28 | 17·5 |
| 18 | 6 | 10 | 13 | 15 | 17 | 19 | 20 | 23 | 25 | 27 | 18 |
| 18·5 | — | — | — | — | — | — | 19 | 22 | 24 | 26 | 18·5 |
| 19 | — | — | — | — | — | — | 18 | 20 | 23 | 25 | 19 |
| 19·5 | — | — | — | — | — | — | 17 | 19 | 21 | 24 | 19·5 |
| 20 | — | — | — | — | — | — | 17 | 18 | 20 | 23 | 20 |
| Difference of Wet and Dry Bulbs | Reading of the Dry Bulb Thermometer. | Difference of Wet and Dry Bulbs | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 64° | 68° | 72° | 76° | 80° | 84° | 88° | 92° | 96° | 100° | ||
| 0·5 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 98 | 98 | 98 | 98 | 98 | 98 | 0·5 |
| 1 | 94 | 94 | 94 | 95 | 95 | 95 | 95 | 95 | 95 | 95 | 1 |
| 1·5 | 91 | 91 | 92 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 93 | 1·5 |
| 2 | 88 | 89 | 89 | 89 | 90 | 90 | 91 | 91 | 91 | 91 | 2 |
| 2·5 | 85 | 85 | 86 | 87 | 87 | 87 | 88 | 88 | 88 | 89 | 2·5 |
| 3 | 82 | 83 | 83 | 84 | 85 | 85 | 85 | 85 | 86 | 87 | 3 |
| 3·5 | 80 | 81 | 82 | 82 | 83 | 83 | 83 | 83 | 84 | 85 | 3·5 |
| 4 | 77 | 78 | 79 | 80 | 80 | 81 | 81 | 81 | 82 | 83 | 4 |
| 4·5 | 75 | 75 | 76 | 79 | 78 | 78 | 79 | 79 | 80 | 81 | 4·5 |
| 5 | 72 | 73 | 74 | 75 | 76 | 76 | 77 | 77 | 78 | 79 | 5 |
| 5·5 | 70 | 71 | 72 | 73 | 74 | 74 | 75 | 75 | 76 | 77 | 5·5 |
| 6 | 68 | 69 | 70 | 71 | 72 | 72 | 73 | 73 | 74 | 75 | 6 |
| 6·5 | 65 | 67 | 68 | 68 | 69 | 70 | 70 | 71 | 72 | 73 | 6·5 |
| 7 | 63 | 65 | 65 | 66 | 67 | 68 | 68 | 69 | 69 | 70 | 7 |
| 7·5 | 61 | 62 | 63 | 64 | 65 | 66 | 66 | 67 | 68 | 69 | 7·5 |
| 8 | 59 | 60 | 61 | 63 | 64 | 64 | 65 | 66 | 67 | 68 | 8 |
| 8·5 | 57 | 58 | 60 | 61 | 62 | 63 | 63 | 64 | 65 | 66 | 8·5 |
| 9 | 55 | 56 | 58 | 59 | 60 | 61 | 61 | 62 | 63 | 64 | 9 |
| 9·5 | 53 | 54 | 55 | 57 | 58 | 59 | 60 | 61 | 62 | 63 | 9·5 |
| 10 | 52 | 53 | 54 | 56 | 57 | 57 | 58 | 59 | 60 | 61 | 10 |
| 10·5 | 50 | 51 | 52 | 54 | 55 | 56 | 57 | 58 | 59 | 60 | 10·5 |
| 11 | 48 | 50 | 51 | 52 | 53 | 54 | 55 | 56 | 57 | 58 | 11 |
| 11·5 | 46 | 48 | 49 | 50 | 52 | 53 | 54 | 55 | 56 | 57 | 11·5 |
| 12 | 45 | 46 | 48 | 49 | 50 | 51 | 52 | 53 | 54 | 55 | 12 |
| 12·5 | 43 | 45 | 46 | 47 | 48 | 49 | 51 | 50 | 53 | 54 | 12·5 |
| 13 | 42 | 43 | 45 | 46 | 47 | 48 | 50 | 51 | 52 | 53 | 13 |
| 13·5 | 40 | 41 | 43 | 45 | 46 | 47 | 48 | 49 | 50 | 51 | 13·5 |
| 14 | 39 | 40 | 42 | 43 | 45 | 46 | 47 | 48 | 49 | 50 | 14 |
| 14·5 | 37 | 39 | 40 | 42 | 43 | 45 | 46 | 47 | 48 | 49 | 14·5 |
| 15 | 36 | 38 | 39 | 41 | 42 | 43 | 44 | 45 | 46 | 47 | 15 |
| 15·5 | 35 | 37 | 38 | 39 | 41 | 42 | 43 | 44 | 45 | 46 | 15·5 |
| 16 | 34 | 35 | 37 | 38 | 39 | 40 | 42 | 43 | 44 | 45 | 16 |
| 16·5 | 33 | 34 | 36 | 37 | 38 | 39 | 41 | 42 | 43 | 44 | 16·5 |
| 17 | 31 | 33 | 34 | 36 | 37 | 38 | 39 | 41 | 42 | 43 | 17 |
| 17·5 | 30 | 32 | 33 | 35 | 36 | 37 | 38 | 39 | 40 | 41 | 17·5 |
| 18 | 29 | 31 | 32 | 34 | 35 | 36 | 37 | 38 | 39 | 40 | 18 |
| 18·5 | 28 | 30 | 31 | 33 | 34 | 35 | 36 | 37 | 38 | 39 | 18·5 |
| 19 | 27 | 29 | 30 | 32 | 33 | 34 | 35 | 36 | 37 | 38 | 19 |
| 19·5 | 26 | 28 | 29 | 31 | 32 | 33 | 34 | 35 | 36 | 37 | 19·5 |
| 20 | 25 | 27 | 28 | 30 | 31 | 32 | 33 | 34 | 35 | 35 | 20 |