CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY
Natural Advantages of the Territory of the Roman Empire—Physical Decay of that Territory—Causes of the Decay—Reaction of Man on Nature—Observation of Nature—Uncertainty of Our Historical Knowledge of Ancient Climates—Uncertainty of Modern Meteorology—Stability of Nature—Formation of Bogs—Natural Conditions Favorable to Geographical Change—Destructiveness of Man—Human and Brute Action Compared—Limits of Human Power—Importance of Physical Conservation and Restoration—Uncertainty as to Effects of Human Action
CHAPTER II.
TRANSFER, MODIFICATION, AND EXTIRPATION OF VEGETABLE AND OF ANIMAL SPECIES.
Modern Geography takes Account of Organic Life—Geographical Importance
of Plants—Origin of Domestic Vegetables—Transfer of Vegetable
Life—Objects of Modern Commerce—Foreign Plants, how
Introduced—Vegetable Power of Accommodation—Agricultural Products of
the United States—Useful American Plants Grown in Europe—Extirpation
of Vegetables—Animal Life as a Geological and Geographical
Agency—Origin and Transfer of Domestic Quadrupeds—Extirpation of Wild
Quadrupeds—Large Marine Animals Relatively Unimportant in
Geography—Introduction and Breeding of Fish—Destruction of
Fish—Geographical Importance of Birds—Introduction of
Birds—Destruction of Birds—Utility and Destruction of
Reptiles—Utility of Insects and Worms—Injury to the Forest by
Insects—Introduction of Insects—Destruction of Insects—Minute
Organisms
CHAPTER III.
THE WOODS.
The Habitable Earth Originally Wooded—General Meteorological Influence
of the Forest—Electrical Action of Trees—Chemical Influence of
Woods—Trees as Protection against Malaria—Trees as Shelter to Ground
to the Leeward—Influence of the Forest as Inorganic on
Temperature—Thermometrical Action of Trees as Organic—Total Influence
of the Forest on Temperature—Influence of Forests as Inorganic on
Humidity of Air and Earth—Influence as Organic—Balance of Conflicting
Influences—Influence of Woods on Precipitation—Total Climatic Action
of the Forest—Influence of the Forest on Humidity of Soil—The Forest
in Winter—Summer Rain, Importance of—Influence of the Forest on the
Flow of Springs—Influence of the Forest on Inundations and
Torrents—Destructive Action of Torrents—Floods of the
Ardeche—Excavation by Torrents—Extinction of Torrents—Crushing Force
of Torrents—Transporting Power of Water—The Po and its
Deposits—Mountain Slides—Forest as Protection against
Avalanches—Minor Uses of the Forest—Small Forest Plants and Vitality
of Seeds—Locusts do not Breed in Forests—General Functions of
Forest—General Consequences of Destruction of—Due Proportion of
Woodland—Proportion of Woodland in European Countries—Forests of Great
Britain—Forests of France—Forests of Italy—Forests of
Germany—Forests of United States—American Forest Trees—European and
American Forest Trees Compared—The Forest does not furnish Food for
Man—First Removal of the Forest—Principal Causes of Destruction of
Forest—Destruction and Protection of Forests by Governments—Royal
Forests and Game-laws—Effects of the French Revolution—Increased
Demand for Lumber—Effects of Burning Forest—Floating of
Timber—Restoration of the Forest—Economy of the Forest—Forest
Legislation—Plantation of Forests In America—Financial Results of
Forest Plantations—Instability of American Life
CHAPTER IV.
THE WATERS.
Land Artificially Won from the Waters—Great Works of Material
Improvement—Draining of Lincolnshire Fens—Incursions of the Sea in the
Netherlands—Origin of Sea-dikes—Gain and Loss of Land in the
Netherlands—Marine Deposits on the Coast of Netherlands—Draining of
Lake of Haarlem—Draining of the Zuiderzee—Geographical Effects
of—Improvements in the Netherlands—Ancient Hydraulic Works—Draining
of Lake Celano by Prince Torlonia—Incidental Consequences of Draining
Lakes—Draining of Marshes—Agricultural Draining—Meteorological
Effects of Draining—Geographical Effects of Draining—Geographical
Effects of Aqueducts and Canals—Antiquity of Irrigation—Irrigation in
Palestine, India, and Egypt—Irrigation in Europe—Meteorological
Effects of Irrigation—Water withdrawn from Rivers for
Irrigation—Injurious Effects of Rice-culture—Salts Deposited by Water
of Irrigation—Subterranean Waters—Artesian Wells—Artificial
Springs—Economizing Precipitation—Inundations in France—Basins of
Reception—Diversion of Rivers—Glacier Lakes—River Embankments—Other
Remedies against Inundations—Dikes of the Nile—Deposits of Tuscan
Rivers—Improvements in Tuscan Maremma—Improvements in Val di
Chiana—Coast of the Netherlands
CHAPTER V.
THE SANDS.
Origin of Sand—Sand now Carried to the Sea—Beach Sands of Northern
Africa—Sands of Egypt—Sand Dunes and Sand Plains—Coast Dunes—Sand
Banks—Character of Dune Sand—Interior Structure of Dunes—Geological
Importance of Dunes—Dunes on American Coasts—Dunes of Western
Europe—Age, Character, and Permanence of Dunes—Dunes as a Barrier
against the Sea—Encroachments of the Sea—Liimfjord—Coasts of
Schleswig-Holstein, Netherlands, and France—Movement of Dunes—Control
of Dunes by Man—Inland Dunes—Inland Sand Plains
CHAPTER VI.
GREAT PROJECTS OF PHYSICAL CHANGE ACCOMPLISHED OR PROPOSED BY MAN.
Cutting of Isthmuses—Canal of Suez—Maritime Canals in Greece—Canals
to Dead Sea—Canals to Libyan Desert—Maritime Canals in Europe—Cape
Cod Canal—Changes in Caspian—Diversion of the Nile—Diversion of the
Rhine—Improvements in North American Hydrography—Soil below
Rock—Covering Rock with Earth—Desert Valleys—Effects of
Mining—Duponchel's Plans of Improvement—Action of Man on the
Weather—Resistance to Great Natural Forces—Incidental Effects of Human
Action—Nothing Small In Nature