FOOTNOTES
[201] “Facts and figures of the Automobile Industry,” 1922, published by the National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, gives the following table under the heading “Ratio of Accidents to Traffic Declines”:
| Year | Number of Auto Deaths per Car | Total Number Auto[202] Deaths | Registration of Cars | Number of Cars per 1000 Population | Auto Deaths per 1000 Population | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1917 | .0019 | 9,184 | 4,983,340 | 48 | .0887 | |
| 1918 | .0016 | 9,672 | 6,146,617 | 59 | .0919 | |
| 1919 | .0013 | 9,827 | 7,558,848 | 71 | .0936 | |
| 1920 | .00123 | 11,358 | 9,211,295 | 87 | .1040 | |
| 1921 | .00119 | 12,500 | [203] | 10,448,632 | 99 | .1100 |
[202] Estimated of entire U. S. by National Workmen’s Compensation Service Bureau applying Census Bureau for registration area to grand total.
[203] Estimated from incomplete figures. Later statistics of the U. S. Census Bureau gives automobile accidents in 1921, 9103; in 1922, 10,168.
[204] Harry D. Williar, Jr., Assistant Chief Engineer, in Public Roads, September, 1921.
[205] Bulletin issued by the American Railway Association as a part of the “Cross Crossings Cautiously” campaign, June to September, inclusive, 1922.
[206] “Cross Crossings Cautiously” Bulletin.
[207] Nebraska Blue Print, May, 1920. Published by the Engineering Society of the University of Nebraska.
[208] Formerly Chairman of the Citizens’ Street Traffic Committee of New York City, Honorary President of the Highway Traffic Association of the state of New York, Chairman of the Advisory Committee for the Highway Transport Committee of the United States Council of National Defense, Chairman of the Board of Directors of the Eno Foundation for Highway Traffic Regulation, Inc., etc.
[209] “The Science of Highway Traffic Regulation,” by W. P. Eno. Distributed by Brentano’s, New York.
[210] Eno, op. cit.
[211] Main Office, Saugatuck, Fairfield County, Conn.
CHAPTER XII
HIGHWAY ESTHETICS
One test for success is the degree of satisfaction produced. A successful book satisfies the majority of its readers. A machine is successful when it performs the duties intended to the satisfaction of its operators. In business satisfaction brings repeat orders; in art it gives emotional pleasure, and we return again and again to look upon it. The ancient writer Vitruvius says the three indispensable elements of architecture are Firmitas, Utilitas, Venustas, stability, utility, beauty. That one which in the long run is most pleasing to the builder and gives the greatest degree of satisfaction is beauty.
Most people are sensible to the charms of nature and art, that feeling excited in the mind when observing those things called beautiful, and to a feeling of revulsion and, possibly, disgust when brought in contact with the ugly. The so-called esthetic sense enables us to appreciate and admire the beautiful in nature and art, to enjoy literature and music, to delight in wit and humor, and even to recognize beauty in a mathematical problem.
Can the principles of esthetic construction be applied to the humble road? Most assuredly, everyone recognizes that the first two elements, stability and utility, are very essential qualifications, but the public fails to get the greatest possible satisfaction from the road because it neglects the element of beauty. Until the profession of Road Aesthete has been evolved, therefore, it might be well, in at least a crude way, to apply to the highway some of the principles of architecture and landscape gardening. Since the roadway is of necessity flat it blends in well with landscape gardening and the characteristics of unity, variety, and fitness are fundamental. All parts that are above the surface may receive a true architectural treatment. Bridges are especially amenable. With the very large bridges there is present the element of size, vastness, and when properly proportioned they excite in the mind of man a feeling of awe akin to appreciation of the sublime in nature and impress upon him a deep sense of the greatness of human power. In all bridges the elements of proportion, harmony and symmetry are applicable. And with the beauty and grandeur of form comes the heightened effect of embellishment—ornament and color. Here, however, the skill, experience, and taste of the artist must come in. Embellishment may be carried too far. A simple decoration of constructive parts is usually sufficient. Massive concrete is itself pleasing, but possibly a rubbing of the surface will enhance the effect of light and shade and bring into prominence the lines which the bridge architect desires to emphasize. The coloring due to the materials used is usually deemed sufficient, although there may be places where harmony demands a special treatment.
Much the same principles are involved in landscape gardening. It might be well if every road engineer also had a course in the art of landscape gardening, and some have gone so far as to contend that the need for the services of an expert landscape architect to assist in the design of highways is obvious. The artistic qualities of landscape gardening applicable to the beautification of highways may be conceived to be unity, variety, and character.
Unity means that in the landscape composition some leading idea, motive, shall prevail, and that details shall be subordinate to it. In order that a motive may be most effective one master mind should have charge of the landscape work for an entire road; plans should be completely made and all planting within and along the edges of the right of way should be absolutely under his supervision. In only a few instances has road gardening been carried to this extent. Perhaps this may be due to a lack of art education on the part of the public, to a sort of inherent feeling that Nature will take care of her own and cover without artificial aid all ugly spots, or to a lack of necessary funds.
Two great styles ordinarily mentioned are the Natural and the Architectural. They are sometimes spoken of as the English and the Italian, because they have been respectively most highly developed in these countries. Another style called the Picturesque has its adherents for certain locations.
The natural style attempts to retain naturalness as far as possible—in extreme cases refusing to prune trees or clear out trees weakened by decay and blown down by the wind. Generally the best effects are obtained by not going that far. Open lawns, curved lines, and grouped trees are utilized to obtain the appearance of naturalness. Shrubs and flowering perennials are used to furnish a natural and pleasing connection between the open lawns and the wooded portions of the landscape. They may be used in profusion to hide unnatural and inartistic features, and often will be low enough to look over and therefore beautiful vistas need not be eliminated.
The Architectural style seeks to carry the architectural composition of the buildings into the landscape. The extreme Italian style is diametrically opposed to the extreme English. It has been said that they are mutually exclusive. For best effects that may be true, but the modern tendency seems to be to recognize that each has its advantage in special situations. Modern landscape architects are not adverse to a proper mixture of the two.
The writer is of the opinion that road gardening will be best as a compromise between the two extreme styles. The fact that the road must be laid down through a long, narrow stretch of land, that ditches must be maintained for drainage, that embankments and cuts must continually alternate, makes a purely naturalistic treatment impossible. The geometrical must be in evidence. In country districts with wide right of ways—in some places they are as much as 200 feet—the road may be considered as separating two plots in which there is room for much open grassy space and group planting along the outer edges. With narrower roads the trees will necessarily be planted in rows uniformly spaced, depending upon the width of the street and species of trees, giving an “avenue” effect. In cities greater formality is necessary than in the country, but even there planting the less formal trees will tend to give more or less naturalness to the whole.
The architects will not agree with me in believing that satisfactory combinations of the two great styles may be obtained. They believe that street planting, for example, should be in (1) parallel rows with the street, (2) the trees should be uniformly spaced, and (3) the individual trees should be just as nearly uniform as possible. I will admit that the main lines of trees should be parallel with the street but do not admit that irregular groups of shrubbery and flowers will destroy the artistic effect. That the larger trees should be uniformly spaced and of the same variety and size for the same block or street is also admitted. But, that such trees as the American elm, for instance, because it is lacking in formality, is not a good street tree, cannot be admitted. Neither do I believe that an avenue made up of palms, Lombardy poplars, or dwarfed catalpas, is any more beautiful, harmonious or restful than a street of long curving pendulant elms, although geometrical boldness has not been so thoroughly carried out in the latter case. Clipped trees, occasionally in fantastic shapes, are sometimes seen. It scarcely needs to be said, that however appropriate they may be in an Italian villa, they have no place along an American highway. But neatly clipped hedges of privet or mulberry may add materially in outlining the geometrical arrangement.
It is my opinion that the main trees along a country highway should be much farther apart than they are usually planted. Two to three times the spread of a grown tree of the same variety in that region is none too much. Or the distance may equal the height plus the spread. If they are placed on both sides of the roadway they should be alternated, staggered. This gives the trees each individually an opportunity of undisturbed growth, and if they are adapted to the locality and well fed will form large symmetrical trees. American elms, for the Mid-west states should be placed not less than 100 feet apart along country roads. Lombardy poplar closer, say 75 feet; while they do not spread so very far they do grow high. Another reason, in addition to that of unrestricted growth, for setting the trees far apart is that for some distance from a tree, perhaps because of the spread of its roots or the shade, crops do not grow well. And as the tree must usually be planted near the edge of the right of way, the farmer who owns the adjacent land is being robbed of the fertility of his soil. The fewer trees that may be set and still give a good appearance the better. The improved appearance of the highway and its benefit to the farm fully compensates for the loss of land, without doubt, when the trees are spaced wide as has been suggested.
The varieties of trees that should be planted along highways depends upon the location of the land. Those species that will thrive on low bottom land may not thrive on the table and upland. The eucalyptus grows rapidly into a tall, dignified stately tree in California, but would not live at all in Minnesota. The paper birch of Michigan and New York might be out of place entirely in Texas. Only those trees should be planted that experience shows are fitted for the region and locality. In Europe it is common practice to plant apple and other fruit trees along the highway. Such trees might not thrive under American vandalism. Mr. C. A. Reed of the United States Department of Agriculture[212] recommends the planting of nut trees. Among others he mentions black walnut, hickory, Japanese walnut, beech, chestnut, filbert or hazel, and pecan. Of non-nut-bearing trees he thinks the elm the best all-around tree. He also mentions the sugar maple, the linden, the apple, and especially a native variety known as thorn apple, hawthorn or red haw.
There are many other species that grow well. The pin oak and other varieties of oak may be transplanted; two or three poplars—a variety of cottonwood known commercially as Carolina poplar is a rapid growing but short-lived tree; ashes, locusts, catalpa, sycamore, the pines, spruces, cedars, and larches, all do well in some localities. Plums, choke-cherries, and black haws make good screening thickets and furnish fruit for the birds. The wild grape and the Virginia creeper will soon completely cover unsightly fences, rocks, and stumps; the birds also like their fruits. For low planting practically all the shrubs used in decorative gardening are available, while the perennial herbaceous flowering plants become veritable splotches of color to delight the eye of the discerning wayfarer.
In the language of Oliver Wendell Holmes, “It will not do to be exclusive in our tastes about trees. There is hardly one of them which has not peculiar beauties in some fitting place for it.” Even a blasted and wind-torn tree, or those trees which have the quality of picturesqueness, such as the gingko, cut-leaved maple, Kentucky coffee, weeping larch, or those artificially dwarfed trees, catalpa and mountain ash, all may be utilized in their appropriate places.