A Civic Biology, Presented in Problems

by George W. Hunter

XXIII. BODY CONTROL AND HABIT FORMATION

Problems.—How is body control maintained?

(a) What is the mechanism of direction and control?

(b) What is the method of direction and control?

(c) What are habits? How are they formed and how broken?

(d) What are the organs of sense? What are their uses?

(e) How does alcohol affect the nervous system?

Laboratory Suggestions

Demonstration.—Sensory motor reactions.

Demonstration.—Nervous system. Models and frog dissections.

Demonstration.—Neurones under compound microscope (optional).

Demonstration.—Reflex acts are unconscious acts: show how conscious acts may become habitual.

Home exercise in habit forming.

The senses.—Home exercises.—(1) To determine areas most sensitive to touch. (2) To determine or map out hot and cold spots on an area on the wrist. (3) To determine functions of different areas on tongue.

Demonstration.—Show how eye defects are tested.

Laboratory summary.—The effects of alcohol on the nervous system.

The Body a Self-directed Machine.—Throughout the preceding chapters the body has been likened to an engine, which, while burning its fuel, food, has done work. If we were to carry our comparison further, however, the simile ceases. For the engineer runs the engine, while the bodily machine is self-directive.

Moreover, most of the acts we perform during a day's work are results of the automatic working of this bodily machine. The heart pumps; the blood circulates its load of food, oxygen, and wastes; the movements of breathing are performed; the thousand and one complicated acts that go on every day within the body are seemingly undirected.

The central nervous system.

Automatic Activity.—In addition to this, numbers of other of our daily acts are not thought about. If we are well-regulated body machines, we get up in the morning, automatically wash, clean our teeth, dress, go to the toilet, get our breakfast, walk to school, even perform such complicated processes as that of writing, without thinking about or directing the machine. In these respects we have become creatures of habit. Certain acts which once we might have learned consciously, have become automatic.

But once at school, if we are really making good in our work in the classroom, we begin a higher control of our bodily functions. Automatic control acts no longer, and sensation is not the only guide—for we now begin to make conscious choice; we weigh this matter against another,—in short, we think.

Parts of the Nervous System.—This wonderful self-directive apparatus placed within us, which is in part under control of our will, is known as the nervous system. In the vertebrate animals, including man, it consists of two divisions. One includes the brain, spinal cord, the cranial and spinal nerves, which together make up the cerebro-spinal nervous system. The other division is called the sympathetic nervous system and has to do with those bodily functions which are beyond our control. Every group of cells in the body that has work to do (excepting the floating cells of the blood) is directly influenced by these nerves. Our bodily comfort is dependent upon their directive work. The organs which put us in touch with our surroundings are naturally at the surface of the body. Small collections of nerve cells, called ganglia, are found in all parts of the body. These nerve centers are connected, to a greater or less degree, with the surface of the body by the nerves, which serve as pathways between the end organs of touch, sight, taste, etc., and the centers in the brain or spinal cord. Thus sensation is obtained.

Sensations and Reactions.—We have already seen that simpler forms of life perform certain acts because certain outside forces acting upon them cause them to react to the stimulus from without. The one-celled animal responds to the presence of food, to heat, to oxygen, to other conditions in its surroundings. An earthworm is repelled by light, is attracted by food. All animals, including man, are put in touch with their surroundings by what we call the organs of sensation. The senses of man, besides those we commonly know as those of sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch, are those of temperature, pressure, and pain. It is obvious that such organs, if they are to be of use to an animal, must be at the outside of the body. Thus we find eyes and ears in the head, and taste cells in the mouth, while other cells in the nose perceive odors, and still others in the skin are sensitive to heat or cold, pressure or pain.

But this is not all. Strangely enough, we do not see with our eyes or taste with our taste cells. These organs receive the sensations, and by means of a complicated system of greatly elongated cell structures, the message is sent inward, relayed by other elongated cells until the sensory message reaches an inner station, in the central nervous system. We see and hear and smell in our brain. Let us next examine the structure of the nerve cells or neurons part of which serve as pathways for these messages.

Diagram of a neuron or nerve unit.

Neurones.—A nerve cell, like other cells in the body, is a mass of protoplasm containing a nucleus. But the body of the nerve cell is usually rather irregular in shape, and distinguished from most other cells by possessing several delicate, branched protoplasmic projections called dendrites. One of these processes, the axon, is much longer than the others and ends in a muscle or organ of sensation. The axon forms the pathway over which nervous impulses travel to and from the nerve centers.

A nerve consists of a bundle of such tiny axons, bound together by connective tissue. As a nerve ganglia is a center of activity in the nervous system, so a cell body is a center of activity which may send an impulse over this thin strand of protoplasm (the axon) prolonged many hundreds of thousands of times the length of the cell. Some neurones in the human body, although visible only under the compound microscope, give rise to axons several feet in length.

Because some bundles of axons originate in organs that receive sensations and send those sensations to the central nervous system, they are called sensory nerves. Other axons originate in the central nervous system and pass outward as nerves producing movement of muscles. These are called motor nerves.

The Brain of Man.—In man, the central nervous system consists of a brain and spinal cord inclosed in a bony case. From the brain, twelve pairs of nerves are given off; thirty-one pairs more leave the spinal cord. The brain has three divisions. The cerebrum makes up the largest part. In this respect it differs from the cerebrum of the frog and other vertebrates. It is divided into two lobes, the hemispheres, which are connected with each other by a broad band of nerve fibers. The outer surface of the cerebrum is thrown into folds or convolutions which give a large surface, the cell bodies of the neurons being found in this part of the cerebrum. Holding the cell bodies and fibers in place is a kind of connective tissue. The inner part (white in color) is composed largely of fibers which pass to other parts of the brain and down into the spinal cord. Under the cerebrum, and dorsal to it, lies the little brain, or cerebellum. The two sides of the cerebellum are connected by a band of nerve fibers which run around into the lower hindbrain or medulla. This band of fibers is called the pons. The medulla is, in structure, part of the spinal cord, and is made up largely of fibers running longitudinally.

The Sympathetic Nervous System.—Connected with the central nervous system is that part of the nervous apparatus that controls the muscles of the digestive tract and blood vessels, the secretions of gland cells, and all functions which have to do with life processes in the body. This is called the sympathetic nervous system.

Functions of the Parts of the Central Nervous System of the Frog.—From careful study of living frogs, birds, and some mammals we have learned much of what we know of the functions of the parts of the central nervous system in man.

It has been found that if the entire brain of a frog is destroyed and separated from the spinal cord, "the frog will continue to live, but with a very peculiarly modified activity." It does not appear to breathe, nor does it swallow. It will not move or croak, but if acid is placed upon the skin so as to irritate it, the legs make movements to push away and to clean off the irritating substance. The spinal cord is thus shown to be a center for defensive movements. If the cerebrum is separated from the rest of the nervous system, the frog seems to act a little differently from the normal animal. It jumps when touched, and swims when placed in water. It will croak when stroked, or swallow if food be placed in its mouth. But it manifests no hunger or fear, and is in every sense a machine which will perform certain actions after certain stimulations. Its movements are automatic. If now we watch the movements of a frog which has the brain uninjured in any way, we find that it acts spontaneously. It tries to escape when caught. It feels hungry and seeks food. It is capable of voluntary action. It acts like a normal individual.

Diagram to show the parts of the brain and action of the different parts of the brain.

Functions of the Cerebrum.—In general, the functions of the different parts of the brain in man agree with those functions we have already observed in the frog. The cerebrum has to do with conscious activity; that is, thought. It presides over what we call our thoughts, our will, and our sensations. A large part of the area of the outer layer of the cerebrum seems to be given over to some one of the different functions of speech, hearing, sight, touch, movements of bodily parts. The movement of the smallest part of the body appears to have its definite localized center in the cerebrum. Experiments have been performed on monkeys, and these, together with observations made on persons who had lost the power of movement of certain parts of the body, and who, after death, were found to have had diseases localized in certain parts of the cerebrum, have given to us our knowledge on this subject.

Diagram of the nerve path of a simple reflex action.

Reflex Actions; their Meaning.—If through disease or for other reasons the cerebrum does not function, no will power is exerted, nor are intelligent acts performed. All acts performed in such a state are known as reflex actions. The involuntary brushing of a fly from the face, or the attempt to move away from the source of annoyance when tickled with a feather, are examples of reflexes. In a reflex act, a person does not think before acting. The nervous impulse comes from the outside to cells that are not in the cerebrum. The message is short-circuited back to the surface by motor nerves, without ever having reached the thinking centers. The nerve cells which take charge of such acts are located in the cerebellum or spinal cord.

Automatic Acts.—Some acts, however, are learned by conscious thought, as writing, walking, running, or swimming. Later in life, however, these activities become automatic. The actual performance of the action is then taken up by the cerebellum, medulla, and spinal ganglia. Thus the thinking portion of the brain is relieved of part of its work.

Bundles of Habits.—It is surprising how little real thinking we do during a day, for most of our acts are habitual. Habit takes care of our dressing, our bathing, our care of the body organs, our methods of eating; even our movements in walking and the kind of hand we write are matters of habit forming. We are bundles of habits, be they good ones or bad ones.

Habit Formation.—The training of the different areas in the cerebrum to do their work well is the object of education. When we learned to write, we exerted conscious effort in order to make the letters. Now the act of forming the letters is done without thought. By training, the act has become automatic. In the beginning, a process may take much thought and many trials before we are able to complete it. After a little practice, the same process may become almost automatic. We have formed a habit. Habits are really acquired reflex actions. They are the result of nature's method of training. The conscious part of the brain has trained the cerebellum or spinal cord to do certain things that, at first, were taken charge of by the cerebrum.

Importance of Forming Right Habits.—Among the habits early to be acquired are the habits of studying properly, of concentrating the mind, of learning self-control, and, above all, of contentment. Get the most out of the world about you. Remember that the immediate effect in the study of some subjects in school may not be great, but the cultivation of correct methods of thinking may be of the greatest importance later in life. The man or woman who has learned how to concentrate on a problem, how to weigh all sides with an unbiased mind, and then to decide on what they believe to be best and right are the efficient and happy ones of their generation.

"The hell to be endured hereafter, of which theology tells, is no worse than the hell we make for ourselves in this world by habitually fashioning our characters in the wrong way. Could the young but realize how soon they will become mere walking bundles of habits, they would give more heed to their conduct while in the plastic state. We are spinning our own fates, good or evil, and never to be undone. Every smallest stroke of virtue or of vice leaves its never-so-little scar. The drunken Rip Van Winkle, in Jefferson's play, excuses himself for every fresh dereliction by saying, 'I won't count this time!' Well! he may not count it, and a kind Heaven may not count it; but it is being counted none the less. Down among his nerve cells and fibers the molecules are counting it, registering and storing it up to be used against him when the next temptation comes. Nothing we ever do is, in strict scientific literalness, wiped out. Of course this has its good side as well as its bad one. As we become permanent drunkards by so many separate drinks, so we become saints in the moral, and authorities in the practical and scientific, spheres by so many separate acts and hours of work. Let no youth have any anxiety about the upshot of his education, whatever the line of it may be. If he keep faithfully busy each hour of the working day, he may safely leave the final result to itself. He can with perfect certainty count on waking up some fine morning, to find himself one of the competent ones of his generation, in whatever pursuit he may have singled out."—James, Psychology.

Some Rules for Forming Good Habits.—Professor Horne gives several rules for making good or breaking bad habits. They are: "First, act on every opportunity. Second, make a strong start. Third, allow no exception. Fourth, for the bad habit establish a good one. Fifth, summoning all the man within, use effort of will." Why not try these out in forming some good habit? You will find them effective.

The effect of fatigue on nerve cells. a, healthy brain cell; b, fatigued brain cell.

Necessity of Food, Fresh Air, and Rest.—The nerve cells, like all other cells in the body, are continually wasting away and being rebuilt. Oxidation of food material is more rapid when we do mental work. The cells of the brain, like muscle cells, are not only capable of fatigue, but show this in changes of form and of contents. Food brought to them in the blood, plenty of fresh air, especially when engaged in active brain work, and rest at proper times, are essential in keeping the nervous system in condition. One of the best methods of resting the brain cells is a change of occupation. Tennis, golf, baseball, and other outdoor sports combine muscular exercise with brain activity of a different sort from that of business or school work. But change of occupation will not rest exhausted neurones. For this, sleep is necessary. Especially is sleep an important factor in the health of the nervous system of growing children.

Necessity of Sleep.—Most brain cells attain their growth early in life. Changes occur, however, until some time after the school age. Ten hours of sleep should be allowed for a child, and at least eight hours for an adult. At this time, only, do the brain cells have opportunity to rest and store food and energy for their working period.

Sleep is one way in which all cells in the body, and particularly those of the nervous system, get their rest. The nervous system, by far the most delicate and hardest-worked set of tissues in the body, needs rest more than do other tissues, for its work directing the body only ends with sleep or unconsciousness. The afternoon nap, snatched by the brain worker, gives him renewed energy for his evening's work. It is not hard application to a task that wearies the brain; it is continuous work without rest.

the senses

Touch.—In animals having a hard outside covering, such as certain worms, insects, and crustaceans, minute hairs, which are sensitive to touch, are found growing out from the body covering. At the base of these hairs are found neurones which send axons inward to the central nervous system.

Nerves in the skin: a, nerve fiber; b, tactile papillæ, containing a tactile corpuscle; c, papillæ containing blood vessels. (After Benda.)

Organs of Touch.—In man, the nervous mechanism which governs touch is located in the folds of the dermis or in the skin. Special nerve endings, called the tactile corpuscles, are found there, each inclosed in a sheath or capsule of connective tissue. Inside is a complicated nerve ending, and axons pass inward to the central nervous system. The number of tactile corpuscles present in a given area of the skin determines the accuracy and ease with which objects may be known by touch.

If you test the different parts of the body, as the back of the hand, the neck, the skin of the arm, of the back, or the tip of the tongue, with a pair of open dividers, a vast difference in the accuracy with which the two points may be distinguished is noticed. On the tip of the tongue, the two points need only be separated by 1/24 of an inch to be so distinguished. In the small of the back, a distance of 2 inches may be reached before the dividers feel like two points.

Temperature, Pressure, Pain.—The feeling of temperature, pressure, and pain is determined by different end organs in the skin. Two kinds of nerve fibers exist in the skin, which give distinct sensations of heat and cold. These nerve endings can be located by careful experimentation. There are also areas of nerve endings which are sensitive to pressure, and still others, most numerous of all, sensitive to pain.

A, isolated taste bud, from whose upper free end project the ends of the taste cells; B, supporting or protecting cell; C, sensory cell.

Taste Organs.—The surface of the tongue is folded into a number of little projections known as papillæ. These may be more easily found on your own tongue if a drop of vinegar is placed on its broad surface. In the folds, between these projections on the top and back part of the tongue, are located the organs of taste. These organs are called taste buds.

Each taste bud consists of a collection of spindle-shaped neurones, each cell tipped at its outer end with a hairlike projection. These cells send inward fibers to other cells, the fibers from which ultimately reach the brain. The sensory cells are surrounded by a number of projecting cells which are arranged in layers about them. Thus the organ in longitudinal section looks somewhat like an onion cut lengthwise.

How we Taste.—Four kinds of substances may be distinguished by the sense of taste. These are sweet, sour, bitter, and salt. Certain taste cells located near the back of the tongue are stimulated only by a bitter taste. Sweet substances are perceived by cells near the tip of the tongue, sour substances along the sides, and salt about equally all over the surface. A substance must be dissolved in fluid in order to be tasted. Many things which we believe we taste are in reality perceived by the sense of smell. Such are spicy sauces and flavors of meats and vegetables. This may easily be proved by holding the nose and chewing, with closed eyes, several different substances, such as an apple, an onion, and a raw potato.

Smell.—The sense of smell is located in the membrane lining the upper part of the nose. Here are found a large number of rod-shaped cells which are connected with the brain by means of the olfactory nerve. In order to perceive odors, it is necessary to have them diffused in the air; hence we sniff so as to draw in more air over the olfactory cells.

The Organ of Hearing.—The organ of hearing is the ear. The outer ear consists of a funnel-like organ composed largely of cartilage which is of use in collecting sound waves. This part of the ear incloses the auditory canal, which is closed at the inner end by a tightly stretched membrane, the tympanic membrane or ear drum. The function of the tympanic membrane is to receive sound waves, for all sound is caused by vibrations in the air, these vibrations being transmitted, by the means of a complicated apparatus found in the middle ear, to the real organ of hearing located in the inner ear.

Section of ear: E.M., auditory canal; Ty.M., tympanic membrane; Eu., Eustachian tube; Ty, middle ear; Coc., A.S.C., E.S.C., etc., internal ear.

Middle Ear.—The middle ear in man is a cavity inclosed by the temporal bone, and separated from the outer ear by the tympanic membrane. A little tube called the Eustachian tube connects the inner ear with the mouth cavity. By allowing air to enter from the mouth, the air pressure is equalized on the ear drum. For this reason, we open the mouth at the time of a heavy concussion and thus prevent the rupture of the delicate tympanic membrane. Placed directly against the tympanic membrane and connecting it with the inner ear is a chain of three tiny bones, the smallest bones of the body. The outermost is called the hammer; the next the anvil; the third the stirrup. All three bones are so called from their resemblances in shape to the articles for which they are named. These bones are held in place by very small muscles which are delicately adjusted so as to tighten or relax the membranes guarding the middle and inner ear.

The Inner Ear.—The inner ear is one of the most complicated, as well as one of the most delicate, organs of the body. Deep within the temporal bone there are found two parts, one of which is called, collectively, the semicircular canal region, the other the cochlea, or organ of hearing.

It has been discovered by experimenting with fish, in which the semicircular canal region forms the chief part of the ear, that this region has to do with the equilibrium or balancing of the body. We gain in part our knowledge of our position and movements in space by means of the semicircular canals.

That part of the ear which receives sound waves is known as the cochlea, or snail shell, because of its shape. This very complicated organ is lined with sensory cells provided with cilia. The cavity of the cochlea is filled with a fluid. It is believed that somewhat as a stone thrown into water causes ripples to emanate from the spot where it strikes, so sound waves are transmitted by means of the fluid filling the cavity to the sensory cells of the cochlea (collectively known as the organ of Corti) and thence to the brain by means of the auditory nerve.

The Character of Sound.—When vibrations which are received by the ear follow each other at regular intervals, the sound is said to be musical. If the vibrations come irregularly, we call the sound a noise. If the vibrations come slowly, the pitch of the sound is low; if they come rapidly, the pitch is high. The ear is able to perceive as low as thirty vibrations per second and as high as almost thirty thousand. The ear can be trained to recognize sounds which are unnoticed in untrained ears.

Longitudinal section through the eye.

The Eye.—The eye or organ of vision is an almost spherical body which fits into a socket of bone, the orbit. A stalklike structure, the optic nerve, connects the eye with the brain. Free movement is obtained by means of six little muscles which are attached to the outer coat, the eyeball, and to the bony socket around the eye.

The wall of the eyeball is made up of three coats. An outer tough white coat, of connective tissue, is called the sclerotic coat. Under the sclerotic coat, in front, the eye bulges outward a little. Here the outer coat is continuous with a transparent tough layer called the cornea. A second coat, the choroid, is supplied with blood vessels and cells which bear pigments. It is a part of this coat which we see through the cornea as the colored part of the eye (the iris). In the center of the iris is a small circular hole (the pupil). The iris is under the control of muscles, and may be adjusted to varying amounts of light, the hole becoming larger in dim light, and smaller in bright light. The inmost layer of the eye is called the retina. This is, perhaps, the most delicate layer in the entire body. Despite the fact that the retina is less than 1/80 of an inch in thickness, there are several layers of cells in its composition. The optic nerve enters the eye from behind and spreads out to form the surface of the retina. Its finest fibers are ultimately connected with numerous elongated cells which are stimulated by light. The retina is dark purple in color, this color being caused by a layer of cells next to the choroid coat. This accounts for the black appearance of the pupil of the eye, when we look through the pupil into the darkened space within the eyeball. The retina acts as the sensitized plate in the camera, for on it are received the impressions which are transformed and sent to the brain as sensations of sight. The eye, like the camera, has a lens. This lens is formed of transparent, elastic material. It is found directly behind the iris and is attached to the choroid coat by means of delicate ligaments. In front of the lens is a small cavity filled with a watery fluid, the aqueous humor, while behind it is the main cavity of the eye, filled with a transparent, almost jellylike, vitreous humor. The lens itself is elastic. This circumstance permits of a change of form and, in consequence, a change of focus upon the retina of the lens. By means of this change in form, or accommodation, we are able to distinguish between near and distant objects.

How far away can you read these letters? Measure the distance. Twenty feet is a test for the normal eye.

Defects in the Eye.—In some eyes, the lens is in focus for near objects, but is not easily focused upon distant objects; such an eye is said to be nearsighted. Other eyes which do not focus clearly on objects near at hand are said to be farsighted. Still another eye defect is astigmatism, which causes images of lines in a certain direction to be indistinct, while images of lines transverse to the former are distinct. Many nervous troubles, especially headaches, may be due to eye strain. We should have our eyes examined from time to time, especially if we are subject to headaches.

The Alcohol Question.—It is agreed by investigators that in large or continued amounts alcohol has a narcotic effect; that it first dulls or paralyzes the nerve centers which control our judgment, and later acts upon the so-called motor centers, those which control our muscular activities.

The reason, then, that a man in the first stages of intoxication talks rapidly and sometimes wittily, is because the centers of judgment are paralyzed. This frees the speech centers from control exercised by our judgment, with the resultant rapid and free flow of speech.

In small amounts alcohol is believed by some physiologists to have always this same narcotic effect, while other physiologists think that alcohol does stimulate the brain centers, especially the higher centers, to increased activity. Some scientific and professional men use alcohol in small amounts for this stimulation and report no seeming harm from the indulgence. Others, and by far the larger number, agree that this stimulation from alcohol is only apparent and that even in the smallest amounts alcohol has a narcotic effect.

The Paralyzing Effects of Alcohol on the Nervous System.—Alcohol has the effect of temporarily paralyzing the nerve centers. The first effect is that of exhilaration. A man may do more work for a time under the stimulation of alcohol. This stimulation, however, is of short duration and is invariably followed by a period of depression and inertia. In this latter state, a man will do less work than before. In larger quantities, alcohol has the effect of completely paralyzing the nerve centers. This is seen in the case of a man "dead drunk." He falls in a stupor because all of the centers governing speech, sight, locomotion, etc., have been temporarily paralyzed. If a man takes a very large amount of alcohol, even the nerve centers governing respiration and circulation may become poisoned, and the victim will die.

Effect on the Organs of Special Sense.—Professor Forel, one of the foremost European experts on the question of the effect of alcohol on the nervous system, says: "Through all parts of nervous activity from the innervation of the muscles and the simplest sensation to the highest activity of the soul the paralyzing effect of alcohol can be demonstrated." Several experimenters of undoubted ability have noted the paralyzing effect of alcohol even in small doses. By the use of delicate instruments of precision, Ridge tested the effect of alcohol on the senses of smell, vision, and muscular sense of weight. He found that two drams of absolute alcohol produced a positive decrease in the sensitiveness of the nerves of feeling, that so small a quantity as one half dram of absolute alcohol diminished the power of vision and the muscular sense of weight. Kraepelin and Kurz by experiment determined that the acuteness of the special senses of sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell was diminished by an ounce of alcohol, the power of vision being lost to one third of its extent and a similar effect being produced on the other special senses. Other investigators have reached like conclusions. There is no doubt but that alcohol, even in small quantities, renders the organs of sense less sensitive and therefore less accurate.

Table to show a comparison of chances of illness and death in drinkers and non-drinkers. Solid black, drinkers. (From German sources.)

Effect of Alcohol on the Ability to Resist Disease.—Among certain classes of people the belief exists that alcohol in the form of brandy or some other drink or in patent medicines, malt tonics, and the like is of great importance in building up the body so as to resist disease or to cure it after disease has attacked it. Nothing is further from the truth. In experiments on a large number of animals, including dogs, rabbits, guinea pigs, fowls, and pigeons, Laitenen, of the University of Helsingsfors, found that alcohol, without exception, made these animals more susceptible to disease than were the controls.

One of the most serious effects of alcohol is the lowered resistance of the body to disease. It has been proved that a much larger proportion of hard drinkers die from infectious or contagious diseases than from special diseased conditions due to the direct action of alcohol on the organs of the body. This lowered resistance is shown in increased liability to contract disease and increased severity of the disease. We have already alluded to the findings of insurance companies with reference to the length of life—the abstainers from alcohol have a much better chance of a longer life and much less likelihood of infection by disease germs.

Use of Alcohol in the Treatment of Disease.—In the London Temperance Hospital alcohol was prescribed seventy-five times in thirty-three years. The death rate in this hospital has been lower than that of most general hospitals. Sir William Collins, after serving nineteen years as surgeon in this hospital, said:—

"In my experience, speaking as a surgeon, the use of alcohol is not essential for successful surgery.... At the London Temperance Hospital, where alcohol is very rarely prescribed, the mortality in amputation cases and in operation cases generally is remarkably low. Total abstainers are better subjects for operation, and recover more rapidly from accidents, than those who habitually take stimulants."

In a paper read at the International Congress on Tuberculosis, in New York, 1906, Dr. Crothers remarked that alcohol as a remedy or a preventive medicine in the treatment of tuberculosis is a most dangerous drug, and that all preparations of sirups containing spirits increase, rather than diminish, the disease.

Dr. Kellogg says: "The paralyzing influence of alcohol upon the white cells of the blood—a fact which is attested by all investigators—is alone sufficient to condemn the use of this drug in acute or chronic infections of any sort."

Effect of use of alcohol on memory.

The Effect of Alcohol upon Intellectual Ability.—With regard to the supposed quickening of the mental processes Horsley and Sturge, in their recent book, Alcohol and the Human Body, say:

"Kraepelin found that the simple reaction period, by which is meant the time occupied in making a mere response to a signal, as, for instance, to the sudden appearance of a flag, was, after the ingestion of a small quantity of alcohol (¼ to ½ ounce), slightly accelerated; that there was, in fact, a slight shortening of the time, as though the brain were enabled to operate more quickly than before. But he found that after a few minutes, in most cases, a slowing of mental action began, becoming more and more marked, and enduring as long as the alcohol was in active operation in the body, i.e. four to five hours.... Kraepelin found that it was only more or less automatic work, such as reading aloud, which was quickened by alcohol, though even this was rendered less trustworthy and accurate." Again: "Kraepelin had always shared the popular belief that a small quantity of alcohol (one to two teaspoonfuls) had an accelerating effect on the activity of his mind, enabling him to perform test operations, as the adding and subtracting and learning of figures more quickly. But when he came to measure with his instruments the exact period and time occupied, he found, to his astonishment, that he had accomplished these mental operations, not more, but less, quickly than before.... Numerous further experiments were carried out in order to test this matter, and these proved that alcohol lengthens the time taken to perform complex mental processes, while by a singular illusion the person experimented upon imagines that his psychical actions are rendered more rapid."

The effect of alcohol upon ability to do mental work.

Attention—that is, the power of the mind to grasp and consider impressions obtained through the senses—is weakened by drink. The ability of the mind to associate or combine ideas, the faculty involved in sound judgment, showed that when the persons had taken the amounts of alcohol mentioned, the combinations of ideas or judgments expressed by them were confused, foggy, sentimental, and general. When the persons had taken no alcohol, their judgments were rational, specific, keen, showing closer observation.

"The words of Professor Helmholtz at the celebration of his seventieth birthday are very interesting in this connection. He spoke of the ideas flashing up from the depths of the unknown soul, that lies at the foundation of every truly creative intellectual production, and closed his account of their origin with these words: 'The smallest quantity of an alcoholic beverage seemed to frighten these ideas away.'"—Dr. G. Sims Woodhead, Professor of Pathology, Cambridge University, England.

Professor Von Bunge (Textbook of Physiological and Pathological Chemistry) of Switzerland says that:

"The stimulating action which alcohol appears to exert on the brain functions is only a paralytic action. The cerebral functions which are first interfered with are the power of clear judgment and reason. No man ever became witty by aid of spirituous drinks. The lively gesticulations and useless exertions of intoxicated people are due to paralysis,—the restraining influences, which prevent a sober man from uselessly expending his strength, being removed."

The Drink Habit.—The harmful effects of alcohol (aside from the purely physiological effect upon the tissues and organs of the body) are most terribly seen in the formation of the alcohol habit. The first effect of drinking alcoholic liquors is that of exhilaration. After the feeling of exhilaration is gone, for this is a temporary state, the subject feels depressed and less able to work than before he took the drink. To overcome this feeling, he takes another drink. The result is that before long he finds a habit formed from which he cannot escape. With body and mind weakened, he attempts to break off the habit. But meanwhile his will, too, has suffered from overindulgence. He has become a victim of the drink habit!

"The capital argument against alcohol, that which must eventually condemn its use, is this, that it takes away all the reserved control, the power of mastership, and therefore offends against the splendid pride in himself or herself, which is fundamental in every man or woman worth anything."—Dr. John Johnson, quoting Walt Whitman.

Self-indulgence, be it in gratification of such a simple desire as that for candy or the more harmful indulgence in tobacco or alcoholic beverages, is dangerous—not only in its immediate effects on the tissues and organs, but in its more far-reaching effects on habit formation. Each one of us is a bundle of appetites. If we gratify appetites of the wrong kind, we are surely laying the foundation for the habit of excess. Self-denial is a good thing for each of us to practice at one time or another, if for no other purpose than to be ready to fight temptation when it comes.

The Economic Effect of Alcoholic Poisoning.—In the struggle for existence, it is evident that the man whose intellect is the quickest and keenest, whose judgment is most sound, is the man who is most likely to succeed. The paralyzing effect of alcohol upon the nerve centers must place the drinker at a disadvantage. In a hundred ways, the drinker sooner or later feels the handicap that the habit of drink has imposed upon him. Many corporations, notably several of our greatest railroads (the Pennsylvania and the New York Central Railroad among them), refuse to employ any but abstainers in positions of trust. Few persons know the number of railway accidents due to the uncertain eye of some engineer who mistook his signal, or the hazy inactivity of the brain of some train dispatcher who, because of drink, forgot to send the telegram that was to hold the train from wreck. In business and in the professions, the story is the same. The abstainer wins out over the drinking man.

Effect of Alcohol on Ability to do Work.—In Physiological Aspects of the Liquor Problem, Professor Hodge, formerly of Clark University, describes many of his own experiments showing the effect of alcohol on animals. He trained four selected puppies to recover a ball thrown across a gymnasium. To two of the dogs he gave food mixed with doses of alcohol, while the others were fed normally. The ball was thrown 100 feet as rapidly as recovered. This was repeated 100 times each day for fourteen successive days. Out of 1400 times the dogs to which alcohol had been given brought back the ball only 478 times, while the others secured it 922 times.

Dr. Parkes experimented with two gangs of men, selected to be as nearly similar as possible, in mowing. He found that with one gang abstaining from alcoholic drinks and the other not, the abstaining gang could accomplish more. On transposing the gangs, the same results were repeatedly obtained. Similar results were obtained by Professor Aschaffenburg of Heidelberg University, who found experimentally that men "were able to do 15 per cent less work after taking alcohol."

Recently many experiments along the same lines have been made. In typewriting, in typesetting, in bricklaying, or in the highest type of mental work the result is the same. The quality and quantity of work done on days when alcohol is taken is less than on days when no alcohol is taken.

The Relation of Alcohol to Efficiency.—We have already seen that work is neither so well done nor is as much accomplished by drinkers as by non-drinkers.

A Massachusetts shoe manufacturer told a recent writer on temperance that in one year his firm lost over $5000 in shoes spoiled by drinking men, and that he had himself traced these spoiled shoes to the workmen who, through their use of alcoholic liquors, had thus rendered themselves incapable. This is a serious handicap to our modern factory system, and explains why so many factory towns and cities are strongly favoring a policy of "No license" in opposition to the saloons.

"It is believed that the largest number of accidents in shops and mills takes place on Monday, because the alcohol that is drunk on Sunday takes away the skill and attentive care of the workman. To prove the truth of this opinion, the accidents of the building trades in Zurich were studied during a period of six years, with the result shown by this table":—

Shaded, non-alcoholic; black, alcoholic, accidents. (From Tolman, Hygiene for the Worker.)

Another relation to efficiency is shown by the following chart. During the week the curve of working efficiency is highest on Friday and lowest on Monday. The number of accidents were also least on Friday and greatest on Monday. Lastly the assaults were fewest in number on Friday and greatest on Sunday and Monday. The moral is plain. Workingmen are apt to spend their week's wages freely on Saturday. Much of this goes into drink, and as a result comes crime on Sunday because of the deadened moral and mental condition of the drinker, and loss of efficiency on Monday, because of the poisonous effects of the drug.

Notice that the curve of efficiency is lowest on Monday and that crimes and accidents are most frequent on Sunday and Monday. Account for this.

Effect of Alcohol upon Duration of Life.—Still more serious is the relation of alcohol as a direct cause of disease (see table).

It is as yet quite impossible, in the United States at least, to tell just how many deaths are brought about, directly or indirectly, by alcohol. Especially is this true in trying to determine the number of cases of deaths from disease promoted by alcohol. In Switzerland provision is made for learning these facts, and the records of that country throw some light on the subject.

Dr. Rudolph Pfister made a study of the records of the city of Basle for the years 1892-1906, finding the percentage of deaths in which alcohol had been reported by the attending physician as one cause of death. He found that 18.1 per cent of all deaths of men between 40 and 50 years of age were caused, in part at least, by alcohol, and this at what should be the most active period in a man's life, the time when he is most needed by his family and community. Taking all ages between 20 and 80, he found that alcohol was one cause of death in one man in every ten who died.

Another study was made by a certain doctor in Sweden, from records of 1082 deaths occurring in his own practice and the local hospital. No case was counted as alcoholic of which there was the slightest doubt. Of deaths of adult men, 18 in every 100 were due, directly or indirectly, to alcoholism. In middle life, between the ages of 40 and 50, 29; and between 50 and 60 years of age, 25.6 out of every 100 deaths had alcohol as one cause, thus agreeing with other statistics we have been quoting.—From the Metropolitan, Vol. XXV, Number 11.

The proportion of crime due to alcohol is shown in black.

The Relation of Alcohol to Crime.—A recent study of more than 2500 habitual users of alcohol showed that over 66 per cent had committed crime. Usually the crimes had been done in saloons or as a result of quarrels after drinking. Of another lot of 23,581 criminals questioned, 20,070 said that alcohol had led them to commit crime.

The Relation of Alcohol to Pauperism.—We have already spoken of the Jukes family. These and many other families of a similar sort are more or less directly a burden upon the state. Alcohol is in part at least responsible for the condition of such families. Alcohol weakens the efficiency and moral courage, and thus leads to begging, pauperism, petty stealing or worse, and ultimately to life in some public institution. In Massachusetts, of 3230 inmates of such institutions, 66 per cent were alcoholics.

The Relation of Alcohol to Heredity.—Perhaps the gravest side of the alcohol question lies here. If each one of us had only himself to think of, the question of alcohol might not be so serious. But drinkers may hand down to their unfortunate children tendencies toward drink as well as nervous diseases of various sorts; an alcoholic parent may beget children who are epileptic, neurotic, or even insane.

In the State of New York there are at the present time some 30,000 insane persons in public and private hospitals. It is believed that about one fifth of them, or 6000 patients, owe their insanity to alcohol used either by themselves or by their parents. In the asylums of the United States there are 150,000 insane people. Taking the same proportions as before, there are 30,000 persons in this country whom alcohol has made or has helped to make insane. This is the most terrible side of the alcohol problem.

Reference Reading

elementary

Hunter, Laboratory Problems in Civic Biology. American Book Company.

Overton, General Hygiene. American Book Company.

The Gulick Hygiene Series, Emergencies, Good Health, The Body at Work, Control of Body and Mind. Ginn and Company.

Ritchie, Human Physiology. World Book Company.

Hough and Sedgwick, The Human Mechanism. Ginn and Company.