Smaller chipped Implements.
Materials and Modes of Manufacture.
In the remaining portion of this paper, which will treat of the smaller chipped implements, a plan somewhat different from that of the preceding part will be followed.
As already stated, these specimens are almost invariably made of some form of flint; this term including chalcedony, basanite, jasper, chert, hornstone, and similar rocks. So common is its use that the term “flints” is gradually being adopted as a name for all the different classes of arrowheads, knives, drills, etc. The exceptions are not numerous enough to justify separate classification, so no tables of material will be used. Further, the great abundance of such relics in all portions of the country makes useless any allusion to the number from any particular locality; about the only limitation to their discovery is the amount of time and care which one chooses to give.
Before entering on the description, some quotations may be given in regard to methods of making these chipped implements.
According to Evans, the Mexican Indians take a piece of obsidian in the left hand and press it firmly against the point of a small goathorn held in the right, and by moving it gently in different directions they chip off small flakes until the arrow is complete;[136] they also cut a notch in the end of a bone, into which the edge of the flake is inserted and a chip broken off by a sideways blow.[137] According to the same author, the Eskimo sometimes set the flake in a piece of split wood. The arrow is roughly chipped by blows with a hammer, either direct or with a punch interposed, and is then finished by pressing off fine chips with a point of antler set in an ivory handle.[138] Not only leaf-shape barbed arrows, but also ones either with or without the stem, can be produced by pressure with a point of antler; the former, however, are the more easily made, and were probably earlier in use.[139]
The Plains Indians lay the flat side of a flake of obsidian on a blanket, or other yielding substance, and with a knife nick off the edges rapidly. In their primitive state they probably used buckskin instead of the blankets, and pointed bone or horn instead of the knife.[140]
The Apache holds the flake or flint in his left hand, places his punch at the point where the chip is to be broken off, and it is struck by an assistant, thus knocking a chip from the under side; the flake is then turned and the process repeated, until the arrow is complete. The stone is held in the hand, as it can not be chipped on a hard substance.[141] A punch observed by Catlin in use by these Indians was a whale tooth 6 or 7 inches long, with one round and two flat sides. The Fuegians, according to the same authority, use a similar process and make as fine implements.[142]
The Eskimo make a spoon-shaped cavity in a log, lay the flake over it, and press along the margin, first on one side and then on the other, like setting a saw, until they form two sharp serrated edges. The working tool is a point of antler firmly bound into a piece of ivory. The same plan is used by widely separated peoples.[143]
Nilsson, in chipping out gun flints with a stone hammer, found it necessary to have the point operated on lie immediately above a point that rested on the rock “anvil” which he used.[144]
The Veeard or Wiyot of California used a pair of buck-horn pincers tied together with a thong at the point; they first hammered out the arrowhead in the rough, and then with these pincers carefully nipped off one tiny fragment after another.[145] The Klamath cover the hand with a piece of buckskin to keep it from being cut, and lay a flake along the ball of the thumb, holding it firmly with the fingers. With a point of antler from 4 to 6 inches long, they press against the edge, thus removing scales from the opposite side; they turn the flake around and over frequently, to preserve symmetry.[146]
The Shasta Indian lays a stone anvil on his knee, holds the edge of the flake against it, and with his stone hammer chips off flakes, finishing the base first, and gently chipping the whole arrow into shape. Both obsidian and glass are used.[147] The Shoshoni Indians used the same process.[148]
A Pit River Indian has been seen to make a very sharp and piercing arrow from a piece of quartz, with only a piece of round bone, one end of which was hemispherical with a small crease in it (as if made by a thread) one-sixteenth of an inch deep. The arrow was made by pressing off flakes by main strength, the crease being to prevent the bone from slipping, and affording no leverage.[149] John Smith (1607) says of the Powhatan Indian:
His arrowhead he maketh quickly, with a little bone, of any splint of stone or glass.[150]
The Cloud River Indian used two deer prongs, one much smaller than the other, the points ground to the form of a square, sharp-pointed file. He had also some pieces of iron wire tied to sticks and ground in the same manner; these were better than the deer horn, because harder, and not needing to be sharpened so often. The flake was held firmly in the left hand, guarded by a piece of buckskin; he pressed off chips with the larger tool, turning the arrow end-for-end when done on one side, so as to keep the edge opposite the middle line. The notches for barbs were worked out in a similar manner with the smaller tool.[151]
Some of the California Indians prefer agate and obsidian for their implements, as the close grain admits more careful working. They use a tool with its working edge shaped like a glazier’s diamond (apparently a piece of bone or antler with a square-cut notch on the side); the flake is held in the left hand, while the nick in the side of the tool is used to chip small fragments.[152] Peale makes similar statements, and adds that the notches are of different sizes to suit the different stages of work.[153]
The Klamath Indians, according to Schumacher, have a slender stick 1½ feet long, with a piece of sea-lion tooth, or antler, fastened to the end of it. Holding one end under the arm to steady it, they take a flake in the left hand, wrapped in a piece of buckskin so as to leave only the edge exposed, and by pressure with the point of the tool break off flakes as large as necessary, the last being quite fine, to give sharp edges to the arrow. The notches are worked out by means of a point of bone 4 or 5 inches long, without a shaft.[154] Chase gives a similar account, but says that iron points have now taken the place of the bone or horn points formerly used.[155]
It may not be out of place in this connection to give a few quotations in regard to the length of time required for making an arrowhead.
According to the Marquis de Nadaillac, the Mexicans could turn out a hundred flint knives (probably only unworked obsidian flakes) an hour,[156] while Crook says that the Plains Indians with only a knife for nicking off the edges, will make from fifty to one hundred arrows in the same period.[157] Chase found that a Klamath Indian required five minutes to complete a perfect arrowhead;[158] though Stevens observes that a Shasta Indian spent an hour in chipping one from a flake of obsidian,[159] and Lubbock states that the most skillful Indian workmen can not hope to complete more than a single arrow in a day’s hard work.[160] Powers also speaks of the aborigines of California as "using that infinite patience which is characteristic of the Indian, spending days, perhaps weeks, upon a single piece;[161] and Tylor notes “that utter disregard of time that lets the Indian spend a month in making an arrow.”[162]
The last two references are probably to the large and finely worked pieces used for ceremonial or ornamental purposes.
Classification of the Implements.
The only practicable division of the greater part of the smaller flints is into stemmed and stemless, the former having a prolongation at the base for firmer attachment to a shaft or handle, the latter being of a triangular or oval shape. The stemmed implements may be barbed or not, and the stem either narrower or broader toward the end.
The name “arrowhead” so commonly applied, fits only the minority of specimens, as none but the smaller ones could be so used; the larger are too heavy. The longest stone arrowpoint in the extensive collection of arrows in the National Museum measures two and five-eighths inches in length and is narrow and thin. An arrowpoint two inches in length is seldom seen. The larger specimens were probably knives and spearheads; but it would be difficult to assign any certain use for a particular type, the markings on so many indicate usage for which their shape would seem to render them unsuitable. It is probable that a single specimen served a variety of purposes.
Wood, bone, and shell were also used to a considerable extent, in the manufacture of implements for which flint would seem much better adapted. Thus for fish spears the southern Indians used canes, sharp-pointed, barbed, and hardened in the fire,[163] while knives were formerly made of flint or cane; these are still used when the hunting knife has been lost.[164] The California Indians had arrows tipped with hard-pointed wood for common use, and with agate or obsidian for war.[165]
The accompanying diagram ([figure 176]) will render plain the different terms used in the following descriptions:
| Fig. 176—Diagram, explaining terms. |
a Point. b Edge. c Face. d Bevel.[166] e Blade. f Tang. g Stem. h Base. i Notch. k Neck. m Barb, or shoulder. |
The only difference between barb and shoulder is that the barb is prolonged toward the base. The shoulder is called squared or rounded according to whether the edge of the implement makes an angle or a curve where drawn in to form the stem.
In the stemless specimens the base is the end opposite the point.
A tapering stem means one narrowing toward the base; straight, one whose sides are parallel; and expanding, one which is widest at the base.
Stemless Flints.
CHARACTERS AND USES.
The stemless flints are triangular or oval in outline. For convenience they will be divided into those small enough for arrowpoints (not above 2½ inches long) and those which are too large for such purpose. The latter reach to the length of 7½ inches. They are chipped to a sharp edge all around. The ratio of width to length varies from 1:4 to 4:5.
These objects were mostly for use as knives, scrapers or spearheads. Some of the thicker ones were spikes for clubs. Abbott[167] mentions three triangular jasper implements 3 to 4 inches long from graves, associated with fragments of large bones which showed plainly that they had been used for clubs, and the Iroquois are known to have used a club with a sharp-pointed deer-horn about four inches long inserted in the lower side. Schoolcraft[168] illustrates a pointed stone with a square section (apparently of the class usually called “picks”), mounted in a club which is curved at the end to let the spike set in the end at a right angle to the handle; and Brickell observes that the North Carolina Indians used clubs or long poles, in the ends of which were fastened artificially sharpened stones, or horns of animals.[169] Morgan also notes that among the Iroquois rows of arrow-shaped chert heads about two feet in extent have been found lying side by side. They were set in a frame and fastened with thongs, forming a species of sword.[170] According to Tylor the Mexicans had a similar sword, with obsidian teeth gummed in holes in a war club,[171] and Bourke observed at Taos pueblo a similar weapon with iron teeth.[172] But the number of specimens found mounted indicates that most of them were used as knives or scrapers.
LARGER IMPLEMENTS.
A. With base and edges straight or slightly convex; corners square. The type illustrated in [figure 177] is from Montgomery county, North Carolina. Similar forms come also from eastern Tennessee; central and western North Carolina; southwestern Illinois; Miami and Scioto valleys, and central Ohio; southwestern Wisconsin; northeastern and southwestern Arkansas; northeastern and northwestern Alabama, and Coosa valley in the same state; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; northeastern and central Kentucky; and Savannah, Georgia.
Fig. 177.—Triangular chipped flint.
B. Base straight or nearly so; edges parallel most of the length, curving abruptly to a point; usually with one face less convex than the other, even quite flat, giving a plano-convex section; medium size. The specimen shown in [figure 178], from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, is representative. Other examples come from eastern Tennessee; central North Carolina; northwestern Alabama; Kanawha valley; and southwestern Illinois.
Fig. 178.—Chipped flint.
C. Base straight or nearly so; corners square or slightly rounded; edges convex, curving gradually and regularly to the point; usually widest about one-third of the way above the base; varying much in width, and in length from 6½ inches down to the arrowpoint. A few of the largest have the edges slightly expanding at their junction with the base, for firmer attachment to a handle. The type is [figure 179] (from Loudon county, Tennessee). Other specimens are from eastern Tennessee; central and western North Carolina; Kanawha valley; Keokuk, Iowa; Miami and Scioto valleys, and central Ohio; eastern, southern, and southwestern Wisconsin; northeastern Arkansas; central and northeastern Kentucky; northwestern Georgia, and Savannah; southwestern Illinois; and Coosa valley, Alabama.
Fig. 179.—Chipped flint.
Fig. 180.—Chipped flint, somewhat bell-shape.
D. Narrow and thick; up to 6 inches long; convex base; edges straight to the base, where they expand somewhat, giving the implement a bell shape. The largest specimen in the lot ([figure 180]) has both faces polished almost the entire length, a feature absent from all the others. This example is from Caldwell county, North Carolina. The form is found also in central and western North Carolina, eastern Tennessee, northeastern Kentucky; Kanawha valley; and northeastern Arkansas. Few of the flints occur in the collection except from the two localities first mentioned, where they are moderately abundant.
E. Elliptical outline; some very thin, others resembling celts. One from Kanawha valley has the projecting facets and ridges on one face very smooth from use, those on the other being still sharp, as when first chipped. The one figured has the edge worn smooth entirely around, seemingly from use as a cutting tool, the ends being most worn. Represented by [figure 181] (from Dane county, Wisconsin). Found also in southern and southwestern Wisconsin; eastern Tennessee; northeastern Arkansas; central and western North Carolina; Brown county, Illinois; Kanawha valley; and South Carolina.
Fig. 181.—Chipped flint, elliptical outline.
Fig. 182.—Chipped flint, leaf-shape or oval outline.
F. With the outline a continuous curve from the point entirely around, the base being regularly rounded. This is the model of the pointed oval or leaf-shape flint. Sometimes one face is flatter than the other, being less worked, or in a few cases the unaltered flat side of a flake. Usually they are quite symmetrical, but occasionally one edge is more curved than the other. The type illustrated in [figure 182] is from Vernon county, Wisconsin. Other specimens are from western and central Wisconsin; eastern Tennessee; Miami and Scioto valleys, and central Ohio; southwestern Illinois; Kanawha valley; northeastern Kentucky; northeastern and southwestern Arkansas; northwestern and northeastern Georgia, and Savannah.
Fig. 183.—Chipped flint.
G. With convex edges and slightly convex base; being a medium between the triangular and the leaf-shape. Some are quite narrow and thick, others wide and thin; the former probably clubs or spearheads, the latter knives. A good example, shown in [figure 183], is from Savannah, Georgia. Others are from central Arkansas; central Ohio; eastern Tennessee; Kanawha valley; central North Carolina; southern Wisconsin; northwestern Georgia, and Savannah; northeastern Alabama; and South Carolina.
Fig. 184.—Chipped flint, large, pointed elliptical outline.
H. Pointed at each end; mostly elliptical, though sometimes widest near one end; from 5 to 12 inches long. Nearly all are thin and finely worked, with sharp edges. One from Cheatham county, Tennessee, has a deep notch on each edge about one-third of the way from one end, this end being somewhat rounded. The type ([figure 184]) is from Lonoke county, Arkansas. Other specimens are from central Arkansas, southwestern Illinois, northern and eastern Tennessee.
Fig. 185.—Chipped flint, large, long sharp point.
I. A similar pattern, but having one end continued into a narrow point, shown in [figure 185], is from Bartow county, Georgia. Another of the same kind comes from Loudon county, Tennessee.
J. Similar to group H, but with the edges straight for more than half the length, probably to afford a more convenient hold for the hand. The form is shown in [figure 186], representing a specimen from Mississippi county, Arkansas. Others are from northwestern Georgia, southwestern Illinois, and northeastern Arkansas. There are a few similar in method of chipping to those of group I, but smaller and very narrow, from eastern and western Tennessee and northeastern Arkansas.
K. Double-pointed or lenticular in outline; quite symmetrical; from 2 to 4 inches long; thin and well worked. Represented in northeastern Arkansas; South Carolina; central and western North Carolina; eastern Tennessee; Scioto valley, and central Ohio; Kanawha valley; and northwestern Georgia.
Fig. 186.—Chipped flint, large.
Fig. 187.—Chipped flint.
L. With straight or concave base; edges diverging by straight or slightly convex lines for about half the length from the base, then curving to the point. There is considerable variation in the relative width of these, as well as the amount of concavity at the base. None with this outline of the edges has a convex base. From 2 to 6 inches long. The form is illustrated by figures 187 (from Lawrence county, Ohio), and 188 (from Blount county, Tennessee). In addition to the specimens figured, there is material in the collection from Scioto valley, Ohio; central and western North Carolina; Keokuk, Iowa; Brown county, Illinois; eastern Tennessee; northeastern Alabama, and Coosa valley in the same state; Kanawha valley; South Carolina; southern Wisconsin; and Savannah, Georgia.
Fig. 188.—Chipped flint.
Fig. 189.—Chipped flint, with shoulders.
M. A modification of the last form in which the edge expands just at the base, forming a point at each corner or shoulder. Illustrated in [figure 189]. The specimen figured is from Forsyth county, Georgia. Others are from northwestern Georgia, and Savannah; eastern Tennessee; northeastern Kentucky; southwestern Wisconsin; and Kanawha valley.
SMALLER OBJECTS.
Small triangular or oval arrowpoints, differing from those previously described in being too small for any similar uses, few of them being so much as two inches in length, and varying from that size to not more than half an inch. Nearly all are very thin, though some of the narrower ones may have a diamond or thick lenticular section. Some are very slender, so much so that they are usually classed as perforators; others are equilateral. Both the base and edges may be straight, convex, or concave. A few have a shallow notch in each edge just above the corner; nearly all, however, have both base and edge continuous.
Fig. 190.—Chipped flint, small.
Fig. 191.—Chipped flint, triangular.
The groups and subdivisions which have been recognized among the smaller chipped flint objects in the Bureau collection may be enumerated as follows:
A. Concave base. The concavity may vary from almost a straight line to one-third the length of the flint. Usually symmetric, as in figures 190 and 191, though sometimes one tang or barb, if it may be called such, is longer than the other, as in [figure 192]. A very few have beveled or serrated edges.
1. Convex edges. The type, shown in [figure 190], is from Jefferson county, Tennessee. Other specimens are from eastern Tennessee; Union county, Mississippi; northwestern Georgia, and Bibb county and Savannah in the same state; central and western North Carolina; Miami and Scioto valleys and central Ohio; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; South Carolina; and southwestern Arkansas.
Fig. 192.—Chipped flint, asymmetric.
Fig. 193.—Chipped flint, concave edges.
2. Straight edges, as in the specimen illustrated in [figure 191], from Ouachita county, Arkansas. Similar specimens are found in northeastern and southwestern Arkansas; western and central North Carolina; Kanawha valley; eastern Wisconsin; northwestern Georgia, and Savannah; eastern Tennessee; South Carolina; southwestern Illinois; Union county, Mississippi; and northeastern Kentucky.
3. Concave edges. This abundant form is illustrated in figures 192 (Cherokee county, Georgia), 193 (Caldwell county, North Carolina), and 194 (Washington county, Virginia). Other specimens are from northwestern Georgia and Savannah; central and western North Carolina; Kanawha valley; eastern Tennessee; northeastern Kentucky; southwestern Arkansas; South Carolina; Union county, Mississippi; and Coosa valley, Alabama. This subdivision of group A is abundant, as well as widely distributed.
Fig. 194.—Chipped flint, triangular.
B. With straight bases. These are all small, the broad ones being short and the long ones slender. Most of them are both short and narrow.
Fig. 195.—Chipped flint, small.
Fig. 196.—Chipped flint, short, convex edges.
1. Convex edges as in figures 195 (McMinn county, Tennessee) and 196 (Bradley county, Tennessee). The form is widely distributed, being represented by specimens from eastern Tennessee; northeastern, southwestern, and southeastern Arkansas; Scioto valley, Ohio; northeastern Kentucky; northwestern Georgia and Savannah; Kanawha valley; Union county, Mississippi; Holt county, Missouri; northeastern Alabama, and Coosa valley in the same state; southern and southwestern Wisconsin; and western North Carolina.
2. Straight edges. Exemplified by the specimen shown in [figure 197], from McMinn county, Tennessee. Found also in eastern Tennessee; northeastern Arkansas; Coosa valley, Alabama; Union county, Mississippi; Kanawha valley; Miami and Scioto valleys, Ohio; eastern, southern, and southwestern Wisconsin; western and central North Carolina; Bartow county and Savannah, Georgia; South Carolina, and northeastern Kentucky.
Fig. 197.—Chipped flint, triangular.
Fig. 198.—Chipped flint, concave edges.
3. Concave edges, as in [figure 198] (from Bledsoe county, Tennessee). Other examples of this class are from eastern Tennessee; Scioto valley, Ohio; northeastern and southwestern Arkansas; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; northeastern Kentucky; western and central North Carolina; northeastern Alabama; southwestern Illinois; and Savannah, Georgia.
C. Convex bases. Less abundant than the preceding, and the forms representing it are less variable. Its sub-groups are as follows:
Fig. 199.—Chipped flint, convex base.
1. Convex edges. Some of these have a slight reverse curve at the base, giving a slight barb or shoulder. A few are widest at or near the middle, with bases somewhat pointed, but most of them are widest at the junction of the base and edges. They are mostly of the leaf-shaped type, but quite small. [Figure 199] (Mississippi county, Arkansas) is a good example. Others are from northeastern and southwestern Arkansas; northeastern Alabama and Coosa valley; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; eastern Tennessee; western and central North Carolina; northwestern Georgia; eastern Wisconsin; southwestern Illinois, and Miami valley, Ohio.
2. Edges concave or nearly straight. There are very few of this form, as nearly all with the base convex have the edges also convex. The type ([figure 200]) is from Lawrence county, Ohio; others are from Miami and Scioto valleys, Ohio; Kanawha valley; and southeastern and southwestern Arkansas.
Two exceptional forms, which may be considered modifications of the triangular, come from eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina. The first, which is pentagonal, is shown in [figure 201]; the second, a medium between a perforator and a deeply serrated, triangular arrowpoint, is shown in [figure 202].
Fig. 200.—Chipped flint, edges concave.
Fig. 201.—Chipped flint, pentagonal.
While it is likely that the smaller flints, last described, were intended for arrows, it can not be stated with confidence whether they were for use in war or in hunting. It is said that some of the western Indians used barbless arrows with, long, tapering blades, firmly attached to the shaft, for hunting, while for war barbed arrows, only slightly attached, were employed.[173]
In many arrows with triangular points in the National Museum the sinew with which the flint is fastened to the shaft is brought over the corner or shoulder in such a way as to bind the point as firmly as could be done if it were barbed or stemmed, so that when the shaft is drawn from a wound the point must come with it. If an arrowhead of this form were inserted in a shaft, which was then wrapped behind the flint, the latter would remain in the wound when the shaft was withdrawn.
Fig. 202.—Chipped flint, narrow and thick.
There is no reason for supposing that only the larger points were used for war purposes; the greater penetrating power of the thin, sharp ones would seem to fit them especially for such work, and it is probable that the smaller straight or tapering-stemmed flints (next to be described) were also utilized for this purpose, as they could be easily detached. Those with expanding stem may have been used for hunting, as they could be permanently fastened to the shaft.
Stemmed Flints.
The abundant and variable material of this class may roughly be grouped by form into two divisions, in the first of which the stem is tapering or straight, while in the second the stem is generally expanding.
STRAIGHT OR TAPER STEMS.
A. Square or rounded shoulders; stem concave at base; edges usually convex, rarely straight or concave. Nearly all are of quartzite or coarse flint, roughly worked, the one illustrated ([figure 203]) being above the average, and are mostly from western North Carolina and the adjacent portions of South Carolina and Tennessee. All of them exceed three inches in length. Those from Savannah, Georgia, are usually much wider relative to the length than the specimens in the Bureau collection from other localities.
The specimen figured is from Montgomery county, North Carolina; others are from western and central North Carolina; Kanawha valley; eastern Tennessee; South Carolina; Coosa valley, Alabama; and northwestern Georgia and Savannah.
B. Similar to the last, except that the base is straight or convex, instead of concave. Large size, and nearly all of rough finish; mostly of argillite or flint, a few of quartzite. Varying considerably in width, as well as in thickness, some having almost a diamond section, others wide and thin, the latter generally having the edges worked quite sharp. Some are made from a large flake which has been dressed on one side only. One from Montgomery county, North Carolina, has the end opposite the stem worked round and sharp, similar to the blunt arrowheads, but its size excludes it from this class. From Savannah there are several which are chipped very thin, and smoothly finished, but they are exceptional; some from this locality are very large, reaching 5 by 3 inches, while others are almost as wide as they are long.
Fig. 203.—Chipped flint stemmed, barbless.
The specimens of this form are chiefly from western and central North Carolina; eastern Tennessee; South Carolina; southwestern Georgia, and Savannah; eastern Wisconsin; southwestern Arkansas; southwestern Illinois; northwestern Alabama and Coosa valley in the same state; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; and central Ohio.
C. Of the same general form as the last, but much smaller, and finely worked. Most seem to be intended for arrowheads. The specimen illustrated in [figure 204] is from Caldwell county, North Carolina; others are from South Carolina; western and central North Carolina; Union county, Mississippi; eastern Tennessee; Coosa valley and Tuscaloosa, Alabama; Miami valley, Ohio; Kanawha valley; northwestern and southwestern Georgia and Savannah; and southeastern Arkansas.
Fig. 204.—Chipped flint, stemmed, barbless.
D. Convex edges; stem usually tapering with straight base, though it is noticeable that some are straight with convex base. Resembling the last in form, but slender; from 1¾ to 4¼ inches long. From western and central North Carolina; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; and Savannah, Georgia.
Fig. 205.—Chipped flint, expanding shoulder.
Fig. 206.—Chipped flint, double-curved edges.
E. Differing from specimen shown in [figure 203], in having the edges expand at the shoulders in a projection or point, and varying more in size, some being small enough for arrowheads. All from Savannah (including the example shown in [figure 205]) are of smoother finish than those from other sections, and are usually larger, ranging from 2½ to 4½ inches long. There are some from this locality with base straight or convex. Found also in western and central North Carolina; Kanawha valley; South Carolina; eastern Tennessee; Coosa valley and northeastern Alabama; Brown county, Illinois; northeastern, southeastern, and southwestern Arkansas; and southwestern Georgia.
F. Edge having a double curve, being convex toward the point, and curving outward at the shoulders. Few of them are barbed, though many have the shoulder much expanded. Base sometimes convex or concave, but more often straight; in a few it is somewhat pointed. In most of the smaller specimens the base is notched, but of these none are over 2½ inches long. Stem tapering or expanding, rarely straight. A few have the base rubbed smooth and dull, or even polished (this feature appears in other forms, as noted); it seems to result from use as a knife or scraper, but the implement as a whole does not appear to be adapted to such use. None of them are over 3½ inches long, except a few from Savannah; all from there are wide, but from other places the longer ones are all narrow.
Fig. 207.—Chipped flint, double-curved edges.
Fig. 208.—Chipped flint, convex edges, long, tapering stem.
The specimens illustrated (figures 206 and 207) are from Madison county, Alabama, and Kanawha valley, respectively. Others are from northeastern Alabama and Coosa valley; eastern Tennessee; northwestern and southwestern Georgia and Savannah; Kanawha valley; Catahoula parish, Louisiana; western and central North Carolina; southwestern Illinois and Brown county in the same state; South Carolina; southwestern Arkansas; and Miami valley, Ohio.
G. Convex edges; sharp points; stem always long and tapering; base somewhat pointed, or outline of whole stem forming a regular curve. Some slightly barbed, but mostly with only a small shoulder. The specimens vary much in size, and also in delicacy of workmanship. Classed by function the group would probably be divided among several. The example shown in [figure 208] is from Jackson county, Illinois. Others come from southwestern Illinois; eastern Tennessee; South Carolina; Kanawha valley; northeastern, southeastern, and southwestern Arkansas; western and central Arkansas; and southern Wisconsin.
H. Similar to group G, save that the edges are straight while the stem is somewhat shorter. All the specimens are small. Found in western North Carolina; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; South Carolina; and southeastern Arkansas.
Fig. 209.—Chipped flint with long, tapering stem.
I. Differing from group G in having concave sides; none are barbed, and some have very wide shoulders. Nearly all are large. Two from Savannah have the base straight, all the others being of the common type. The type (fairly exemplified in [figure 209]) is from Union county, Illinois, and others come from southwestern Illinois; southwestern Arkansas; South Carolina; western North Carolina; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; eastern Tennessee; and Savannah, Georgia.
Fig. 210.—Stemmed chipped flint, diamond or lozenge shape.
J. Lozenge or diamond shape; the four edges straight or nearly so, varying a little toward convexity or concavity. In some the base does not come to a point but is rounded or truncated; sometimes, though seldom, there is a slight shoulder. From 1¼ to 3½ inches long. A typical example, shown in [figure 210], is from Chester county, South Carolina. Additional material is from South Carolina; Kanawha valley; Brown and Ogle counties, Illinois; eastern Tennessee; western North Carolina; Bibb county and Savannah, Georgia; southeastern and southwestern Arkansas; Union county, Mississippi; and Coosa valley, Alabama.
Fig. 211.—Stemmed chipped flint.
K. Edges usually convex, sometimes nearly straight, gradually rounding off into the stem, which may be straight, tapering, or slightly expanding; base straight or slightly convex. All of these are narrow, mostly thick, and none over two inches long. The type ([figure 211]) is from Bledsoe county, Tennessee; others are from eastern Tennessee; western and central North Carolina; Coosa valley, Alabama; northwestern Georgia; eastern, southern, and southwestern Wisconsin; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; South Carolina; Brown county, Illinois; and northeastern and southeastern Arkansas.
Fig. 212.—Stemmed chipped flint.
L. Edges convex, a very few being straight; shoulders square or somewhat rounded, in two or three somewhat expanding. Stem usually straight, sometimes tapering; base straight or convex. Varying much in size and relative width, being from 1¼ to 4½ inches long, and from ¾ to 2½ inches wide; some slender, others broad. Nearly all are quite roughly made. Illustrated in [figure 212] (from Cherokee county, Georgia).
Like many other forms of small chipped implements, the distribution in this type is wide. It comes from northwestern Georgia and about Savannah; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; Miami valley, Ohio; southwestern Illinois; western and central North Carolina; eastern Tennessee; northeastern Alabama and Coosa valley in the same state; and southwestern Arkansas.
M. Convex edges; sharp points; very slight shoulders; stem tapering by curved lines; base convex or somewhat pointed. All made of quartz, quartzite, or coarse flint, and differing from the following group only in being very slender and, owing to the material employed, much more roughly finished. Found in western North Carolina, in South Carolina, and in southwestern Arkansas.
N. Convex edges; remarkably symmetrical outline; most specimens finely finished; slight shoulders; tapering stem, with convex base, the whole stem having a quite regularly curved outline. From 2 to 4½ inches long.
Fig. 213.—Stemmed chipped flint, ovoid.
The type which is shown in [figure 213] is from Dane county, Wisconsin. This group also is widely distributed, being found in southern and southwestern Wisconsin; northeastern Kentucky; southwestern Illinois; Miami and Scioto valleys, Ohio, and the central part of the same state; northeastern, central, and southeastern Arkansas; western North Carolina; and Kanawha valley.
Fig. 214.—Stemmed chipped flint, short blade.
O. Differing from group N only in having longer stems and shorter blades, the latter sometimes less than an inch. Illustrated in [figure 214] (from Kanawha valley). Found also in Scioto valley and in central Ohio; southwestern Wisconsin; southwestern Arkansas; and southwestern Georgia.
P. Convex edges; square shoulders; stem forming a quite regular and continuous curve, slightly expanding in some specimens. The one shown in [figure 215], from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, has the most symmetric outline of any specimen in the entire collection. There are other specimens from Kanawha valley, and also from northeastern Kentucky; Miami valley, Ohio; Washington county, Pennsylvania; eastern and western Tennessee; southwestern Illinois; and southeastern Arkansas.
Fig. 215.—Stemmed chipped flint, symmetric outline.
Fig. 216.—Stemmed chipped flint.
Q. Similar to group P except that stem and base are straight. They are symmetric and well finished, vary more in size than those of the last group, being from 1¼ to 4¼ inches long, the others not reaching either of these limits.
The type ([figure 216]) comes from Knox county, Ohio, and other specimens from Miami valley and central Ohio; Keokuk, Iowa; northeastern Kentucky; Kanawha valley; eastern and western Tennessee; eastern, southeastern, and southwestern Arkansas; eastern and southwestern Wisconsin; northwestern Georgia; and southwestern Illinois.
R. Edges generally convex, sometimes straight; base straight or convex, only rarely concave; shoulders usually square, sometimes rounded; stem expanding by straight lines. From less than an inch to 3½ inches long, mostly about the medium.
The form, which resembles that shown in [figure 216] in a general way, is widely distributed, its range including Keokuk, Iowa; Miami and Scioto valleys, Ohio; Bibb county and Savannah, Georgia, as well as the northwestern part of the state; eastern Tennessee; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; southeastern and southwestern Arkansas; southwestern Illinois, and Brown county in the same state; northeastern Kentucky; southern and southwestern Wisconsin; western and central North Carolina; and northeastern Alabama.
S. Differing from group Q in having the blade short, stem long (in some cases longer than blade), and only slight shoulders. Base somewhat convex in a few specimens; from an inch to 2¼ inches in length. From Kanawha valley; northwestern Georgia; Miami and Scioto valleys, Ohio; southwestern Arkansas; southern Wisconsin; and northeastern Alabama.
Beginning with those of group N and ending with those last described, all the best worked and most finely finished specimens are from Kanawha valley, West Virginia; northeastern Kentucky, and the central and southern parts of Ohio.
T. Convex edges; square shoulders; slender; very long and slender tapering or straight stem, coming almost to a point at the base. Illustrated in [figure 217] (from Kanawha valley). Others are from central North Carolina; Kanawha valley; southwestern Arkansas; and Catahoula parish, Louisiana. The specimens from the two latter districts have the stem wider and less pointed than the others.
Fig. 217.—Chipped flint, with very long, slender stem.
Fig. 218.—Stemmed chipped flint, with but one barb or shoulder.
U. With one large, much expanded shoulder, the other being absent or very slight; both edges convex, or one convex and the other straight; stem sometimes straight, but usually tapering, being almost pointed in some; base usually convex, sometimes straight, rarely concave. A specimen from Ross county, Ohio, has the base deeply notched; it seems to have been symmetrical originally, and one barb or shoulder being broken, to have had that edge dressed down. Many were thus reworked, but in most cases it is evident that the form is original. Some are slender, others broad.
The type shown in [figure 218] is from Bowie county, Texas. Other examples are from southwestern Arkansas; Catahoula parish, Louisiana; Scioto valley, Ohio; Kanawha valley; western and central North Carolina; eastern Tennessee; South Carolina; northeastern Alabama; as well as from northwestern Georgia and about Savannah.
EXPANDING STEMS.
In this class of flints the stem is expanding, unless the contrary is stated. The majority of specimens having barbs belong to this class; while those with straight or tapering stem usually have only square or rounded shoulders, the barb seldom appearing.
Fig. 219.—Stemmed chipped flint, short.
Fig. 220.—Stemmed chipped flint.
A. Short and broad; base usually straight, sometimes convex, rarely concave; notched in from edges to form the stem; very seldom with well-defined shoulders, and never barbed. The type, illustrated in [figure 219], is from Kanawha valley, West Virginia. Found also in northeastern Kentucky; western North Carolina; northwestern Georgia and about Savannah; eastern Tennessee; Coosa valley, Alabama; and Union county, Mississippi.
B. Edges convex, seldom straight; base straight or rarely convex or concave; notched in on edges close to base, so as to leave a slight tang; thin and well worked; from an inch to 2¼ inches long. All from Savannah have concave bases; a few are notched so as to have slight shoulders, and they are somewhat larger than from other localities. They fit better in this group, however, than in any other. A typical example, shown in [figure 220], is from Montgomery county, North Carolina. Others are from central North Carolina; eastern Tennessee; southwestern Illinois; various localities in South Carolina; and about Savannah, Georgia.
C. Roughly made; unsymmetrical, seemingly made hastily; of various patterns, including all the common shapes. Nearly all with convex edges, few straight, none concave. Base straight or concave, often the natural surface or fracture of the stone. Sometimes made from the tip of a broken larger specimen. From 1 to 5 inches long; slender or wide; usually thick, except when made from a thin flake. Edges notched just at the base in some, leaving a slight tang; others have the corners chipped out. This group is quite variable in size and in character of workmanship, as well as in form. The material also is variable.
Fig. 221.—Stemmed chipped flint, roughly made.
Fig. 222.—Stemmed chipped flint.
The types (figures 221 and 222) are, respectively, from Bledsoe and Polk counties, Tennessee. The range includes eastern Tennessee; Kanawha valley; western North Carolina; eastern and southwestern Wisconsin; northeastern Alabama and Tuscaloosa valley; South Carolina; southwestern and northeastern Arkansas; central Ohio and Scioto valley; northeastern Kentucky; and southwestern Georgia, as well as Savannah.
Fig. 223.—Stemmed chipped flint.
Fig. 224.—Stemmed chipped flint, edges convex.
D. Edges convex, rarely straight; base straight or convex; slender; from 1¼ to 4 inches long; usually thin; deeply notched, with edges worked close to base, leaving the latter as wide as the blade, or nearly so. This form could be quite firmly attached to a shaft or handle. It is illustrated by [figure 223], representing one of the specimens from Kanawha valley. It is found also in southwestern Illinois and Brown county in the same state; eastern, southern, and southwestern Wisconsin; western and central North Carolina; eastern Tennessee; northwestern Georgia; central Ohio and Scioto valley; southeastern Arkansas; northeastern Kentucky; and Coosa and Tuscaloosa valleys, Alabama.
E. Edges convex; base straight or convex; shoulders square or rounded; stem expanding by curved lines. A few are small enough for arrows, but most of them are large or of medium size. The specimen from Vernon county, Wisconsin, illustrated in [figure 224], is representative. The group is characteristic of southwestern Wisconsin; Kanawha valley; central Ohio and Scioto valley; western and central North Carolina; eastern Tennessee; southeastern and southwestern Arkansas; southwestern Illinois; South Carolina; Coosa valley, Alabama; and Savannah, Georgia.
F. Edges straight or convex; long barbs, sometimes reaching to the base; stem straight or slightly tapering; base straight, or very slightly convex or concave, usually well finished. One barb is sometimes longer than the other, or the stem may be to one side of the center line. Sometimes made of a flake, the flat side being left untouched.
Fig. 225.—Stemmed chipped flint, with long barbs.
The type shown in [figure 225] is from Madison county, Alabama. It is found generally in northeastern and northwestern Alabama, and also in eastern Tennessee; Kanawha valley; Keokuk, Iowa; Holt county, Missouri; southwestern Illinois and Brown county in the same state; northwestern Georgia and about Savannah; southeastern and southwestern Arkansas; northeastern Kentucky, and western and central North Carolina.
G. Similar to the last, but with stem expanding by straight or curved lines; base always straight in larger specimens, sometimes convex or concave in smaller ones. Barbs varying in length, short in some and reaching nearly to the base in others. From three-fourths to 3¾ inches in length, and varying much in width.
Fig. 226.—Stemmed chipped flint.
Figure 226 represents a typical example from Jackson county, Illinois. The range, which is quite wide, includes southwestern Illinois; northeastern, southwestern, and southeastern Arkansas; Miami and Scioto valleys, and central Ohio; southern and southwestern Wisconsin; western and central North Carolina; eastern Tennessee; South Carolina; northeastern Kentucky; Kanawha valley; and Savannah, Georgia.
H. Wide blade; short; convex edges; square shoulders or slight barbs; base convex or concave; stem broad and expanding by curved lines; generally thick. Those with convex base are all of medium size, while those with concave base range from an inch to 4 inches in length.
Fig. 227.—Stemmed chipped flint.
The form is indicated in [figure 227], representing a good specimen from Dane county, Wisconsin. It is found over southern Wisconsin; northeastern Alabama and Coosa valley; southwestern Illinois and Brown county in the same state; central North Carolina; northwestern Georgia and about Savannah; eastern Tennessee; Miami and Scioto valleys, Ohio; Kanawha valley; southwestern Arkansas; South Carolina; and Keokuk, Iowa.
I. Edges parallel, or nearly so most of the length, with abrupt curve to the point; base straight or slightly convex; stem expanding by straight or curved lines; notched in from the corners of the base giving long barbs, which, in a few, project slightly beyond the line of edges; thin; well worked; from 2 to 4 inches long.
Fig. 228.—Stemmed chipped flint, broad point.
Fig. 229.—Stemmed chipped flint, slender point.
The specimen illustrated in [figure 228] is from Dane county, Wisconsin, and there are several others from southern Wisconsin; southwestern Illinois; Scioto valley, Ohio; and Kanawha valley, West Virginia.
Fig. 230.—Stemmed chipped flint.
J. Edges convex or sometimes straight; base straight or slightly convex. Notched in on the edges, leaving the stem nearly or quite as wide at the bottom as the blade; corners of the base square or slightly rounded. Mostly small, suitable for arrows, though a few are larger, up to 3¼ inches. A few of these have the base polished. Some of the small ones are made of flakes having the natural, conchoidal shape and worked on one side only. Typical forms, shown in figures 229 and 230, are from Kanawha valley, and Nicholas county, Kentucky, respectively. The distribution extends also over southern and southwestern Wisconsin; Miami valley, Ohio; Holt county, Missouri; northeastern Kentucky; Brown county, Illinois; southwestern Arkansas; Coosa valley, Alabama; eastern Tennessee, and about Savannah, Georgia.
Fig. 231.—Stemmed chipped flint.
Fig. 232.—Stemmed chipped flint, thin.
K. Straight or convex edges (a few serrated or beveled); base straight, sometimes polished; notched in from the corners so as to give sharp barbs, with wide stem expanding by straight lines. Medium size. Illustrated in [figure 231] (Bradley county, Tennessee). Found in eastern Tennessee; southwestern Illinois; Scioto valley; Kanawha valley; South Carolina; and about Savannah, Georgia.
Fig. 233.—Stemmed chipped flint.
Fig. 234.—Stemmed chipped flint.
L. Very thin; well worked; usually quite symmetrical; base straight or slightly concave; stem expanding by curved lines; with shoulders or barbs; base with sharp tangs. Some specimens quite slender, others almost as wide as long. Few are above two inches in length. The edge is sometimes a broken line instead of a regular curve. The form is shown in figures 232 and 233, representing specimens from Lawrence county, Ohio, and Loudon county, Tennessee, respectively. Others are from Kanawha valley; Miami and Scioto valleys, Ohio; eastern Tennessee; western and central North Carolina; Union county, Mississippi; northeastern Kentucky; and southwestern Illinois.
M. Convex edges; usually quite symmetric; base generally straight, although sometimes convex or concave; stem expanding by straight or curved lines, and notched in from the corners by a narrow notch whose sides are parallel. Sometimes beveled (or feathered). The barb as well as the notch of the same width throughout its entire length. The type ([figure 234]) is from Knox county, Ohio, and similar forms come from central Ohio; Kanawha valley; western North Carolina; southern Wisconsin; southwestern Illinois; South Carolina; eastern Tennessee; and Savannah, Georgia.
Fig. 235.—Stemmed chipped flint.
N. Straight, or rarely convex, edges; base straight or slightly curved, with rounded corners; notched in on the edges above the corners, with sharp barbs. Nearly every specimen is beveled, and some are serrated. Base polished in many of them even when slightly concave. A good example from Ross county, Ohio, is represented in [figure 235]. Others are from Miami and Scioto valleys and elsewhere in Ohio, as well as from Kanawha valley; eastern Tennessee; northwestern Alabama; southwestern Georgia, and about Savannah in the same state. The style of chipping is frequently such as to give serrated edges, as in the specimen figured.
Fig. 236.—Stemmed chipped flint, slender, with small stem.
O. Long; slender; thin; short, small stem; convex base; notched upward from the corners of the base; short barbs. The type shown in [figure 236] is from Loudon county, Tennessee, and other specimens come from eastern Tennessee and southeastern Arkansas.
Fig. 237.—Stemmed chipped flint, oval outline, notched.
P. Convex edges and base; sometimes, though very seldom, the edges are nearly straight; the typical, leaf-shape implement, except for the notch, which is always worked in from the widest part of the specimen at right angles to the axis. The base is invariably polished, even in the smallest specimens. From Licking county ([figure 237]) as well as from Miami valley and throughout central Ohio; Kanawha valley; eastern Tennessee; southwestern Illinois; northeastern Alabama; southern Wisconsin; and about Savannah, Georgia.
Q. Edges less convex than the last, sometimes straight; the notches are worked in nearer the base, going in an angle of about 45 degrees, instead of perpendicular to the middle line or axis. Sometimes the blade is of uniform thickness until very close to the edges, which are worked off in a double chisel-edge. Very few of these, or of group P, are small enough for arrows. Usually symmetrical and well finished; the base always polished, but whether from use or to add to the utility of the specimen can not be determined. From Miami valley, Ohio; Keokuk, Iowa; southwestern Wisconsin; and eastern Tennessee.
R. Differing from the two last described only in being longer, and in having the stem always come to a point by either convex or concave lines, instead of being regularly convex; base never polished. From Kanawha valley, West Virginia, and central Arkansas.
S. Edges usually straight, sometimes concave, rarely convex; notched in deeply from edges; seldom barbed; stem nearly always wider than the blade, and large. Base convex; occasionally somewhat concave with rounded corners, and nearly always polished. Some (including all from the Savannah collection) are beveled and a few have blunt and rounded points, apparently broken specimens reworked. From less than an inch to nearly 3 inches long. Even among the very small ones, some have the base polished.
An implement of this form, or of any form in which the stem is wide or with very long tangs, and especially with concave base, would be well adapted for hunting purposes. The wide stem would allow firm attachment to a shaft, whether as an arrow or a spear, and at the same time would be very difficult to withdraw from a wound. The shaft would impede the flight of an animal pierced by the weapon, particularly in weeds or bushes; though greater force would be required with these than with the more slender points to make them effective.
Fig. 238.—Stemmed chipped flint.
The type delineated in [figure 238] is from Warren county, Ohio, and the form is well represented also in Scioto and Miami valleys, Ohio; western North Carolina; Kanawha valley; eastern Tennessee; southern and southwestern Wisconsin; southeastern and southwestern Arkansas; northeastern Kentucky; northeastern Alabama; and about Savannah, Georgia.
Fig. 239.—Stemmed chipped flint, notched, very wide stem.
T. Convex edges; base straight, or slightly convex or concave, with square corners, and nearly always polished; stem as wide as the blade or wider. Some rather slender, others as wide as long. Very few are beveled, except those from Savannah, all of which are thus made. From three-fourths to 2¼ inches long. Found in eastern Tennessee; Kanawha valley (including the specimen shown in [figure 239]); western North Carolina; southern and southwestern Wisconsin; South Carolina; southwestern Arkansas; Miami valley, Ohio; and in the vicinity of Savannah.
Fig. 240.—Stemmed chipped flint, notched, very wide stem.
U. Edges usually straight, sometimes convex; base regularly concave, or rounding off into a convex curve at the corners, and nearly always polished. The stem in all is wider than the blade. Those from Savannah are all beveled, and but few of them have polished bases. The type, illustrated in [figure 240], is from Kanawha valley, and others come from Kanawha valley; southern Wisconsin; Scioto valley; eastern Tennessee; southwestern Illinois; and Savannah, Georgia.
V. Edges convex, seldom straight, never concave; usually well finished; base concave; notch worked in from the edge above the corner so as to leave the upper portion of the tang parallel to the lower, or base; corners square. Few are beveled. The length is from 1 to 4 inches, the width also varying considerably; some are widest at or near the middle of the blade, others are as wide at base as at any other part.
Fig. 241.—Stemmed chipped flint.
The form is illustrated in [figure 241] (Union county, Illinois). The distribution is wide, including southwestern Illinois; northwestern and southwestern Georgia and Savannah; northeastern Kentucky; Kanawha valley; South Carolina; northwestern Alabama; eastern Tennessee; eastern and southern Wisconsin; western and central North Carolina; southeastern and southwestern Arkansas; Miami valley, Ohio; Keokuk, Iowa; and Union county, Mississippi.
W. Edges usually convex, sometimes straight; notched in on the edges above the corners; base concave; some slender, others broad. Somewhat resembling the two preceding types, but more roughly made. From 1 to 4 inches long. Represented by material from western and central North Carolina; Kanawha valley; eastern Tennessee; northeastern Alabama and Coosa valley, as well as from Miami valley, Ohio.
Fig. 242.—Stemmed chipped flint, projecting shoulders.
X. Small; very slender; convex edges, with wing-like barbs or shoulders; stem slightly expanding by curved lines. This rather rare type, shown in [figure 242] (from Ouachita county, Arkansas), is known from northeastern and southwestern Arkansas, as well as eastern Tennessee, and Savannah, Georgia.
Y. Edges mostly straight, in a few convex; base straight, convex, or concave, in some specimens of each being polished; notched in on the edges just above the corners, notches usually slight; always widest at base. A few, including all from Savannah, are serrated or beveled. Very few are over an inch and a half long. They are nearly always thick. One from Kanawha valley has the point worn perfectly smooth and the edges polished half way to the base, showing use as a drill. Points of this form would make the countersunk holes so common in gorgets and other flat stones.
Fig. 243.—Stemmed chipped flint.
This form is widely distributed. The type ([figure 243]) is from Lawrence county, Ohio. Its range includes Miami and Scioto valleys, Ohio; northwestern Georgia and Savannah; eastern Tennessee; Kanawha valley; southwestern Illinois, and Brown county in the same state; western North Carolina; Coosa valley, Alabama; southwestern Arkansas; South Carolina; northeastern Kentucky; and eastern Wisconsin.
Z. Very rough finish; blade more or less worked by first chipping (there being usually no secondary chipping) to convex edges; base generally the natural surface of the nodule or pebble from which the implement was made; notches worked in roughly on the edges. They were probably knives or spears, or in some cases celts or chisels, though none show polish. With these are placed a few that seem to be the points of larger rough implements, broken and having notches worked in the fragments. A typical form, shown in [figure 244], is from Mississippi county, Arkansas. It occurs also in northeastern Arkansas; Scioto valley, Ohio; western Tennessee; southwestern Illinois; and Kanawha valley, West Virginia.
Perforators.
CHARACTER AND USES.
The implements variously classed by different writers as awls, drills, needles, rimmers or reamers, and the like, seem to represent a graded series, and as no distinction can be made in the different kinds, if, indeed, there is any room for distinction, they are grouped under one term, “perforators.”
Fig. 244.—Stemmed chipped flint, very rough.
Very few of the specimens could be used as drills, as most of them are too thin; only those with a rhomboidal or triangular section would seem adapted to this purpose, and the majority even of these seem too fragile. It is more probable that drilling was done with a stick or horn, with sand as a cutting medium, except in the thin tablets of slate or similar stone and in shells. The thicker flints would answer very well for this purpose, and the countersunk holes appear to indicate such an instrument. For sewing, bone would be more easily worked, and better suited than flint. The double-pointed slender specimens may have been used for bait-holders in fishing; bone implements of a similar shape, with a hole drilled at the middle for attaching a line, have been seen in use among the Indians of Florida.
Some such implement was no doubt used in the manner of a burin, especially in making the fine lines on the ornamented shells or stones; certain flints in the collection may have served such a purpose.
Lubbock considers it proved that the stone of which ornaments, carved axes, etc., are made could be worked with flint, and that the engraving on the Scotch rocks, even on granite, was executed with this material;[174] and Bushmen are known to use triangular pieces of flint for cutting figures in rocks.[175] Evans[176] observes that there are five ways of making holes in stone, viz.: (1) Chiseling or picking, with “picks,” “celts,” or “drills” of flint or other stone; (2) boring with a solid borer, as wood, hard or soft, or horn with sand and water; (3) grinding with a tubular grinder, as horn, cane, elder, etc., with sand and water; (4) drilling with a stone drill, e.g., of flint or sandstone; (5) drilling or punching with metal. It should be remembered that there are no evidences of the use of any metal except copper for economic purposes by the aborigines of the United States; and nearly everything of this material seems to have been ornamental in character. Bancroft says that the Nootka, in boring in wood, use a bird-bone drill worked between the hands,[177] while according to Schumacher, the Santa Barbara Indians chip out rough disks of shell, pierce them with a flint drill, and enlarge the hole with a slender, round piece of sandstone.[178] The Atlantic coast Indians drilled shell beads with a nail stuck in a cane or stick, rolling the drill on their thighs with the right hand, and holding the shell in the left;[179] and the southern Indians, according to C. C. Jones, pierced shell beads with heated copper drills.[180] Evans has found that ox-horn and sand make good borers,[181] while low tribes on the Amazon make crystal tubes an inch in diameter and up to 8 inches long by rubbing and drilling with a flexible shoot of wild plantain, twilled between the hands, with sand and water;[182] and Tylor expresses the opinion that such operations are not the result of high mechanical skill, but merely of the most simple and savage processes.[183]
Fig. 245.—Perforator, not stemmed.
STEMLESS FORMS.
A. Base straight or nearly so; edges straight and parallel, sometimes half the length from the base, thence with concave curve which is reversed near the end to give a blunt point; these, usually the wider ones, are always thin, and were probably knives. The smaller ones, resembling the small triangular arrows except for the sharpened upper end, may have been for arrowheads, though the sharp points would have served well as awls or needles. Many of the smaller ones seem to be made from small broken arrowheads; exemplified by the specimen from Montgomery county, North Carolina, shown in [figure 245]. The collection includes material from western and central North Carolina; eastern Tennessee; Kanawha valley; northeastern Alabama; South Carolina; Keokuk, Iowa; and Savannah, Georgia.
Fig. 246.—Perforator, not stemmed, double pointed.
B. Slender, somewhat larger about the middle and tapering to a point at each end, or regularly and gradually decreasing from base to point. Some are undoubtedly arrowheads, as they are too blunt or too thin to have been used for piercing. Others show marks of use which could have been produced in no way except by drilling in stone. The specimen illustrated in [figure 246] (from Kanawha valley) shows this to a marked degree, while that shown in [figure 247] (from Nicholas county, Kentucky) is without such indications. The distribution of this form is wide, including Kanawha valley; northeastern Kentucky; southwestern Illinois; southwestern Arkansas; southwestern Wisconsin; Coosa valley, Alabama; northwestern and southwestern Georgia, and Savannah; eastern Tennessee; and Scioto valley, Ohio.
Fig. 247.—Perforator, not stemmed, double pointed.
Fig. 248.—Perforator, not stemmed, rough base.
C. With the base very large in ratio to the point or piercer; sometimes the entire implement is worked smooth or thin, again it is the natural fragment or chip of stone entirely unworked except a point flaked on one part or edge. The piercer varies from one-fourth of an inch to two inches in length. It could have been utilized only as an “awl” or “needle,” the base being held by the thumb and finger. This variable form is represented in [figure 248] (from Lawrence county, Ohio). It comes from Scioto valley; Kanawha valley; western and central North Carolina; northeastern Kentucky; Keokuk, Iowa; southwestern and southeastern Arkansas; eastern Tennessee; and Savannah, Georgia.
Fig. 249.—Perforator, not stemmed, expanding base.
Fig. 250.—Perforator, not stemmed, expanding base.
D. Piercer thin and slender; base thin, expanding to a wing-like projection on each side. Very few are strong enough to have been used for drilling even in soft material, but they are excellent for piercing leather or similar substances. The expanding wings would make them good points for hunting and fishing arrows, as they would have great penetrating power and be very difficult to extract from a wound, while allowing very firm attachment to a shaft. The type, shown in [figure 249], is from Kanawha valley. Other specimens come from the same locality, and also from southwestern Illinois, and Brown county in the same state; eastern Tennessee; Keokuk, Iowa; Scioto valley, Ohio; northeastern Kentucky; southern Wisconsin; and Savannah, Georgia.
E. With slight expansion at the base. These may be thick or thin, wide or narrow, and, according to their different forms, might be used as drills, piercers, or arrowheads. A good example (presented in [figure 250]) is from Kanawha valley, West Virginia. It is found also in northeastern Kentucky, northeastern and southeastern Arkansas; eastern Tennessee; southwestern Illinois; and southwestern Wisconsin.
All of the foregoing perforators are without stems, unless the larger portion left at the base may be considered as such.
STEMMED FORMS.
The form of the stem and shoulders among perforators is often the same as in the stemmed arrowheads, etc., previously described.
Fig. 251.—Perforator, stemmed.
A. Stem usually tapering; shoulder more or less defined; never barbed; blade wide at the part next to the stem, tapering rapidly by concave lines to a sharp point. Probably spearpoints or large arrowheads with the blade worked to a point. The type, shown in [figure 251], is from Kanawha valley.
Fig. 252.—Perforator, stemmed, very wide shoulders.
B. Slender point; wide wings or shoulders; stem straight or nearly so; the implement having the form of a cross. Some are less than an inch long, and very delicately worked, while others reach 3 inches in length, and are thick. Some from Savannah have very broad stems. There is a good example ([figure 252]) from Ouachita county, Arkansas, and others from southwestern Arkansas; western North Carolina; and Savannah, Georgia.
Fig. 253.—Perforator, stemmed.
Fig. 254.—Perforator, stemmed.
C. Narrow and thick almost of a diamond or round section; stem expanding or straight; with slight shoulders, sometimes slightly barbed. Some of the thinner ones, probably arrows, have a lenticular section; a few are triangular in section. This form is well suited for drilling, and many of the specimens show marks of such use, especially the one illustrated ([figure 253]), the edges of which are striated almost the entire length. This is from Mason county, Kentucky; and the distribution of the type includes Kanawha valley; Scioto valley, Ohio; eastern Tennessee; northeastern Alabama; western and central North Carolina; southeastern and northeastern Arkansas; Brown county, Illinois; South Carolina; and northeastern Kentucky. Thus the type is common and its geographic range broad.
D. Long, slender point; shoulders wide or slightly barbed; stem straight, tapering, or expanding; edges straight or concave. Some would make good piercers for soft material, but very few could be used as drills. A majority would be good arrowheads. Some have the edges smooth, but if this was caused by drilling it must have been done in enlarging holes already made, since the implements so marked are very thin. The faces of the blades show no polish or smoothness, such as might result from use as knives. The specimen illustrated ([figure 254]) is from Madison county, Alabama; others from northeastern Alabama and Coosa valley; Scioto valley, Ohio; eastern Tennessee; western and central North Carolina; southwestern Arkansas; Kanawha valley; and Savannah, Georgia.
Fig. 255.—Perforator, stemmed, with cutting point.
E. Stem may be of any form; wide shoulders; never barbed; point or piercer narrow, well worked, with edges parallel its entire length, and terminating in a cutting edge instead of a point. This form (shown in [figure 255]) is found only in the collection from Savannah, Georgia.
Blunt Arrowheads, or “Bunts.”
Certain arrowheads have the end opposite the base rounded or flattened instead of pointed. Commonly, both faces are worked off equally, to bring the edge opposite the middle line of the blade, though sometimes it may be a little to one side. The stem and base are of any form found in the common patterns of arrowheads. Few are barbed, though many have shoulders. For the most part, they are probably made from the ordinary spearpoints or arrowheads and knives that have had the points broken off, though some seem to have been intentionally made this way originally. A few are smooth or polished at the ends, as though used as knives or scrapers; but most of them have no marks except such as would result from being struck or shot against some hard substance; even this being absent in many of them, as in the specimen represented in the accompanying figure.
Jones says that crescent-shaped arrows were used by southern Indians for shooting off birds’ heads,[184] and it is known that chisel-shape arrows were much used during the Middle Ages.[185]
Fig. 256.—Blunt arrowhead, or “bunt”.
This type of aboriginal implement or weapon is shown in [figure 256], representing a specimen from Savannah, Georgia. Other examples come from eastern Tennessee; Kanawha valley; western North Carolina; southern and southwestern Wisconsin; southwestern Illinois; Scioto valley, Ohio; and Savannah, Georgia.
Scrapers.
STEMMED.
The same remarks as to form and method of making apply to stemmed scrapers as to blunt arrows, except that the chipping of the end is always from one face so as to produce a chisel edge. This edge is frequently smooth or polished from use. They would answer very well for smoothing down articles made of wood, or for cleaning hides in tanning; they would also serve excellently for removing scales from fish, and as they are usually abundant in the vicinity of good fishing places, they were no doubt employed for this purpose.
Fig. 257.—Stemmed scraper.
Fig. 258.—Stemmed scraper.
The material in the Bureau collection is represented by the specimens shown in figures 257 and 258, from Savannah, Georgia, and Dane county, Wisconsin, respectively. Other examples come from southern Wisconsin; southwestern Illinois; Kanawha valley, West Virginia; northeastern Kentucky; Miami valley, Ohio; central North Carolina; eastern Tennessee; and Savannah, Georgia.
STEMLESS.
A few quotations regarding the use and mode of manufacture of stemless scrapers may be given:
According to Evans, they are made by laying a flake flat side up on a stone, and chipping off around the edge with a hammer. The point struck must rest directly on the under stone, and but a thin spall is struck off at each blow.[186] Leidy observed that the Shoshoni by a quick blow strike off a segment of a quartz bowlder in such a way as to form a circular or oval implement flat on one side, convex on the other, which is used as a scraper in dressing buffalo hides;[187] and according to Knight the Australians obtain, in exactly the same way, specimens which they use as axes.[188] Peale remarks that while hides are green they are stretched on the ground and scraped with an instrument resembling an adze;[189] and Dodge says more explicitly that when the stretched skin has become hard and dry, the woman goes to work on it with an adze-like instrument, with a short handle of wood or elkhorn tied on with rawhide; holding this in one hand, she chips at the hardened skin, cutting off a thin shaving at every blow.[190]
The scrapers of this class in the Bureau collection are as follows:
A. Chipped over the entire surface to the form of the ordinary celt, except that the scraping edge is in the same plane with one face. Some have a scraping edge at each end. In a few the flat or straight face is chipped off slightly, bringing the edge toward the middleline; but this was probably done after the implement had become broken or blunted from use. When there is any polish, it is always on the flat face, showing use as an adze, or, possibly, as a plane. Varying much in width, some measuring almost the same in either direction, while others are more like the “chisel” celts, though the position of the cutting edge shows their use.
Fig. 259.—Stemless scraper, celt form.
A typical specimen ([figure 259]) is from Jackson county, Illinois; others come from Brown county and the southwestern part of the state generally; from northeastern Kentucky; Keokuk, Iowa; southwestern Wisconsin; eastern Tennessee; and central Ohio.
Fig. 260.—Stemless scraper, flake.
B. Flakes or spalls, chipped always from the concave side of the fragment. Some of the smaller specimens, usually those of somewhat circular outline, are chipped nearly, or in some cases entirely, around the edge. Figure 260 represents a specimen from Mason county, Kentucky. Others come from northeastern Kentucky; eastern Tennessee; Holt county, Missouri; Kanawha valley; southwestern Wisconsin; Miami valley, and central Ohio; Coosa valley, Alabama; Union county, Mississippi; and Savannah, Georgia.
Cores.
The generally accepted name “cores” is applied to the blocks from which are struck off the flakes to be next described.
Dr. Gillespie[191] claimed that objects of this kind were made so intentionally, and that the flakes are simply the refuse or waste material. He gives six reasons for this belief, but an examination of the objects themselves would show that he is in error. That some might have been used as scrapers may be true, but very few are suited for such work, and not one shows the least mark of wear that could result from this use.
The specimens in the Bureau collection, with perhaps half a dozen exceptions, are from the aboriginal quarries at Flint ridge, in Licking county, Ohio, or of the material so abundant at that place.
Fig. 261.—Cores.
All are small, few being of a size to furnish flakes over three inches long. The flakes were undoubtedly struck off by means of stone hammers, hundreds of which are to be found about the quarries, or removed by pressure, many showing the bulb of percussion, others being perfectly smooth on the flat face. Usually all the flakes were obtained from only one side of the core until it became too small to work ([figure 261]). Occasionally they were chipped from opposite sides, leaving the core of a conical or cylindrical shape (as represented in [figure 262]).
Fig. 262.—Core.
Cores and finely chipped implements of the Flint ridge stone have been taken from the mounds in Kanawha valley, West Virginia, and Scioto valley, Ohio, showing that the mound-builders are to be credited with at least a part of the great amount of work done in those localities; but it seems a mistake to say, as some authors have done, that the “turtlebacks” found in caches in southern Illinois are from the same source, as the stone is entirely different, and occurs abundantly in the vicinity in which the specimens are found.
Flakes.
The use to which were put the narrow, thin flakes so abundantly found in many parts of the world has caused some discussion. Schoolcraft says that the Dakota bleed patients by scarifying with these flakes; or sometimes one is fixed into the end of a piece of wood, held over a vein, and driven in as far as the wood will let it go,[192] the use being similar to that of the modern fleam. Harpoons in the Kurile islands are made of bone, with a deep groove along each side; in these grooves thin and sharp flat flakes are fastened with gum.[193] According to Evans, similar flakes were used for scraping,[194] just as broken glass is used among modern woodworkers. Flakes have been found in the Swiss lakes in wooden handles in the fashion of Eskimo knives; also in Australia with skin wrapped around one end to protect the hand.[195]
All the flakes in the Bureau collection are small, few of them being over three inches long. They are found elsewhere with a length of over a foot; but the nature of the flint occurring in the United States is seldom such as to allow flakes to be struck off equaling in size those found in Europe.
Evans says that blows with a pebble will form just such flakes as those produced by an iron hammer; the blows must, however, be delivered in exactly the right spot and with the proper force. Cores sometimes show markings of hammers when struck too near the edge. Flakes can be produced by using a pebble as a set or punch and striking it with a stone. The use of a set was probably the exception rather than the rule, for great precision may be obtained simply with a hammer held in the hand. The Eskimo use a hammer set in a handle to strike off flakes, or strike them off by slight taps with a hammer of jade, oval in shape, about 2 by 3 inches, and secured to a bone handle with sinew.[196]
According to Tylor, the Peruvian Indians work obsidian by laying a bone wedge on the surface of a piece and tapping it until the stone cracks;[197] while the Indians of Mexico hold a piece of obsidian 6 or 8 inches long between their feet, then holding the crosspiece of a T-shape stick against the breast they place the other end against the stone and force off a piece by pressure.[198]
Nilsson says that the Eskimo set a point of deer horn into a handle of ivory and drive off splinters from the chert,[199] and Redding saw a Cloud river Indian make flakes thus: Holding a piece of obsidian in his hand, he placed the straight edge of a piece of split deer horn, four inches long and half an inch in diameter, at a distance from the edge of the stone equal to the thickness of the arrow he wished to make; then striking the other end with a stone he drove off a flake.[200] Schumacher observed that the Klamath Indians heat a stone and break it into fragments at a single blow.[201]
According to Stevens the Shasta Indian lays a stone anvil on his knee, and holding on the anvil the stone which he is working,[202] strikes off a flake one-fourth of an inch thick with a stone hammer; but Powers says the Shasta Indians heat a stone and allow it to cool slowly, which splits it into flakes,[203] and Bancroft that they place an obsidian pebble on an anvil of stone and split it with an agate chisel to the required size.[204] The Shoshoni or Snake Indians of the northwest work in the same way,[205] and certain California Indians strike off flakes from a mass of agate, jasper, or chalcedony with a stone hammer,[206] while the Apache break a bowlder of hornstone with a heavy stone hammer having a twisted withe for a handle.[207]
Schoolcraft says experience has taught the Indians that some varieties of hornstone (flint) are less easily fractured than others, and that the conchoidal form is found best in softer varieties; also that weathered fragments are managed with greater difficulty than are those freshly quarried.[208]
Evans points out that in making gunflints much depends upon the condition of the stone as regards the moisture it contains, those that have been too long exposed on the surface becoming intractable, and there is also a difficulty in working those that are too moist. Some of the workers, however, say that a flint which has been some time exposed to the air is harder than one recently dug, yet it works equally well.[209]
It is related that in former times white hunters in Ohio and Kentucky, when they needed a gunflint, would select a fragment from the surface, where practicable, and soak it in oil for several weeks “to make it tough;” otherwise it would shatter to fragments when struck.
Fig. 263.—Flake, chipped for scraper.
Frequently the large flat spalls knocked from blocks or chunks of flint in shaping them, or in obtaining pieces to work, are of such form that very little additional labor converts them into serviceable scrapers, knives, spears, or arrows. A number of such pieces are found in the collection. These, however, are not considered in the flakes now to be described:
A. Edges bluntly chipped (from the concave side) for use as scrapers. They may or may not have notches for attachment to a handle. An example from Kanawha valley, West Virginia, is shown in [figure 263]. Others come from southwestern Arkansas; Kanawha valley; Miami and Scioto valleys, and central Ohio.
B. Trimmed only enough to give a general leaf shape, the faces being left unchanged; for use as knives or arrowheads, most of them being exceedingly small; notched, or with continuous edges. This form is represented by the specimen from Licking county, Ohio, illustrated in [figure 264]. It is found in central Ohio; northeastern Arkansas; Coosa valley, Alabama; eastern Tennessee; and western North Carolina.
Fig. 264.—Flake, chipped for knife or arrow head.
Fig. 265.—Flake, slender, probably for lancet.
C. Long, slender, with three or four facets on one face, caused by others having been struck off above. The edges are as keen as broken glass, and the points are usually quite sharp. In a great many the points have been worked off by fine, secondary chipping. When this is done, it is always at the end which was struck in knocking off the flake. In some cases it may be due to the shattering effects of the blow; but in many specimens the evidence is plain that it was done afterward for the purpose of making a sharper point. Some flakes of this kind have notches for attachment to a shaft, probably for arrows; such specimens, however, are without the secondary chipping, and the notches are at the end opposite the one struck.
A good example, shown in [figure 265], is from Kanawha valley, and there are others from the same locality, as well as from Miami valley, Ohio; and Union county, Mississippi.
Miscellaneous Forms.
From the Savannah collection there are several forms of chipped flints which, while resembling the foregoing in various ways, present characters which make it necessary to place them by themselves; and while containing a majority of the types described above, this collection has many that have no counterpart from any other section visited by the Bureau collectors. Some of these unique specimens of aboriginal art are among the following:
Fig. 266.—Stemmed chipped flint.
A. Edges double curved, expanding to a wide point at the shoulder; stem straight or tapering; base either straight or slightly convex. The type of the group is quite well represented in [figure 266].
B. Edges concave; base and stem straight; very wide projections or wings at the shoulders, going in by straight or curved lines to the stem (illustrated in [figure 267]).
C. Edges concave, changing to convex at the shoulders, and curving around to the stem, which is straight or slightly expanding; base straight or very slightly convex ([figure 268]).
D. Convex edges, widening into greatly expanding barbs; base straight; stem expanding by straight lines ([figure 269]).
Fig. 267.—Stemmed chipped flint, winged.
Fig. 268.—Stemmed chipped flint.
E. Broad; double-curved edges; notched in from the base, and barbs worked so as to be narrowest near the blade, with the ends straight or round; stem expanding by straight lines; base straight ([figure 270]).
F. Edges nearly straight to the barbs, which are worked off to a point toward the stem; base convex and wide; stem expanding by curved lines ([figure 271]).
Fig. 269.—Stemmed chipped flint, barbed.
Fig. 270.—Stemmed chipped flint, broad.
G. Rather slender; base nearly straight, either convex or concave; stem rapidly expanding; notched in from the corners, making long slender barbs which project beyond the line of the edges (as illustrated in [figure 272]). The same form comes from Dougherty county, southwestern Georgia, as well as from Savannah.
H. Straight or convex edges; base straight or slightly convex; stem to one side of the center, leaving one barb longer and larger than the other ([figure 273]).
I. Triangular, notched in from the bottom; barbs extend down even with the base, or the base is sometimes worked back, leaving it shorter than the barbs; some are beveled ([figure 274]). The same form is found in southwestern Georgia.
J. Broad; straight edges; base straight or concave; stem straight or expanding; long, rounded barbs ([figure 275]).
Fig. 271.—Stemmed chipped flint.
Fig. 272.—Stemmed chipped flint, slender.
K. From Arkansas county, Arkansas, there is an implement of basanite or black jasper, of the general type of [figure 180] or 182, the point being broken off. The base has been worked down to a sharp edge, the stem highly polished on both faces. This polish does not extend to the faces of the blade, but both edges are rubbed smooth so far as they now extend. Whether the implement was originally pointed and used as a knife or spear, this sharp edge being given the stem after it was broken, or whether it was so made in the first place, can not be determined. Like the various forms with polished base, the specimen seems to indicate a manner of mounting or of use the reverse of what would be expected. It is shown in [figure 276].
Fig. 273.—Stemmed chipped flint.
Fig. 274.—Stemmed chipped flint, triangular.
Fig. 275.—Stemmed chipped flint.
[Figure 277] shows an implement from Licking county, Ohio, somewhat of the form of [figure 205], except that it is wider and much thinner. It is worn smooth on each edge for ¾ inch from the point, the point itself being quite blunt. This probably results from use as a knife or drill; though, if due to the latter cause, the material on which it was used must have been quite soft or thin. Similar wear is seen on implements from the same locality of the form of figures 176 and 223, but this article is smaller than those represented by the figures.
Fig. 276.—Chipped flint, with sharp-edged stem.
Fig. 277.—Stemmed chipped flint, point blunted from use.
Fig. 278.—Stemmed chipped flint.
In [figure 278] is shown a small knife of the pattern so common in specimens mounted in antlers, from the Swiss lake dwellings. In outline it resembles the arrowheads having straight edges and a convex base; but the side view shows the purpose for which it was made. Similar pieces are found throughout central Ohio, and along Ohio river from the Kanawha to the Miami.