HISTORY OF THE JEWS

CHAPTER I
FROM THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY (586 B.C.) TO THE DESTRUCTION OF THE SECOND TEMPLE (70 C.E.)

Palestine, the buffer state between Egypt and Mesopotamia, the two rival powers of the ancient world, was an important base of operations for all conquerors, and its possession was eagerly sought. In 722 B.C., King Sargon of Assyria conquered the northern part, the kingdom of Israel. The southern part, the kingdom of Judah, was at that time protected by Assyria’s rising and already powerful rival, the Babylonian empire. When Babylonia had become the master of Mesopotamia, Judæa’s doom was sealed, and in 586 Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem and made all of Palestine a province of his large empire.

With the death of Nebuchadnezzar, the great Babylonian empire declined rapidly, and in 539, Cyrus, the King of Persia, captured the city of Babylon, and became the master of the whole of the Babylonian empire, and so of Palestine. He was favorably inclined to the Jews, and gave permission to the descendants of the exiles from Palestine to return to the land of their fathers. Only a few thousand made use of this, and returned under the leadership of Zerubbabel, a descendant of the House of David, and of Joshua ben Jehozadak, the high priest. Of the right to build the Temple they made no use for the time, but erected instead an altar on the site of the former edifice. The development of the new commonwealth, however, was slow, until Ezra, a man learned in the law, and, therefore, called the Scribe, returned from Babylonia in 458 B.C. and taught the people the law of God. He was joined in 445 B.C. by Nehemiah, the cupbearer of the Persian King Artaxerxes, who received permission from his ruler to go to Palestine and assist Ezra in his work. He succeeded, after many difficulties, in rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem and giving the new community a firm organization. In 432 B.C. he returned to his post at the King’s Court, but upon learning that the new community was suffering from many difficulties, he returned again to Palestine to finish his work there.

It seems that the Jews lived in peace, for during the following century, while they were under Persian rule, only two incidents are recorded. In the reign of Artaxerxes III, Ochus (358-337 B.C.), the Jews rebelled; but the king defeated them near Jericho and sent the rebels to Hyrcania into exile. About the same time the high priest, Johanan, killed his brother, Joshua, in the Temple, and the Persian governor fined the Jews very heavily.

Not long afterwards the mighty Persian empire was conquered by Alexander the Great (333 B.C.), and the Jews passed under the rule of the Macedonian king.

There are various legends about Alexander’s kindness to the Jews, especially one which states that he showed great respect to the high priest. There is also a report that he exempted the Jews from paying taxes in the Sabbatical year. His immense empire fell to pieces soon after his early death, and various generals fought for a portion of the inheritance, each expecting to become the successor of the great conqueror. Palestine with Syria was first occupied by Ptolemy, who founded the dynasty named after him in Egypt in 320 B.C. He lost it to another general, Antigonus (315 B.C.), who was defeated by Seleucus at the battle of Gaza (312 B.C.), after which the kingdom of Syria with Antioch as its capital was founded. The Syrians counted their era from this date and the Jews adopted this custom, keeping it up until late in mediæval times. The struggle continued until, in 301 B.C., the battle of Ipsus decided the issue in favor of Ptolemy and Palestine was united with Egypt until Antiochus III of Syria annexed it to his dominions in 198 B.C.

The Jews seem to have been treated with fairness until Antiochus IV, Epiphanes (175-164 B.C.), succeeded his father. The latter had been defeated by the Romans in the battle of Magnesia (189 B.C.), and Antiochus IV was sent as hostage to Rome. Knowing that the Romans watched the growth of the Syrian kingdom with great jealousy lest it should become a powerful rival, he tried to consolidate his states and for this reason wished to remove everything which kept the Jews apart from their neighbors. In his attempt to Hellenize the Jews he was supported by a party among them. Joseph, the son of Tobias, and the nephew of Onias II, the High Priest, had already under the Egyptian kings been appointed tax collector and was very powerful. He and his family supported the Syrian kings in their desire to Hellenize the Jews.

Simon, a member of this family, quarrelled with the High Priest, Onias III, and in order to revenge himself he informed the Syrian government that the Temple of Jerusalem contained large treasures. Heliodorus was sent to Jerusalem, but for some reason which legend has obscured by miraculous tales, he was prevented from looting the treasury. Onias was called to Antioch to answer certain charges of disloyalty, while his brother Joshua, or Jason as he called himself, took his place. Jason offered Antiochus a higher tribute than his brother had paid, and declared his willingness to support the king in introducing Greek customs among the Jews. He became high priest, but shortly afterwards Menelaus, another member of the family, offered Antiochus a still higher tribute and was made high priest in Jason’s place. Unable to pay the sum he had promised, he appropriated valuable pieces from the Temple treasury to bribe the King’s officials. Onias reproached him and was assassinated upon his order.

This fact embittered the Jews. Menelaus was charged with sacrilege, but as he possessed great influence the case was dismissed and his opponents were executed. These events enraged the Jews still more, and when in 170 B.C., Antiochus was in Egypt engaged in warfare, the Jews rebelled at the false report of his death. Antiochus returned and took bitter revenge, pillaging the city, and desecrating the Temple. Two years later he sent his general, Apollonius, to punish the rebels and the latter did it in the most cruel manner. At the same time a strong fort was built in Jerusalem and the practice of the Jewish religion, particularly the observance of the Sabbath and the dietary laws, and the study of the Torah prohibited, on the ground that they tended to keep the Jews aloof from their neighbors. At the same time an altar to Zeus was erected in the Temple and other heathenish altars placed in various cities. The Jews were compelled under penalty of death to offer sacrifices to the Greek gods.

The pious people fled from Jerusalem into the wilderness in order to escape the fulfillment of the king’s orders. Among the leaders of those who were determined rather to die than give up their religion was Mattathiah, an aged priest of the family of the Hasmonæans. In the little town of Modin he killed a Jew who made preparations to offer sacrifice on the heathenish altar, and an officer was sent to execute the king’s decree. This was the signal for rebellion. Mattathiah had five sons of whom Judah, called the Maccabee, was the leader in battle. Judah gathered a small number of the faithful around him and succeeded in defeating various generals and finally the viceroy, Lysias. Then he entered Jerusalem, removed all traces of idolatry from the Temple and rededicated it to the service of God in 165 B.C. Shortly afterwards, in 164 B.C., Antiochus IV died and was succeeded by his son, Antiochus V, still a boy, for whom Lysias governed as regent. The last having many difficulties to contend with, granted the Jews religious freedom. He and the young king, however, were soon killed, and Demetrius I, a nephew of Antiochus IV, came to the throne in 162 B.C.

Demetrius continued to give the Jews religious freedom, but he appointed a high priest named Alkymus, whom the people disliked, and so the rebellion started anew. Judah defeated the general Nikanor in 161 B.C., but a year later he fell in battle and was succeeded by his brother Jonathan. Meantime Syria was torn to pieces amid constant rebellion caused by various claimants to the throne, each of whom tried to win the Jews over to his side in order to obtain a free hand in fighting his rivals. Thus Jonathan was confirmed as high priest by the Syrian king (153 B.C.), but later on, being distrusted, was assassinated by the Syrian governor, Tryphon (143 B.C.) He was succeeded by the last surviving son of Mattathiah, Simon (143-135 B.C.). Simon drove the Syrian garrison from the fort at Jerusalem and was not only confirmed as high priest but also as ruler of the Jews. He manifested his sovereignty by issuing coins bearing his name.

The Romans, who were glad to see the power of the Syrian king weakened, formed an alliance with him, and so Israel was again an independent nation. Simon was assassinated by Ptolemy, his own son-in-law, and was succeeded by his son John Hyrcan (135-105 B.C.), who assumed the title of king and was at the same time the high priest. The Syrian kingdom became altogether dismembered, and John Hyrcan, aided by the Romans, united under his sceptre not only the Jews living in Palestine but also conquered those parts of the country which were inhabited by other nations. The Idumæans and the Samaritans were forcibly converted to Judaism. With the growing power of the new kingdom the religious life of the ruling classes became weakened and the king alienated those people who had formerly been the most zealous supporters of the Maccabæan rebellion. Two parties were formed, one called the Sadducees, after the High Priest Zadok, was in sympathy with the government while the other, the Pharisees, became its opponent. The Pharisees (separatists) believed in freedom only as a means of protection of their religious life, and therefore opposed the king, who wasted the resources of the country in wars of conquest.

Hyrcan was succeeded by Aristobul, his son, with whose reign a period of family feuds and palace intrigues began. He ordered his brother Antigonus to be killed and died soon afterwards, having reigned but one year (105-104 B.C.). His successor was his brother Alexander Jannai (104-78 B.C.). The latter’s highest ambition was to become a conqueror and he carried on constant but unsuccessful warfare with Arabic chieftains, and with the Egyptians and other neighbors. The people rebelled against him, but he quelled all uprisings with extreme cruelty, and on one occasion had six hundred pilgrims massacred in the courtyard of the Temple. The Pharisees were particularly the objects of his hatred.

Upon his death his wife, Salome Alexandra, came to the throne (78-69 B.C.). She made peace with the Pharisees, whose leader Simeon ben Shetach was her brother, and her reign was happier than that of her husband. Upon her death she left two sons, Hyrcan II and Aristobul, of whom the first was to be high priest, while the second was to be king. But they soon quarrelled, and Hyrcan, who was a tool in the hands of Antipater, an Idumæan, his adviser, declared himself king. In the subsequent civil war, Pompey, the Roman general and statesman, was asked to act as arbitrator. He conquered Jerusalem, entered the Temple, and declared in favor of Hyrcan, who, however, was not made king, but given the title of Ethnarch. Aristobul was sent to Rome and the cities inhabited by Syrians were annexed to the province of Syria (60 B.C.). Aristobul’s son, Alexander, the son-in-law of Hyrcan, rebelled, but was defeated in 57 B.C. In the following year Aristobul fled from Rome and organized a rebellion, but was soon defeated and sent a prisoner to Rome with his son Antigonus.

Crassus, governor of Syria, entered the Temple and looted the treasury (54 B.C.). Shortly afterwards he fell in battle and the Jews rebelled again, but the uprising was cruelly suppressed, 30,000 being sold into slavery (53 B.C.). Cæsar, who was now the ruler of Rome, liberated Aristobul to use him against his rival Pompey, but Aristobul was poisoned and his son Alexander executed (49 B.C.). Hyrcan and Antipater joined Cæsar, who confirmed the former as Ethnarch and bestowed high distinction on the latter (47 B.C.). Antipater’s son, Herod, was made governor of Galilee, and as such executed the insurgent leader, Hezekiah, and put down the rebellion. Called before the Sanhedrin for executing a citizen without trial, he defied the court, knowing that he had the support of the Romans. After Cæsar’s assassination Antipater joined Cassius, but was himself assassinated (42 B.C.). His sons, however, remained in power, and after the battle of Philippi they joined Antony, who confirmed them as governors (42 B.C.). Antigonus, the son of Aristobul, now returned, assisted by the Parthians, enemies of Rome, and was made high priest, combining again the dignity of king and high priest (40-37 B.C.). Herod fled to Rome, where he was appointed King of the Jews by the Senate. Returning to Palestine he defeated Antigonus and reigned as king (37-34 B.C.). He married Mariamne, the granddaughter of Hyrcan and Aristobul, and appointed her brother, Aristobul, as high priest. Becoming jealous of his popularity, he caused him to be assassinated soon afterward.

Herod’s reign was marked by its splendor, but he was hated by the people for his extreme cruelty. He had his wife, Mariamne, three of his sons, the old High Priest Hyrcan II, and various other members of his family, assassinated. His unpopularity grew in spite of the fact that the country was prosperous and that he rebuilt the Temple in magnificent style. As a descendant of the Idumæans, whom Hyrcan I had converted to Judaism, he was considered a foreigner who held his power only through the assistance of Rome. From this time the name Edom became a synonym for Rome in Jewish Literature.

Herod left three sons, Archelaus, Herod Antipas, and Philip, among whom he divided his empire. Archelaus received Judæa, Samaria and Idumæa. He was to reside in Jerusalem and have the title of king. Herod Antipas was given dominion over Galilee, and Peræa and Philip received the northern district; both were to be called Tetrarchs. In Archelaus’ kingdom a revolt broke out at once, and 3,000 people were killed in the Temple courtyard. When he went to Rome to obtain confirmation of his title another rebellion broke out because of the cruelty of the Roman commander, and once more a great number of people were killed and the Temple sacked. Governor Varus was called from Syria to quell the contest and did so with great cruelty. The Roman Emperor Augustus confirmed Archelaus as ruler of Judæa but refused him the title of king; he was merely called Ethnarch. Unable to control the people, who hated him, he was deposed and exiled to Gaul, and his land made a part of the Roman province of Syria (6 C.E.). The Roman governors carried on an arbitrary and oppressive rule. A census ordered by Quirinius was bitterly resisted and almost led to open rebellion. A party of Zealots was formed under the leadership of Judah, the son of Hezekiah, whom Herod had executed. Their object was to overthrow the Roman rule, and for this purpose they began a reign of terror against all people who were supposed to be in sympathy with Rome, and assassinations were of daily occurrence.

One of the most cruel of the Roman governors, Pontius Pilate (26-36), in every possible way provoked the religious sentiments of the people, and on the slightest show of resistance, ordered wholesale butcheries of them. Many complaints were sent to Rome and he was finally recalled. Under his administration the execution of Jesus is reported to have taken place. Emperor Caligula (37-41), a typical megalomaniac, ordered his bust placed in the Temple. Petronius, the military commander, reported that it was impossible to execute this order without driving the people into open rebellion, and so Caligula modified his demand. Only his assassination prevented an outbreak of the people. He was a friend of Agrippa, the son of Aristobul, and the grandson of Herod and Mariamne, and showered his favors upon him. Agrippa was first appointed the successor of his uncle Philip with the title of king, in 37. Upon the death of Herod Antipas, Galilee was added to his dominion, and finally Emperor Claudius, upon his succession to the throne in 41, gave him Judæa also, so that he thus obtained the full heritage of his grandfather Herod. While a favorite of Rome, Agrippa was beloved by the people, but he died in the prime of his life in 44. His brother Herod, who was his successor, possessed no other right except to appoint the high priest; similarly Agrippa’s son, Agrippa II, while honored with the title of king, had practically no power. For at the death of Agrippa I Palestine was again placed under Roman governors, seven of whom held office from 44 to 66 and did their utmost to drive the people into despair by cruel executions and wanton disregard of religious feeling. The reign of terror continuing, a party called Sicarii, from Sica, a dagger, which they always carried under their garments for the punishment of those who were suspected of Roman sympathies, arose and spread anarchy all through the land.

The last of the governors, Gessius Florus, was the worst of all who held this office. His extortions and murders drove the people into despair. Especially in Cæsarea, where the majority of the population was Greek, and constantly attacked the Jews, he refused to grant them protection. Agrippa II made an attempt to pacify the Jews and persuade them to send a committee to Rome, but without avail. The daily sacrifice on behalf of the Emperor was discontinued and open rebellion was declared (66).

The Jews fortified the Temple, captured several Roman forts, including that of Jerusalem, and Cestius Gallus, the commander of Syria, was defeated. Vespasian, the ablest general of the Roman army, was placed in command and began the war in Galilee, where Flavius Josephus, the famous historian, was in command of the revolutionary forces (67). Josephus was besieged in the fortress of Jotapat, and, after weeks of hard fighting, surrendered. In the fall of 67 all of Galilee was in the hands of the Romans.

In 68 Vespasian conquered the land east of the Jordan, while in Jerusalem the reign of terror continued and the Zealots wasted their forces in a bloody civil war. Meantime a revolution had broken out in Rome and Nero had committed suicide (68). Three emperors followed each other in quick succession and the internal troubles caused Vespasian to temporize in his warfare. But by 69 he had conquered the whole land with the exception of Jerusalem and three fortified cities held by the patriots. In this year he was proclaimed Emperor and went to Rome, leaving the work of continuing the war to his son Titus.

Titus began the siege of Jerusalem in April, 70, and at once the internal feuds ceased, the besieged doing their utmost to defend the place. Titus had to take the city step by step. Finally on August 10th the Temple, the last retreat of the patriots, was stormed and destroyed by fire. Those who survived intrenched themselves in the upper city and continued their resistance until September 7th. According to Josephus, 1,100,000 perished in the war and 97,000 were made captives and sold as slaves or taken to the circus, where they were torn to pieces by wild beasts. Seven hundred, selected from the noblest families, were taken to Rome to be shown with the holy vessels captured in the Temple in the triumphal march. An arch of triumph was erected as a memorial of victory, which is still standing in Rome. Titus left the siege of the three remaining fortresses to his captains. They spent three more years in reducing them, Massada, the last one, falling in 73. The last defenders of the place killed themselves in order to escape being taken alive by the Romans. Thus the last vestige of the independent Jewish kingdom, founded by the Maccabees, disappeared.

CHAPTER II
FROM THE DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM (70) TO THE COMPLETION OF THE MISHNAH (200)

The destruction of Jerusalem had thrown the Jewish people into a terrible crisis. Although the Jews, as individuals, did not fare worse than during the preceding one hundred and thirty years, Judæa was now a province of the Roman Empire.

The only new law, enforced after the destruction of Jerusalem, was that of a special tax of two Drachmæ, which every male had to pay. This tax, called “Fiscus Judaicus,” took the place of the half-shekel formerly paid by every male Jew into the treasury of the Temple, according to the Rabbinic interpretation of the Law in Exodus xxx, 11-16. Some of the Jews were sold into slavery; some went to Rome, where they swelled the congregation existing there since the second century B.C., and where they had several synagogues and catacombs used as cemeteries. Others again emigrated to Babylonia, where a Jewish settlement existed since the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, or settled on the northern coast of Africa, and on the islands of the Mediterranean.

Under Domitian, the brother and successor of Titus (81-96), the tribute of the “Fiscus Judaicus” was exacted with great severity. Domitian was altogether hostile to the Jews; yet in his reign Jewish propaganda increased in Rome, and people belonging to the highest class of society, among them Flavius Clemens, a nephew of the Emperor, with his wife Clementina, were converted to Judaism. Flavius Clemens was put to death and his wife exiled for their change of faith, as the Roman law considered it a crime, and called it atheism. Dio Cassius, the historian of Rome, speaks of a class of people who were not Jews by descent, but had adopted the Jewish religion. Similar proofs of the existence of a Jewish propaganda are found in the New Testament (Matthew xxiii, 25) where the Pharisees are denounced for their efforts in making converts, and in the daily service, composed about one hundred, in which a special prayer for the proselytes is offered.

Under Emperor Nerva (96-98) the “Fiscus Judaicus” is said to have been abolished.

Under Trajan (98-117) serious rebellions of the Jews occurred in Egypt, Cyprus, Cyrene, and Mesopotamia. About the causes of the disorder and the battles of the rebellion, we know nothing definite. It may be said, however, that in all likelihood oppressive taxation, cruel treatment of the people by the Roman officials, and the traditional enmity between the Jews and the Greek-speaking population of the Orient were the causes of this constant friction. Trajan sent his general, Quietus, to quell the uprising, and made him governor of Palestine. The insurrection was still in progress when Hadrian came to the throne (117-136). At first he was friendly toward the Jews and began to rebuild the Temple, by which he hoped to reconcile them. This new Temple, however, was to be dedicated to the Jupiter of the Capitol, who, as Hadrian believed, was also the God of the Jews, although he had a different name. As the Jews, however, were not willing to accept this condition, Hadrian resorted to severe religious persecution. He prohibited the practices of the Sabbath, circumcision, and the study of the Law. The result was another rebellion under the leadership of Simeon Bar Koziba, who adopted the name of Bar Kochba—“The Son of the Star”—with reference to the prophecy of the star which would smite the enemies of Israel (Num. xxiv, 17). Bar Kochba, who called himself Prince of Israel, and had coins struck with his name, was supported by a priest, Eleazar of Modin, and by Rabbi Akiba. Details of this war are unknown. It lasted, however, over three years (132-135), and then was quelled by Tineius Rufus, and Julius Severus, the latter having been called from Great Britain to take some of the troops against the rebels. The victory was complete. Whatever had been left of Jerusalem after its destruction by Titus was destroyed. The city was called Ælia Capitolina, in honer of Hadrian, whose first name was Ælius and in honor of the Jupiter of the Capitol, to whom the Temple, built on the site of the ancient Temple of Solomon, was erected. Over one of the gates of the city Hadrian had the head of a swine placed, and the Jews were forbidden entrance into the city. A great many Jews were killed in battle and many prisoners, including the most prominent spiritual leaders of the rebellion, such as Rabbi Akiba, executed. A mediæval legend speaks of ten martyrs, and gives a list which, however, comprises men who lived in different ages.

With the death of Hadrian, and the succession to the throne of Marcus Antoninus Pius (136-161) a change for the better took place. We are informed that, upon the representations of prominent Jews, Antoninus repealed the cruel laws passed by his predecessor. Jewish legends have preserved the name of Antoninus Pius as one of the most benign of rulers, and they represent him as a close personal friend of Judah the Patriarch, as a great admirer of Judaism, and even as a secret convert.

Only a few disconnected facts are known about the following emperors. Under Marcus Aurelius, the philosophic author (161-180), who, in one instance speaks with contempt of the Jews, we hear of a slave, named Callistus, sentenced to penal servitude in the mines of Sardinia for having disturbed the services of a synagogue.

Under Septimius Severus (193-211), we learn of the participation of the Jews in a rebellion, and an edict, passed in 204, declared conversion to Christianity from Judaism a crime. It was evidently intended to check the rapid progress of Christianity. Alexander Severus (222-235) is said to have been very favorable to the Jews, and his mother, Mammæa, who was regent during the first years of his reign, is said to have been favorably inclined toward the Jewish religion. Alexander had a statue of Abraham in his room and on the wall was inscribed the famous saying of Hillel, “What is hateful unto thee, do not unto thy neighbor.” The Jews of Rome had a synagogue which was named the Synagogue of Severus in his honor; he presented to it a scroll of the Torah which had been brought from Jerusalem. The mobs in Alexandria and Antioch, ever hostile to the Jews, called him Archysynagogos, “leader of the Synagogue.”

The spiritual life of the Jews, after the destruction of the Temple, received its strongest impetus from Johanan ben Zakkai, in Jabneh (Jamnia), whom legend makes a disciple of Hillel and a member of the Sanhedrin in Jerusalem at the time of the destruction of the Temple. Legend further says that he succeeded in escaping from Jerusalem during the siege at a time when the Zealots in the city would not allow any one to leave it, and that he came to Vespasian, to whom he prophesied his elevation to the throne of Rome, for which, out of gratitude, the latter allowed him to open a school and establish a Sanhedrin in Jabneh. At any rate, Jabneh became the spiritual centre of Judaism at that time. Various ordinances, which Johanan ben Zakkai issued, show his desire to harmonize ancient traditions with the conditions as they developed after the destruction of the Temple. Thus, it is understood that he ordered the Shofar to be blown in Jabneh, even if New Year fell on a Sabbath; this formerly had been done only in the Temple at Jerusalem.

His successor was Gamaliel, usually called Gamaliel II, Gamaliel the elder, or Gamaliel of Jabneh (100-130). He was the great-great-grandson of the famous Hillel, who, according to tradition, was president of the Sanhedrin during the time of King Herod (Hillel, Simeon, Gamaliel, Simeon, Gamaliel). In the work of harmonizing tradition with the exigencies of the time, Gamaliel followed in the footsteps of Johanan ben Zakkai. His main activities consisted in the organization of public worship. To him is ascribed the introduction of the daily prayer (Tefillah), the eighteen benedictions (Shemoneh Esreh), to which later in his life he added one more, containing a petition against sectaries (Minim). He also composed the grace after meals, and the Passover Haggadah. He further endeavored, in all possible ways, to strengthen the authority of the President or Nasi or Ab Beth Din of the Sanhedrin, especially by claiming for himself the exclusive right to fix the calendar. In the interpretation of the law he took a lenient attitude, insisting more on the spirit than on the letter.

Opponents of his hierarchical tendencies were Eliezer ben Hyrkanos and Joshua ben Hananiah; Akiba occupied an undecided position between the two parties. Eliezer, who seems to have been favorably inclined toward Christianity, objected to a fixed ritual, but otherwise was rigorous in his interpretation of the law, and a firm believer in the authority of tradition. From obscure reports we learn that he was excommunicated by Gamaliel, his brother-in-law. Joshua was strongly opposed to Christianity, and to the hierarchical tendencies of Gamaliel, and his harsh treatment by the latter caused opposition, with the result that Gamaliel was removed from office and Eleazer ben Azariah appointed in his place. But later on a reconciliation took place, and Gamaliel was reinstated.

Akiba, the disciple of Eliezer, was the strictest opponent of Christianity, and especially of the principle which declares that the law is merely a symbol, and also of the demand that the Jews give up their national distinctiveness. His opposition to the symbolic interpretation of the law led him into its literal interpretation, based on the view that every word and letter of the Torah must be explained independently of the context. He was also a zealous advocate of Israel’s national independence, and so became the spiritual leader of the Bar Kochba rebellion. When he said, “Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself; this is the fundamental principle of the Torah,” he probably gave expression to his nationalistic sentiments. Evidently in order to accentuate the universality of Judaism, Simeon ben Azai, Akiba’s contemporary, says that the words, “This is the book of the generation of Adam,” are the fundamental principles of the Torah. Rabbi Akiba’s principle of interpreting the Torah was opposed by his contemporary, Rabbi Ishmael, who says the Torah speaks the language of men; that is, every text must be explained by its context. An important figure of that time seems to have been Elisha ben Abuyah, who is called Acher the Apostate. The stories told of him are legendary to such an extent that it is impossible to know how much, if any, historical fact underlies them.

The uprising of Bar Kochba and the subsequent prohibition of the study of law interrupted, for a while, the development of religious doctrine. Soon, however, after the succession to the throne of Antoninus Pius, in 136, the study of the law was resumed. A synod of prominent rabbis, who were mostly disciples of Akiba, met at Usha, and passed several resolutions, mostly in regard to civil law, required by the exigencies of the time. One of these provides that every one shall give one-fifth of his income to charity, thus diverting the two tithes formerly devoted to the sacrificial needs, the Levites or the poor, to communal requirements. Another resolution declared that every father was under the duty of providing for his son until the latter was twelve years old. The spiritual leaders of this age were Rabbi Meir, Judah bar Ilai, and Jose bar Halafta, and the office of Nasi was given to Gamaliel’s son, Simeon ben Gamaliel II (140-170). The latter was in turn succeeded by his son, Judah Hanasi, called Rabbi, or Rabbenu-Hakadosh, who according to a legend was born on the day on which Rabbi Akiba died (135-216). To him is due the compilation of the Mishnah or compendium of the Rabbinic law.

The word Mishnah is derived from Mishneh Torah (repetition of the law), the name of Deuteronomy. This compilation was preceded by others on a smaller scale which we do not possess. They are called, after their authors, the Mishnah of Rabbi Akiba, that of Rabbi Meir, and that of Rabbi Nathan. The object of the code compiled by Judah Hanasi was to collect the whole of the Rabbinic law. The authorities quoted in the Mishnah are called Tanaim, from ‏‎תנא‎‏ which is the Aramaic, for ‏‎שנה‎‏, the latter being a word derived from Mishnah. The Mishnah was not intended to be a code of the law but a compendium for its study. It was soon, however, accepted as an infallible book of laws, and believed to be based on early tradition dating back to Moses himself.

CHAPTER III
ERA OF THE TALMUD (200-600)

The constant progress made by Christianity in Palestine had an unfavorable effect on the condition of the Jewish population and the Jews began to emigrate to Babylonia in constantly growing numbers. The latter country had, in the meantime, passed from the rule of the Parthians to that of the neo-Persians, or Parsees (225). These having thrown off the yoke of foreign invaders, acted like others under similar conditions and introduced a government marked by religious and national fanaticism, from which the Jews suffered very severely. The Parsees, who worshipped fire, would not allow the Jews to have any light on the Sabbath during their period of mourning, which comprised the shortest winter days, and consequently the Hanukah lights were also forbidden. Another prohibition, which the Jews especially resented, was directed against the burial of the dead, not allowed by the religion of the Parsees.

At the same time, the Roman Empire, passing more and more under Christian rule, became hostile toward the Jews. Of Diocletian (284-305) it is reported that, while he tried to suppress Christianity, he allowed the Jews freedom of worship. Another story reported of him, to the effect that he ordered Judah Hanasi to appear before him on the Sabbath, wishing to punish him for the insult he had suffered from Jewish boys, while a swineherd, is evidently legendary. Constantine (305-337), who removed all the disabilities from which the Christians had suffered, and according to some authors, a professing Christian himself, issued the first edict which discriminated against the Jews. This law prohibited the circumcision of a slave, and there is no doubt that it was intended to check propaganda for Judaism.

Julian the Apostate (361-363), who wished to suppress Christianity and attempted to reintroduce a refined worship of the old gods, is said to have attempted to rebuild the Temple at Jerusalem. The church historians tell us that an earthquake and similar accidents made this impossible. It is, however, not unlikely that the whole report was merely an invention to show that the Temple could never be rebuilt, and that all attempts to fight Christianity must be vain.

The discrimination against the Jews became stronger when Theodosius issued the edict of Ravenna (380), which made the profession of Christianity a requirement for all who held office under the government. After the death of Theodosius the Roman Empire was divided into an Eastern and a Western Empire. Palestine and the majority of the Jews were in the Eastern Empire, with its capital at Constantinople; and they remained subject to this rule until the Holy Land was conquered by the Mohammedans in 634.

The legal treatment of the Jews, in both divisions of the Empire, was hostile, but the authorities tried to protect their lives and properties against the constantly increasing attacks of the mob. Such outbreaks occurred especially in the Greek cities of the Orient. Cyril, Bishop of Alexandria, and St. Simeon, the Stylite, who for years lived on a pillar, stirred up the religious fanaticism of the masses by setting them against the Jews. These attacks resulted in loss of life and property, and when the emperors issued orders demanding the punishment of the lawless elements, the ecclesiastic leaders condemned this action as the evidence of partiality toward the Jews. Under Emperor Justinian (527-565) we hear for the first time of an interference with the internal religious life of the Jews by the secular authorities. An edict of this Emperor prohibited the reading of the Deuterosis in the synagogue. The word is a literal translation of the word Mishnah, but as the Mishnah could not have been read in the synagogue, we must assume that other Rabbinic works or the Targum are meant.

The Byzantine Empire frequently had wars with its Persian neighbor, and one of these which threatened to be very critical occurred under Emperor Heraclius (622-628). In this, the Jews at first sided with the Persians, but when the Emperor on his way to the East appeared in Palestine, he promised them an amnesty if they would join his cause. This they did. On his return he broke his pledge, the monks assuring him of the divine pardon for this breach of faith, and punished the Jews severely for their defection.