The history of the Jews

by Gotthard Deutsch

JEWISH LITERATURE, THIRTEENTH TO FIFTEENTH CENTURY

From the thirteenth century the spiritual life of the Jews declined. Talmudic literature, ritualism and Kabbala were almost exclusively cultivated. Poetry, exegesis, philosophy and scientific literature were constantly declining. The most prominent representative of Maimonides’ tradition is David Kimhi of Narbonne, 1170-1230. He wrote a Hebrew Grammar, ‏‎מכלול‎‏, and commentaries to most of the Biblical books. He also took an active part in the defense of Maimonides’ works when the orthodox of Spain and France, influenced by the zeal of the Dominican Friars in their attack on the Albigenses and the scholastic philosophy, wished to commit the “Moreh” to the flames. Besides Kimhi two members of his family are noted for grammatical and exegetical works. These are his father Joseph and his brother Moses. To Southern France belongs also the family of Ibn Tibbon, four generations of which were prominent translators of philosophical, Rabbinic and scientific books from Arabic into Hebrew.

Judah the Elder (1100-1150) translated Bahya’s “Duties of the Heart,” Saadya’s “Dogma and Science,” and Judah Halevi’s “Kuzari.” His son Solomon translated Maimonides’ “Moreh” and the commentary on the Mishna. But the orthodox party prevailed in their opposition to Maimonides, and in 1233 the “Moreh” was publicly burned at Paris. The Dominicans, who had been appealed to, extended their inquisitory activities, and on the testimony of Nicholas Donin, a converted Jew, charged the Talmud with hostility to the Christians. All copies of the book that could be found were burned at Paris in 1244. In spite of these attacks philosophical studies did not die out completely. In the fourteenth century Levi ben Gershom (1288-1344) flourished in Southern France. His philosophical work, “The Wars of the Lord,” is an attempt to reconcile Judaism with Platonic philosophy. He also invented an astronomic instrument in which the great astronomer Kepler was much interested.

To the fourteenth century belongs Hasdai Crescas, whose commentary to Maimonides’ “Moreh” and philosophical treatise, “The Light of the Lord,” have great scientific value. Of little independent value is the work “Ikkarim” (Fundamental Principles), by Joseph Albo (1380-1440). He is an imitator of Maimonides; but, instead of thirteen fundamental articles of faith, he recognized only three—God, revelation and the future life. To the school of the preachers belongs Isaac Arama, whose work, “Akedat Yizhak,” is a philosophical interpretation of the Midrash, and follows the weekly portions of the Haggadic writers.

Isaac Abarbanel, born in Lisbon, 1447, died in Venice, 1508, wrote various dogmatic treatises in which, as in his commentaries on the Pentateuch, he outlined his views. He showed little independence, sometimes plagiarized, and is very verbose. He put together a great number of questions on some topic in Biblical literature, and attempted to answer them. From this time philosophy and scientific literature are on the decline. The intellectual activity of the Jews is confined mostly to Rabbinic literature.

Secular subjects are rarely taken up until the end of the eighteenth century. Then a revival of secular knowledge and scientific literature took place. Of the scientific writers Jacob Anatoli, 1200-1250, in Italy, translated serious scientific works from Arabic and Hebrew into Latin for Frederick II. Kalonymos ben Kalonymos of Rome, 1280-1340, wrote an ethical treatise, “Eben Bohan” (Tried Stone from Isaiah xxviii, 16), and a travesty on the Talmud, “Masseket Purim.” To the same period belong Immanuel ben Solomon of Rome, a friend of Dante, author of “Mehabberot,” a poem in the style of the “Divina Commedia.” This in some places is lascivious, and was condemned by Joseph Caro in the “Shulhan Aruk.” In the style of Dante, Moses Rieti (1388-1460) wrote his “Mikdash Meat.”

To the fifteenth century belong Judah Messer Leon of Mantua, who wrote a text-book on rhetoric in Hebrew, Nofet Zufim (honeycombs), and Elijah del Medigo, a native of Crete, who was professor of philosophy in Padua. He wrote an apology for Judaism in Hebrew, “Behinat Ha-Dat” (Evidenced Religion). In this class the polemical writers against Christianity are included. Joshua Allorqui of Spain, who later on became a convert to Christianity, wrote such a polemical treatise under the title “Be not like thy fathers.” In scientific literature we have the anthology of the Midrashim called “Yalkut Shimeoni,” by Simeon Kara (the Bible reader) of the thirteenth century. This is a selection of homiletical expositions from old Rabbinic works arranged in the order of the books of the Bible. A similar work is the “Yalkut Machiri” of uncertain date, but most likely from the fourteenth century, by Machir ben Aba Mari. Only parts of it are in existence.