SPAIN
The Christian kingdoms in the latter part of the Middle Ages continually expanded, so that the Moors were restricted to the southern part of the peninsula. The growing religious fanaticism of the Christians affected the condition of the Jews unfavorably, but individuals rose to prominence as financiers or physicians. James VIII of Aragon ordered a public disputation between Jews and Christians held at Barcelona in 1263. The Jewish side was defended by Moses ben Nachman, and, although he had been assured perfect freedom of speech, the Christians took such offence at his remarks that they demanded his execution. The King sent him instead into exile. He went to Palestine, where he died. Alphonso X (1254-1284), of Castile, employed Don Isaac, a Jew, as his astronomer. Alphonso’s constitution, regulating the condition of the Jews, is rather severe. They were restricted in their commercial activity and compelled to wear yellow badges.
In a civil war between Peter the Cruel (1350-1369) and Henry II (1369-1379) the Jews sided with the former, and although Henry was victorious he treated them with moderation. In 1391 Ferdinand Martinez began to preach violent sermons against the Jews in Toledo, the largest Jewish community of Spain. His example was followed in many other places, and in consequence of these incendiary speeches, riots broke out all over Christian Spain. A great many Jews were killed or forcibly converted to Christianity. Many of the latter fled as soon as they were able to do so to Mohammedan countries in order to be able to practice the Jewish religion openly. They were called Marannos, probably from the Hebrew מוחרם (excommunicated). The Jews called them אנוסים (compelled to profess the Christian religion).
In 1413-1414 another public disputation between Jews and Christians was arranged by Pope Benedict XIII, one of the three who claimed the Papal throne at that time. It took place in Tortosa, Aragon. The idea had been suggested to the Pope by Solomon Halevi, a converted Jew who called himself Paul and later on became Bishop of Burgos. He was an influential friend of the King of Castile. Another convert, a Jewish scholar like Paul, had written a satire against Paul and his conversion. This was Joshua Alorqui, who as a Christian took the name of Geronimo de Santa Fe, and was derisively called by the Jews מגד״ף, “Blasphemer.”
Among those who took up the cudgels for the Jews at Tortosa was Joseph Albo, author of the philosophic work “Ikkarim.” The many converts whom the Church forced to remain in her fold while they were Jews at heart and secretly practiced Judaism, provoked the ecclesiastic authorities. For their sake a special court of inquiry, called the “Inquisition,” was created in 1480. This may be defined as a court-martial to try cases of heresy. It proceeded with the utmost severity and with absolute disregard of the most elementary forms of court procedure. From time to time it arranged public executions, at which those convicted of heresy were burned at the stake, often after having undergone terrible tortures. Such an execution was called an auto-da-fe.
In 1483 Thomas Torquemada was appointed Grand Inquisitor, and he was assisted by the blind monk, Peter Arbues. During the time of the existence of the Inquisition (1480-1808), 31,712 were burned at the stake and hundreds of thousands were punished with imprisonment, confiscation of property, or were publicly disgraced. One of the latter kinds of punishment was the sentence compelling the victim to wear a hideous penitential gown, the San Benito. Peter Arbues was assassinated by Marannos, and Pope Pius IX declared him a saint in 1868. The victims of the Inquisition were mostly converted Jews, although there were also Moors and native Christians among them. In spite of the terrors of the Inquisition, the Jews assisted the Marannos in the observance of the Jewish religion, and this was the cause of the edict of expulsion promulgated by Ferdinand, King of Castile, and his wife Isabella, Queen of Aragon, on March 30, 1492, soon after the capture of Granada, the last Moorish stronghold in Spain.
Most of the exiled fled to Portugal, where they found a temporary home. But when Manuel, King of Portugal, married the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, it was stipulated in the marriage contract that the Jews should be expelled from that country also. This expulsion took place in 1498. Most of the exiles went to Turkey, where they were kindly received. Others went to the Barbary States in Northern Africa, and especially to Morocco. A number went to Italy and settled in the various cities, even in the Papal possessions. Still there were a great many Marannos left in Spain, and while they were compelled to profess and practice the Catholic religion, they remained Jews for many generations. Hence up to the end of the eighteenth century, they were always autos-da-fe held at which Jews were publicly burned. From time to time the wealthy Marannos would escape and seek refuge in countries where they were permitted to publicly practice their religion.