The history of the Jews

by Gotthard Deutsch

SPIRITUAL LIFE OF THE PERIOD

The spiritual life of the Jews reached its highest development in Spain, where the contact with the cultured Arabs, whose language the Jews spoke, made the works of the ancient Greek philosophers and scientists accessible to them. In the beginning of the eleventh century Bahya ibn Pakuda, a philosopher, wrote “The Duties of the Heart,” perhaps the most popular work of this literature. His ideal of life is asceticism. His contemporary, Solomon ibn Gabirol (born 1022), wrote a philosophical book, “The Fountain of Life,” which, however, is only extant in a Latin translation. He also wrote an ethical treatise, “The Choicest of Pearls,” and some Hebrew poetry. His poems, of which quite a number have found place in the liturgy, are among the best works of their class. Of his secular poems in Hebrew, a wine song is the most famous. About the same time Samuel Hanagid was secretary to the King of Granada. He was not only a patron of Jewish learning but an author of considerable note. He wrote an introduction to the Talmud, and various works which are sequels to Biblical books, such as Psalms, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes. His son, Joseph, succeeded him, and was killed in a riot in 1060.

The greatest Hebrew poet of mediæval times is Judah Halevi (born about 1080, died 1141). Of his numerous poems, some are of a religious, others of a secular character. Of the latter the best known is a description of a sea voyage; of the former, the Ode to Zion, embodied in the ritual for the ninth of Ab and translated into various modern languages. He also wrote an apology for Judaism, called Kuzari, previously mentioned, which presents its doctrines in the form of dialogues between the King of the Chazars and the rabbi who converted him. In 1140 he went to Palestine to spend the remainder of his days there. He seems to have died before he reached his goal. A younger contemporary is Abraham ibn Ezra (1092-1167). He was born in Spain, and travelled through a great part of Europe and the Orient. Of his numerous works, comprising the fields of poetry, Hebrew grammar, astrology, and other subjects, the most noteworthy is his commentary on the Pentateuch, which makes him rank as the first Biblical critic. He proved by his strong critical arguments that the Pentateuch as we possess it does not come from Moses but was partly the product of later times. His contemporary is Moses ibn Ezra, a very prolific Hebrew poet, whose poems, however, suffer from an excessive play on words. It is not known whether the two Ibn Ezras were relatives.

The most illustrious author of mediæval times is Moses ben Maimon (Maimonides, born at Cordova, 1135; died at Cairo, 1204). His first work was a commentary on the Mishnah, written in Arabic, and translated into Hebrew by Samuel ibn Tibbon. This work was a preparation for the greatest work of his life, the “Mishneh Torah,” in which he presents the whole doctrine and law of Judaism. It is written in clear Hebrew, and, while in the law following the Rabbinic sources, it shows here and there, especially in the dogmatic part, the author’s object to harmonize Judaism with philosophical thought. He is the author of a philosophic work, “The Guide of the Perplexed,” written in Arabic and known by its Hebrew title, Moreh Nebukim. His object of harmonizing religion with philosophy is made manifest in the first part of this work by his attempt to explain the anthropomorphic passages of the Bible. He also explains prophecy as a divine gift and tries to present reasons for the divine laws, showing that they are intended for the instruction and the material and moral elevation of mankind. The book was translated into Hebrew by Samuel ibn Tibbon in the twelfth century, and by Judah Alcharizi in the thirteenth. It was at an early date translated into Latin, and in recent times into various modern languages. Maimonides in addition wrote quite a number of works on scientific subjects, notably on medicine, and various Rabbinic works. He was physician in ordinary to the Sultan.

Of the Talmudists of this period, the greatest is Solomon ben Isaac (Rashi) of Troyes (1040-1105). He wrote a commentary on almost the whole Babylonian Talmud printed in all Talmuds, and a standard work to-day. He is the author of commentaries on most of the Biblical books. His commentary on the Pentateuch contains in clear and concise language the Rabbinic interpretation of the Mosaic law and well-chosen homiletical interpretations from the Midrash, and is one of the most popular works in the Rabbinic literature. It has been printed with the text of the Pentateuch innumerable times, and is a very popular text-book in Jewish study circles all over the world. Rashi wrote other Rabbinic works and religious hymns. The most prominent Rabbinic author of this period in Spain was Isaac Alfasi (born in Fez, 1013; died in Spain, 1103). He wrote an abridged Talmud, omitting all discussions of matters not of legal interest and all the laws not in force after the destruction of the Temple. By this method he facilitated the rendering of legal decisions. In Italy there lived at this time Nathan ben Jehiel of Rome, who wrote a Talmud dictionary “Aruk,” using the work of the same title by Zemach Gaon.

Rashi’s grandsons, Samuel, Isaac and Jacob ben Meir were also prominent Talmudic authors. Samuel ben Meir (Rashbam) wrote several Talmudic treatises, supplements to his grandfather’s commentaries, and a commentary on the Pentateuch somewhat more free from the blind, unrestricted submission to Rabbinic authority which characterizes his grandfather’s work. The greatest Talmudist among the brothers was Jacob ben Meir (Rabbenu Tam, died 1171), whose chief work is “Sefer Hayashar,” in which he proclaims the principle that the contradictions in the Talmud must be harmonized. These men are the founders of a school of authors known as Tosafists, from “Tosafot” (Additions), glosses to Rashi’s Talmud commentary. These glosses are printed in most of our editions of the Talmud. Through the activities of these men the French province of Champagne and Western Germany became the chief seats of Rabbinic studies.

CHAPTER VI
PERIOD OF OPPRESSION (1215-1492)

During the thirteenth century the persecutions of the Jews continued, although they are of a more sporadic character than those of the time of the crusades. In 1235 a number of Jews were killed in Fulda on the charge of ritual murder. This is the first distinct case of its kind, but was frequently repeated in France and various places in Germany, although Emperor Frederick II (1236) and Pope Innocent IV (1247) defended the Jews against this accusation.

An important change in the political condition of the Jews resulted from the law of Frederick the Belligerent of Austria (1244). In this law the territorial ruler for the first time proclaimed his right to legislate for the Jews, heretofore considered the exclusive privilege of the Emperor of Germany, as overlord of all the Jews. This law deals largely with the regulation of money-lending. It permits a very high rate of interest, and allows the Jews to be tried in accordance with their own laws. It prohibits all violence toward the persons and properties of the Jews, their synagogues and cemeteries, and forbids the forcible baptism of Jewish children. It became the prototype for all similar mediæval legislation, and was repeated almost verbatim in subsequent laws issued by the kings of Bohemia, Hungary, the Dukes of Saxony and Silesia, and others during the thirteenth century.

In England, the Jews were constantly being blackmailed by King John (1199-1216) and by King Henry III (1216-1272). The most notable and typical instance of the extortion of money from the Jews, is that reported of King John, who imprisoned a Jew and ordered that one of his teeth should be drawn every day until he agreed to pay the sum demanded of him. The heavy taxes laid upon the Jews forced them to charge higher rates of interest, thus embittering the people against them, and making them so miserable that they asked to be permitted to emigrate. Finally Edward I, in 1290, ordered the expulsion of all the Jews from England. They were permitted to take their property with them, and a sea captain, who put the Jewish exiles aboard his vessel on a sand bar where they were drowned by the high tide, was put to death.

In France the vassals possessed power independent of the crown. There the Jews were expelled from the territory of the king and recalled several times during the fourteenth century. At each expulsion they were robbed, so that an assembly of Jewish notables proposed to declare it unlawful, under penalty of excommunication, for any Jew to settle in territory from which the Jews had been previously expelled. Judah Hechasid, author of a book on religious ethics, however, condemned this resolution because it would not be effective and merely cause the Jews to transgress the law.

A very serious persecution broke out in Franconia, in 1298, the Jews being accused of desecrating the host in Roettingen. This is the first case of this kind, often repeated up to the sixteenth century. The leader of the mob was a man named Rindfleisch. Another bloody persecution broke out in Alsace, in 1336, under the leadership of an innkeeper, John Armleder, so-called because he fastened to his arm a patch of leather which was imitated by all his followers. These riots were finally suppressed after having brought great misery upon the Jews, but the evil-doers were not punished.

The most serious persecutions broke out in 1348-1349, during the so-called Black Plague which spread all over Europe. As a reason for these attacks the rumor was circulated that the Jews had poisoned the wells or had smeared some poisonous salve on the doors. In many cases the Jews were killed and their houses sacked. The protection of the Emperor availed them nothing; even if the Emperor threatened a city with punishment for breach of the peace, the affair was usually compromised by allowing the city to retain part of the plunder taken from the Jews, the Emperor taking the rest. The Flagellants, who appeared at about this time, by their religious fanaticism also stimulated the hatred against the Jews.

Other annoyances were frequent. On the basis of the view that the Jews were chattels of the king, various rulers occasionally declared void the bonds held by the Jews. The most typical instance is that of Wenzel, King of Bohemia and German Emperor, who in 1385 annulled all the bonds held by Jews and accepted from the debtors a fraction of their debts in settlement.

During the fifteenth century frequent expulsions took place. The cities, originally small settlements where the Jews were the merchants and bankers, had grown in size and importance, and the citizens were jealous of their successful Jewish competitors. Such expulsions were often ordered under the excitement aroused by some false accusation. Thus, in 1421, the Jews of Vienna were accused of having desecrated the host, and a number of them were publicly burned at the stake, all the others being expelled from the city and the entire province. Such expulsions took place in 1426 at Cologne, the oldest Jewish settlement in Germany, in 1440, at Wittenberg, and in 1475 at Bamberg.

The religious troubles of this period contributed to turn the people against the Jews. The Hussites were then a great menace to the Church, and John Capistrano, an Italian monk, preached against them in various places in the kingdom of Bohemia. Everywhere he set the mob against the Jews, and occasionally as at Breslau in 1453, he tried them on the charge of ritual murder. A number of Jews were burned at the stake, and many others expelled. From other cities of that kingdom, as Bruenn and Olmuetz, the Jews were expelled.

Another Catholic revivalist, Bernardin of Feltre, appeared in Trent, where he arranged a ritual murder trial. The body of a boy named Simon was found, and the Jews were accused of having murdered him (1475). Again a number of Jews were cruelly put to death and the remainder expelled in spite of the fact that the Doge of Venice exonerated them from the charge, and that the Pope declared the accusation to be baseless. Simon was considered a martyr and later on made a saint. A similar charge was brought against the Jews of Ratisbon, but they succeeded in proving their innocence. The expulsions continued. In 1499 the Jews were expelled from Nuremberg and Ulm, in 1493 from Magdeburg, in 1496 from the province of Styria, and somewhat later from Ratisbon and Saxony. The exiles sought refuge in villages and little towns under the rule of the nobles, or emigrated to Poland, where, toward the end of the fifteenth century, there was already a considerable Jewish settlement. This soon became in numbers the most important in Europe.