| [INTRODUCTION.] |
| Pages. |
| Surveying operations. Soil survey.History of discovery of Fayûm vertebrate fauna | 9 |
| [Part I.]—TOPOGRAPHY AND STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY. |
| [SectionI.]—Cultivated Land— | |
| Area. Composition and character ofalluvial soil. Connection with Nile Valley. Bahr Yusef and canalsystem. Ravines. Alluvial deposits of Lake Moeris and prehistoriclake. Increase of cultivated lands | 11 |
| [Section II.]—TheBirket el Qurun— | |
| Site, depth and dimensions. Remnant ofLake Moeris. Continual shrinkage of lake. Deposition of sand inlake at present day. Salinity of lake. Possible undergroundoutlets. Currents | 12 |
| [Section III.]—TheSurrounding Desert Region— | |
| Area and limits of Libyan Desertdescribed. Rocks forming the area. Importance of dip. Chief causesof origin of Fayûm | 14 |
| [Section IV.]—WadiRayan and Neighbourhood— | |
| Colonel Western’s survey. Sir WilliamWillcocks’ report. Borings. Details of proposed reservoir.Schweinfurth’s estimate of salt content. Willcocks’ “AssuanReservoir and Lake Moeris.” Detailed geological examination not yetundertaken. Traverse from Nile Valley through Wadi Muêla and Rayanto Gharaq. Warshat el Melh and springs of Wadi Muêla. Der elGalamûn. Pass from Muêla to Rayan. Sand accumulations. Wadi Korif.Springs of Wadi Rayan. Analyses and output of water. Geologicalsuccession in Wadi Rayan. General geology of floor and boundingwalls. Ridge separating Rayan and Gharaq. Apparent absence of Niledeposit and freshwater shells in Wadi Rayan. Question of leakagethrough ridge. Permeability of Rayan if used as a reservoir.Salinity of water | 16 |
| [Section V.]—CentralArea of the Region— | |
| Area and features. Dip-slope of surface.Drainage basins of central plain. Pools formed by rainfall.Tamarisk growth. The eastern area covered by alluvium. The boundingplateau to the north. Ghart el Khanashat dunes | 24 |
| [Section VI.]—TheRidge separating the Nile Valley and Fayum— | |
| Width and highest points. Strata formingridge. Gravel terraces. Low points of ridge. Original access ofNile waters to depression. Formation of lake and deposition ofsediment in Fayûm | 25 |
| [Section VII.]—TheNorthern Desert Region— | |
| Escarpments and plateaux. Extreme westand south-west limits of area. Ferruginous silicified puddingstoneof ancient rivers. Jebel el Qatrani. Widan el Faras. Elwat Hialla.Garat el Gindi. Garat el Faras | 26 |
| [PartII.]—TECTONICS. |
| [SectionVIII.]—Faulting and Folding— | |
| Origin of depression. Evidence indrainage ravines El Bats and El Wadi. Deep boring at Medinet elFayûm. Dr. Blanckenhorn’s theory that depression owes its origin toextensive fault system. Fault theory disproved. Fault N.N.E. ofQasr el Sagha. Numerous local strike faults of small throw.Occasional influence of fractures in determining escarpments | 29 |
| [Part III.]—GEOLOGY. |
| [SectionIX.]—General and Classification of Strata— | |
| Depression cut out in sedimentary rocks.Local lava flows. Dip. Oldest beds the Nummulites gizehensislimestones of Middle Eocene. Fluviomarine series of Upper Eoceneand Oligocene age. Absence of Miocene strata. Pliocene, Pleistoceneand Recent. Table showing succession and classification ofstrata | 33 |
| Section X.—Middle Eocene— | |
| [A.]—Wadi RayanSeries.—Work of Schweinfurth and Mayer-Eymar. Section atentrance to Wadi Muêla on Nile Valley side. Strata of cliffs nearDer el Galamûn. Detailed section measured at Jebel Rayan. MayerEymar’s section in Wadi Muêla | 35 |
| [B.]—RavineBeds.—In ravines of El Bats and El Wadi. Relation tounderlying series seen at Gar el Gehannem. Section at Gar elGehannem. Fauna of strata. In ravines unconformably overlain byPleistocene, etc. Form plain bordering cultivation on east side.Extension into Nile Valley. Occurrence at Sersena and Tamia.Forming base of Geziret el Qorn and lower part of northernescarpment of Birket el Qurûn. West end of lake. Hard siliceousbands give rise to horns or promontories of lake. Ravine Beds inthe Medinet el Fayûm boring. Thickness | 37 |
| [C.]—Birket elQurun Series.—Homotaxial with quarried limestones of Cairo.Foraminiferal beds. Extension of series. Section at Ezba Qalamsha.Section north of Lahûn pyramid. East of Sersena and north-east ofRubiyat. Section 17 kilometres 28° N. of E. of Tamia. Seriescharacterized by large globular concretions. Development and faunain Geziret el Qorn. Zeuglodon remains. Profile at Geziret el Qorn.Rich molluscan fauna. Section on mainland opposite Geziret el Qorn.Section at west end of Birket el Qurûn. Formation of earth-pillars.Extension west of the lake. Development of the series in theZeuglodon Valley. Abundance of skeletons of whales. Molluscanfauna. Pseudomorphs in celestine. Hill mass south of the ZeuglodonValley. Junction of Birket el Qurûn series with overlyingstage | 41 |
| [D.]—Qasr el SaghaSeries.—Equivalent of the Upper Mokattam of Cairo. Greaterdevelopment in Fayûm. Vertebrate fauna of series. Schweinfurth’soriginal discovery of cetacean remains. Recent discovery of landand marine mammals. Extension of series generally. N.N.E. of Tamia.At Garat el Faras. In the cliffs north of the Birket el Qurûn.Detailed section near ruin of Qasr el Sagha. At Gar el Gehannem andwestwards. Land animals floated out from land by river currents.The series a littoral deposit. Lignitic beds and thin seams ofcoal | 49 |
| Section XI.—Upper Eocene — Lower Oligocene— | |
| [E.]—Fluvio-marineSeries.—Nature of sediments, Interbedded basalts in upperpart. Character of its invertebrate fauna. Conditions of depositionof series. Continuance of similar conditions to Miocene and evenPliocene times. Bone-beds at base of series. Association ofskeletons of animals and forest trees. Preservation of remains.Analysis of fossil bones. Relation of Fluvio-marine series tounderlying stage. Characteristics of the group. Its development inthe field. Its slight development at Elwat Hialla. Section nearElwat Hialla. Constant northerly dip. Organic (molluscan) remains 9and 14 kilometres north of Qasr el Sagha. Detailed section fromnear Qasr el Sagha to Widan el Faras. Determinations of molluscafrom the series. Tripartite character of the series west of Widanel Faras and Qasr el Sagha. Occurrence of calcite, gypsum andchalcedony. Tabular chert and flint. Ancient workings. Extent ofbasalt. Silicified trees | 53 |
| [F.]—Age of theFluvio-Marine Series.—Difficulty in the determination of ageowing to paucity of fossils. Zittel’s tabulation of “Schichten vonBirket el Qurûn” as Oligocene. Mayer-Eymar’s age determinations.Schweinfurth’s comparison of the series with the Scutella beds ofDer el Beda near Cairo. Blanckenhorn’s determinations. Thestratigraphical position of the series and relationship to Qasr elSagha series. Stratigraphically lower than the Lower Miocene ofMogara. Whole complex in all probability of Upper Eocene andOligocene age, the transition being at or near the basaltsheets | 63 |
| [G.]—The Positionof the Land Mass from which the Mammals werederived.—Proximity of continental land. Absence of branches onfossil trees. Massif of Abu Roash perhaps an island to the north.Extension of Eocene sea. Continual retreat of the sea northwards.Rivers emerging from the land. Number and positions of such riversdoubtful. Evidence for river passing from the modern oasis ofBaharia through Gar el Hamra to the Fayûm. Lacustrine andfluviatile deposits along the course. Huxley’s theory ofimmigration and invasion of animals into Africa. Fayûm animalsbelong to an extinct African fauna of Tertiary times. Contains theearliest and most primitive forms of elephants and other groups.Emigration and immigration. Prof. Osborn’s theory of the Africancontinent as a centre of radiation. Confirmation by the Fayûmmammal discoveries. List of new species obtained from theFayûm | 65 |
| [H.]—The Absence ofMiocene deposits in the Fayûm.—The Fayûm a land area inMiocene times. Miocene deposits of Mogara. Lithological similarity.Probable persistence of geographical conditions | 71 |
| [SectionXII.]—Pliocene— | |
| [J.]—Marinedeposits: Middle Pliocene.—Marine deposits of Sidmant withtypical Middle Pliocene mollusca. Relation of these deposits to thegravel terraces as yet unknown though important | 71 |
| [K.]—Borings onRock Surfaces; of doubtful age.—Apparently due to marineboring mollusca. No exact evidence as to age. (α) Low level boringsfrom zero to 20 metres above sea-level. (β) High level borings at112 metres above sea-level. Limited occurrences of borings | 71 |
| [L.]—GravelTerraces:? Upper Pliocene.—Well marked terraces of gravel upto 170-180 metres above sea-level. East of Sêla. Character ofdeposit. East of Sersena and Roda. N.N.E. of Tamia, N.N.E. of Garatel Faras, east and north-east of Garat el Gindi. Relation todifferent series. Character of gravels at Elwat Hialla. West ofElwat Hialla gravelterraces almost completely removed by denudation. Traces near Widanel Faras and near Garat el Esh. Height of terraces in latterlocality determined as 170 metres above sea-level. Terrace marksshore line of great sheet of water, whether freshwater or marine.The great plains of the Fayûm possibly in part plains of marinedenudation | 73 |
| [M.]—GypseousDeposits: probably dating from the close of thePliocene.—Extension in Nile Valley and Fayûm. Section atMedum. On the east side of the Fayûm. Gypsum cemented conglomerate.Close connection with upper part of gravel terraces | 77 |
| [N.]—Summary ofPliocene Period | 78 |
| [SectionXIII.]—Pleistocene— | |
| Earliest existence of a freshwater lake.Probably not a remnant of the Pliocene sea or lake in which gravelterraces were formed. Intermediate denudation of area. Date ofearliest entry of Nile waters doubtful. Freshwater lake of NileValley. Drainage down the Nile Valley and establishment of river.Breaking down of gravel ridge separating the valley and the Fayûm.Entrance of flood waters. Formation of lake and deposition ofsediment. Subsequent disconnection of Nile Valley and Fayûm owingto erosion of river bed. Rise of Nile in prehistoric and historictimes. Reconnection. Geological evidence for the existence of greatfreshwater Pleistocene lake. Position and dimensions. Fossil faunaof the lake, and its difference from all other Egyptian faunas.Blanckenhorn’s conclusions | 79 |
| [SectionXIV.]—Recent | 81 |
| [O.]—Prehistoric.—Abundance of worked flints.Shores of lake inhabited by Neolithic and probably prehistoric man.Tamarisk remains. Probable age of flints anterior to Egyptianhistoric period | 82 |
| [P.]—Historic.—Relations of the Nile Valleyriver system and the Fayûm. Lake Moeris a regulator of the Nilefloods. Brought under control in XIIth dynasty. Early references toLake Moeris. Its position disputed in modern times. Linant deBellefonds’ assertion disproved by Sir Hanbury Brown. Archæologicalevidence for the site. Present day fauna of the Birket el Qurûn.Modern deposits. Blown sand. Erosion | 82 |
| APPENDICES | 87 |
| [1.] Previousliterature relating to the Fayûm | 87 |
| [2.] Fayûmlamellibranchs mentioned in Oppenheim’s “Zur Kenntnis alttertiärerFaunen in Ægypten.” | 89 |
| [INDEX] | 91 |