Section XI.—UPPER EOCENE (BARTONIAN)—LOWER OLIGOCENE.

E.—Fluvio-Marine Series (Jebel el Qatrani Beds).

Throughout the north of the Fayûm depression the Qasr el Sagha beds, forming the uppermost Middle Eocene, are followed by an unique series [63] of variegated [64] sands and sandstones, with alternating beds of clay and clayey marl. The ever-recurring bands of limestone, so common to the underlying marine beds, have now almost completely disappeared, being represented by only an occasional bed of calcareous grit, marl, or thin band of limestone. In the upper part of the series occurs a horizontal sheet of basalt,[65] in all probability contemporaneously interbedded; this forms a convenient datum line and may perhaps be provisionally taken as an arbitrary junction between the Eocene and Oligocene. Although as a rule remarkably barren of organic remains, certain bands, especially in the upper part, yield numerous individuals of a few species of mollusca, including Lucina, Arca, Mutela, Spatha, Unio, Lanistes, Turritella, Melania, Potamides, Cerithium and Pleurotoma. From such an assemblage we may without doubt conclude that the conditions under which the series was deposited were estuarine or fluvio-marine, and this is further proved by the non-marine lithological character of the beds. The enormous quantities of silicified wood which occur in certain beds, in the shape of hundreds of trees of great length and girth, together with the numerous remains of land-animals, crocodiles, tortoises and turtles, indicate that rivers of considerable size emerged from the land to the south, the coast-line of which was probably not far distant. In fact the retreat of the sea, which as already mentioned, had probably already begun in Middle Eocene times, was now still further continued, although the cause of this was apparently not so much due to elevation of the land as to the continued deposition of sediment from south to north beyond the land-shore. We may in fact regard the series as a huge delta deposit in an area of local depression, in which the great accumulation of sediment brought down from the land continually caused the gradual retreat of the sea to the north.

The same conditions would even appear to have continued on to Pliocene times, as from the Fayûm northwards stretches an immense plain of lithologically similar rocks, evidently accumulated under similar conditions, and which appear to contain newer and newer faunas from south to north. Thus, while in the Fayûm the remains are of Middle and Upper Eocene and Lower Oligocene age, when the latitude of Mogara is reached, some 70 kilometres further north, a fauna distinctly Lower Miocene in aspect occurs; further north again, as at Wadi Natrûn, Pliocene remains are abundant. We may hope therefore that this otherwise barren desert, when carefully and systematically explored, will yield us a continuous record of the vertebrate life of the northern part of the African continent from Eocene to Pleistocene times.

In the Fayûm, over a length of 80 to 90 kilometres, the basal beds of the Fluvio-marine series, at a height of only a few metres above the top of the Qasr el Sagha series, are frequently found to contain the remains of land-animals, often in sufficient quantities to form in places a true “bone-bed.” Besides land-mammals, remains of large tortoises, turtles and crocodiles, are very common, some of the latter being identical with those of the Qasr el Sagha series below. Chelonian and crocodilian remains are to be found on various horizons, but so far none but fragmentary mammal remains have been observed in the higher parts of the series. It is interesting to note that the bones in these beds appear to be most common near the accumulations of fossil trees, thus suggesting that they were floated out from the land at the same time and by the same river-currents. The porous character of the sands and sandstones of this group has resulted in the remains not being in nearly so hard or durable a condition, except when coated with ferruginous sand, as those in the series below, although the actual state of preservation is even more perfect.

Analysis shows that these bones, with the exception of the loss of all organic matter, have undergone very little change. A sample examined by Mr. Lucas was taken from a typically preserved pelvis of Arsinoitherium and gave the following result:—

Determined.		Calculated.
Silica	0·57	Silica	0·57
Oxide of Iron	1·98	Oxide of Iron	1·98
Lime	51·40	Calcium Phosphate	76·11
Magnesia	trace	Magnesium Phosphate	trace
Phosphoric Acid	34·86	Calcium Sulphate	4·64
Sulphuric Acid	2·74	Calcium Carbonate	14·75
Loss on ignition, being Carbon dioxide	6·13	Organic Matter	nil
Chlorine	trace	Sodium Chloride	trace
Not determined	2·32	Not determined	1·95
	100·00		100·00

The following composition of the bones of an ox, from an analysis by Berzelius, is appended for comparison:—

	%
Phosphate and Fluoride of Calcium	57·35
Carbonate of Calcium	3·85
Phosphate of Magnesium	2·05
Soda and a little Sodium Chloride	3·45
Organic Matter	33·30
	100·00

It is curious that these Eocene bones should have so completely preserved their original composition considering the almost universal silicification of the trees deposited in the same beds.

Most frequently the vertebrate remains are found in an unconsolidated false-bedded clean quartz sand, the grains of which are semi-rounded or angular; in some layers the sand is very coarse and polished, and mixed with fine gravel. These deposits of sand, apparently brought down by river floods, are not continuous along any particular horizon, but are intercalated here and there in the ordinary sandstones, clays and marls of the series; they occur chiefly, however, as local lenticular masses along a more or less constant horizon near the base of the series. The bone-remains are not absolutely confined to these deposits of river-sand, but like the silicified trees are far more common in them than elsewhere. Scattered mammal bones occur in the lower clays, marls, and hard concretionary sandstones, while the remains of aquatic animals, such as turtles and crocodiles, may be found almost anywhere.

From an examination of the series in the field, there is no doubt that, in at least the centre of the area, the deposition of the lowest beds was continuous with those of the Qasr el Sagha (Middle Eocene) series below. Followed away from the centre (i.e. the district round Widan el Faras, the eastern extremity of Jebel el Qatrani) the series gradually thins out, and eastwards, at Elwat Hialla, some 23 kilometres north of Tamia, has a thickness of only 40 metres, the basal beds being apparently laid on to a bed of limestone of the Qasr el Sagha series about the horizon of Bed 12 in [Section XXIII.] The junction here is apparently one of perfect conformity as far as the individual beds go, and the peculiar sequence does not seem to be due to ordinary overlap; it appears as if the change from marine to estuarine conditions had set in earlier here than further to the west, with the result that the upper Qasr el Sagha beds are wanting. Moreover, the accumulation of estuarine beds went on so slowly in this locality that the series does not attain to nearly its normal thickness, while further east it dies out altogether. The slight dip to the north is identical in both series, their lithological characters being, however, very different.

Although the Qasr el Sagha series contains numerous bands of clay and sandstone, the continual recurrence of thick beds of limestone at once gives it a distinguishing feature from the group under discussion; the latter is in fact characterized by the highly-coloured sandy, and to less extent clayey, character of its beds. While the Middle Eocene is essentially marine, the succeeding formation marks the retreat of the sea and the incoming of estuarine and brackish water conditions.

Before discussing the age of the Fluvio-marine series it will be well to describe its development in the field. The beds of the complex are throughout the district always found following on above the Qasr el Sagha beds, although their thickness varies considerably, as might be expected in a series of this nature. The most easterly locality to which the formation was mapped is the scarp 23 kilometres due north of Tamia, known as Elwat Hialla. Here the beds form a separate escarpment, consisting of only about 40 metres of sands and sandstone grit (sometimes silicified) with pieces of silicified wood: some of the beds of sandstone have a concretionary stem-like weathering. From this point these beds extend westwards far beyond the western end of the lake, always forming the highest escarpments of the Fayûm depression. A kilometre or two from our most easterly point the first basalt sheets are seen, and these, preserving the same level as far as can be observed, continue some 60 kilometres further west, to a point nearly due north of the western end of the Birket el Qurûn. The series, only 40 metres thick at the eastern end, gradually thickens as it is followed westward, until it reaches its maximum development in the cliffs of Jebel el Qatrani, north-west of the temple of Qasr el Sagha, where a thickness of some 210 metres is attained.

Just 29 kilometres N.N.E. of Tamia (6 kilometres N.W. of the prominent western scarp of Elwat Hialla), a long hill offers a good section of these beds, which consist of a variegated group of green sands, red clays, coarse sandstones, red and yellow sand and sandstone, etc., capped by a band of hard impure yellowish limestone with numerous enclosed sand-grains (calcareous grit). Near the same place is an interbedded sheet of basalt, which is sometimes followed by another band of impure limestone and the latter by false-bedded sandstone. Huge logs of weathered-out silicified trees are seen strewn about.

The following is a detailed section of the series, measured from a point 3½ kilometres W.N.W. of Elwat Hialla, and about 28 kilometres N.N.W. of Tamia, to the top of the escarpment 4 kilometres further north:—

Top of escarpment.		Metres.
Undulating sandy, gravel-covereddesert [66] stretching northwards.
1.	False-bedded sandstones	8
2.	Band of impure limestone
3.	Interbedded basalt sheet
4.	Sandstone
(Section continued in hill ¾kilometre further north-east).
5.	Hard yellow limestone with enclosedsand-grains; cavities full of calcite	1
6.	Greenish-white sand-rock	1
7.	Hard reddish-brown stem-weatheringsandstone	1½
8.	Greenish or white sand and sand-rock	3
9.	Variegated sandy clays; sand-rock withoccasional fragments of bone	6
10.	White sand-rock	1
11.	Rose-coloured sandstone	2
12.	Hard grey white marly clays	2½
13.	Coarse yellow sandstone	5
14.	Reddish, white, and variegated sands andsand-rock	8
15.	Grey, reddish and yellowish clays, withbands full of plant-remains	3½
16.	Brown clayey, sandstone	2
17.	Greenish sandstone	1
18.	Sandy grey clay	1½
19.	Hard grey sandstone	½
20.	Greenish sand-rock and clayeysandstone	3
21.	Dark red clay	1
22.	Sands, etc.; outcrop of bed covered withsilicified trees of large dimensions, 12-15 metres long	10
23.	Clays with hard grey false-beddedsandstone and showing fine mammilary weathering at top. Silicifiedlogs on surface	8
24.	Red clays, sandy clays and argillaceoussands	4
25.	Reddish sand-rock	1
26.	Yellowish sand-rock, in partfalse-bedded	2
27.	Red clays with thin sandy bands	1½
28.	Coarse grey sandstone	2
29.	Red and green sandy clays with thin bandof hard white sandstone at top	1
30.	Bright red clay	4
31.	Red clays with thin green sandybands	3
32.	Greenish sand-rock with thin red clayeybands	1
33.	Reddish white mottled clayey sandstonespassing up into red and white mottled clays and sandy clays	8
34.	Fine white sand	3
35.	Black ferruginous silicifiedsandstone	3

	Total thickness	90
Base.
Junction with Middle Eocene (Qasrel Sagha series).

Plate X.

EL QATRANI RANGE FROM THE SOUTH-EAST.

A little further west, at a point 25 kilometres north of the eastern end of the Birket el Qurûn, thick beds of white coarse sandstone form the upper part of the escarpment. Below comes a bed of yellowish impure limestone and below this an interbedded sheet of basalt 21 metres thick, underlaid by more white sandstone.

The series has almost always a constant dip of two or three degrees to the north. Silicified trees are very commonly found strewn over the surface both near the base and high up in the series.

At a point about 14 kilometres north of Qasr el Sagha definite organic remains other than bone-fragments were for the first time met with in the series. Here a fragment of ochreous-coloured grit containing numerous specimens of a small Melania was picked up and similar rocks were afterwards found in situ. Calcareous grits and impure limestones occurred at the same spot, and one of the harder more compact bands of limestone was found to contain casts of Cerithium.

Also at a point 9 kilometres north of Qasr el Sagha hard grey limestones, generally compact and cherty, and sometimes semi-crystalline, are present, containing casts of Melania, frequently filled with calcite. These overlie variegated sandstones, and occur at about 40 metres below the basalt near the top of the escarpment.

Blanckenhorn has determined my fossils from these localities as follows:—

Melania nov. sp., allied to M. Nysti of the Oligocene.

Potamides scalaroides, Desh., an important guiding form of the Middle Beauchamp Sands of the Paris Basin, and thus Upper Eocene.

Potamides tristriatus, Lam., of the Parisian (Cerithium crispum, Desh.,) is nearly related to the frequent Middle and Upper Eocene C. perditum, Bay, between which, according to Cossmann, transitions exist.

Cerithium tiarella, Desh., of the Middle and Upper Eocene, but more especially in the latter.

Blanckenhorn considers these determinations as certain, and thus marking the complex as Upper Eocene, on the level of the “Beauchamp Sands” of the Paris Basin, and consequently of the Lower Headon Hill beds and Barton Clay of the South of England.

The following section was measured from the base of the series, 2½ kilometres N.N.W. of Qasr el Sagha, to the summit of the escarpments, 2 kilometres N.N.W. of Widan el Faras. The series has its maximum thickness at this point.

Top.		Metres.
Summit of escarpment ofFayûm depression, 2 kilometres N.N.W. of Widan el Faras.
1.	Sandstones with band of coarse darkferruginous grit; silicified logs occur weathered-out of thisbed	18
2.	Coarse sandstone-grit with yellowishcalcareous base	1
3.	Greyish clay, possibly a product ofdecomposed basalt	1
4.	Basalt sheet, soft friable, grey orbright green, and decomposed at base	5
5.	Hard yellow calcareous-grit withcalcite-filled cavities, passing into semi-compacted yellowishsand, hardened at junction with basalt	1
6.	White and red sands	27
7.	Greenish sandstones and yellowconcretionary sands with 2·5 cm. layer of calcareous grit, withgastropods including large Cerithium, Melania sp.,Turritella pharaonica, Pleurotoma ingens, May.-Eym.,occasional lamellibranchs and also Callianassa	27
8.	White, green and brown sands andsand-rock	17
9.	Hard yellow calcareous grit	10
10.	Red and white clayey sand and sandyclays; some pebbly bands; Lucina sp., Unio sp.,[67]preserved in brown ironstone, common in places on this horizon	10

11.	Coarse grey and white sand (2metres)	5
12.	Red clayey sands (1 metre)
13.	White and yellow sand and sand-rock
14.	Red clays	7
15.	Sandy ferruginous band withlamellibranchs and gastropods of genera Unio,Pseudodon, Mutela, Spatha and Lanistes,indicating fluviatile or fresh water conditions of deposition	5
16.	Green clay (1 metre) passing into a redvariety	6
17.	White sandy clay (2 metres)
18.	Red clays
19.	White, brown, and red sands, partlyconsolidated
20.	Bright red clay
21.	Hard coarse sandstone	3
22.	Hard compact light yellow limestoneenclosing sand-grains (½ metre)	5
23.	White and yellow sands
24.	Greenish clays (1 metre)
25.	Coarse white sands with Unio andCardium-like lamellibranchs preserved in brownironstone
26.	Grey clay	2
27.	Hard yellow impure limestone (forms asmall platform)	2
28.	Grey clays	2
29.	Red and yellow sands with hard base ofgrey sandstone	15
30.	Grey sandstones. Base of basalt-cappedescarpment	7
(Section continued ¾kilometre south-east).
31.	Hard blue-grey compact cherty limestone(½ metre) with casts of Melania; hollows often filled withcalcite	18
32.	Variegated (red, white and yellow) sands,sand-rock and sandy clays	18
33.	Hard compact close-grained limestone
34.	Red and white variegated sands andsand-rock, with some bands of red clay

35.	Hard yellow impure limestone (⅓)	14
36.	Grey clays
37.	Coarse white sand
38.	Brown calcareous sandstones

39.	Greenish and grey sandy clays (3metres)	8
40.	Alternating white and red sands	8

41.	Coarse yellow calcareous grit (½metre)	2
42.	Light green sandstone
43.	Reddish clays
44.	White sand	2
45.	Alternating white and bright redsands	19
46.	Grey sandstone with silicified wood;occasional crocodilian and other bones	19
47.	Hard red clays	5
48.	Grey and brown clays, sandy clays, andthin beds of sandstone with some silicified wood	19
49.	Grey sandstones and loose false-beddedsandy clays with many silicified trees and remains [68]of Arsinoitherium Zitteli, Bead., PalæomastodonBeadnelli, Andr., Mœritherium sp., Phiomiaserridens, Andr. and Beadn., Saghatherium antiquum,Andr. and Beadn., S. minus, Andr. and Beadn., Megalohyraxeocænus, Andr., Ancodus Gorringei, Andr. and Beadn.,Pterodon africanus, Andr., Crocodilus sp.,Tomistoma africanum, Andr., and large and numerous tortoises(Testudo Ammon, Andr.)[69] and turtles [70],and very rarely fragmentary fish-remains	5
50.	Thin bands of limestone	25
51.	Yellow sand-rock
52.	Grey sandstone with fragments of bone (½metre)
53.	Brown calcareous-grit (½ metre)
54.	Light green sand-rock and sandstone

	Approximate total thickness inmetres	271

The specimens collected from Bed 15, on about the same horizon as the fossils mentioned from the locality 14 kilometres north of Qasr el Sagha, were examined by Blanckenhorn, who has published the following notice of them:—

“I should first mention the fresh-water shells found by Beadnell in brown sandstone 1 kilometre north of Camp 19 (i.e. at Widan el Faras), which, in the absence of special literature on the Palaeogene fresh-water shells of North Africa and nearer Asia, I have compared with the fauna of to-day, in which I was most kindly helped by Professor v. Martens, Director of the Conchological Collection of the Natural History Museum. The greater number of the forms have a distinctly tropical, and more especially Central African, character.

Unio sp., small, related to the recent U. Nyassænsis of Lake Nyassa.

Unio, related to U. Homsensis[71] Lea, from Syria, and U. Bonneaudi from Cochin China, with many radial folds behind the umbo which run obliquely from the blunt edge backwards towards the hinge-border.

Unio, related to U. teretiusculus, Phil. (Caillaudi, Fer., lithophagus, Ziegli.) of the Nile.

Pseudodon? sp.

Mutela (a genus of tropical Africa) sp., long, with a straight finely-toothed hinge-border which very much recalls that of Barbatia (a sub-genus of Arca).

Spatha sp. related to S. dahomeyensis and S. Droueti of Assinia in West Africa.

Lanistes carinatus,[72] scarcely distinguishable from the Nile form.

The Melania occurring in mass in the uppermost calcareous bed appears to be a new species [73] whose nearest relation must in any case be M. Nysti of the Oligocene, not M. muricata of the Eocene, amongst forms at present known.

Turritella angulata, Sow. A marine form, occurring below the basalt and indubitably this species, as it is well preserved and easily determined [74]; T. angulata ranges from the Middle Eocene to the Lower Oligocene of the East and occurs in the Upper Mokattam of Syria.”

From Widan el Faras the series continues westwards, forming several escarpments, the uppermost that of Jebel el Qatrani, and maintaining the same general characters. The tripartite character of the series, already noticeable between Qasr el Sagha and Widan el Faras (see foregoing section) becomes still more marked. The lowest division is very largely composed of fluviatile sands and sandstones, frequently coarse-grained and usually markedly current-bedded, divided by clays and containing an abundance of silicified trees and quantities of vertebrate remains. These soft beds, some 60 metres in thickness, have as a rule an extensive outcrop, forming an undulating plain averaging two or three kilometres in width. They are overlaid by some 17 metres of harder dark red sandstones, which invariably form a well-marked escarpment capped by a very constant two or three metres band of hard white or pinkish calcareous grit. This grit varies in composition, frequently passing into a marl; and one of the characteristics of this and the underlying red beds is the abundance of nodular masses of calcite and gypsum. In some localities, as for instance 3 kilometres W.N.W. of Qasr el Sagha, numerous spherical nodules of beekitic chalcedony occur in the beds of this division, and some of these when broken are found to be geodes lined with beautiful crystals of quartz and calcite.

The next division consists of some 60 metres of alternating sandstones and clays with occasional thin calcareous bands in the upper part, and capped by a well-marked hard cherty limestone, frequently passing into a dense tabular chert or flint. This exceptionally hard band generally forms a dip-slope plain of some width, before the softer basal members of the third and highest division overlie it. The siliceous bed caps many of the most notable hills in the district; among others may be mentioned the big isolated hill 9 kilometres north-west of Garat el Esh, and the hills five kilometres N.N.E. of the same point. This is the only horizon throughout the Eocene succession of the Fayûm on which an abundance of flint is met with; that it was well known and exploited in early times is evident from the old pits met with on the summits of the hills overlooking the main bone-pits, a few kilometres north of Garat el Esh. As no worked flints were noticed round the workings it is probable that the material was excavated and carried away to the borders of the lake, there to be fashioned into the harpoons, saws and other implements which are so commonly found scattered at the present day near the margin of the old lake site.

The uppermost division of the Fluvio-marine series consists of over 100 metres of variegated sediments and forms the escarpment of Jebel el Qatrani itself, capped by the conspicuous band of hard black basalt, which is itself overlain by a further 20 metres of similar sediments. The basalt has a thickness of over 20 metres in places, though its average is considerably less; at the base it is frequently decomposed, soft, and of a brown colour.

At a point due north of the western end of the Birket el Qurûn the interbedded basalt sheet terminates, and no further flows were seen as far as the point up to which the series was mapped, nearly due north of Gar el Gehannem. As far as could be seen on a traverse through the Zeuglodon Valley to the south-western limits of the depression no further basalt flows occur.

Section from the base of the Fluvio-marine series, 2 kilometres north of Garat el Esh, to the summit of Jebel el Qatrani 5½ kilometres north of the bone-pits. (See Plates [XVIII] and [XXIV]).

Summit of plateau.		Approximate thickness in metres
1.	Coarse sandstones and grits	13
2.	Basalt	25
3.	Yellow sands and sandstones, capped by 3m. of hard concretionary grey sandstone with occasional mammalianbones (underlying basalt in scarp and capping outlying hill)	15
4.	Hard sandstones with clayey bands	8
5.	Sandy and clayey beds	5
6.	Hard yellow calcareous grit	5
7.	Clays and clayey marls	7
8.	Sandy beds	15
9.	Hard sandstone (forms connecting ridgebetween hill and escarpment)	½
10.	Clays with thin sandstone bands	40
11.	Variable sandy and marly red clays with ahard yellowish sandstone band ten metres from base	40
Base of isolatedhill.
12.	Soft sands with chelonian and crocodilianremains	4
13.	Sandy clays with chelonian and mammalian(Arsinoitherium) bones, capped by coarse grit, in partferruginous silicified grit and quartzite	1
14.	White calcareous grit and marlylimestone. Band of flint in places	1
Summit of hilloverlooking bone-pits.
14.	Sandstone, becoming calcareous andpassing up into 3 m. of hard white calcareous grit, and yellowishwhite bedded marly limestone with calcite druses. Capped by ¼ m.hard tabular chert and flint	10
15.	Finely laminated grey shaly clays, sandyand marly clays, capped by 2 m. of mottled yellow and red sandstoneand sandstone-grit	10
16.	Hard red, green, and brown sandstone	10
17.	Variegated grey, green and red clays,marly clays and sandy beds, with thin bands of sandstone. Morearenaceous towards top	21
18.	Hard grey sandstone; greenish sandyclays; hard dark red marls and marly clays at top	6
19.	Thin band of hard yellow limestone,capping salty red clays and sandy clays	6
20.	Soft greenish clayey sandstone capped by½ m. of hard false-bedded concretionary sandstone with numerousenclosed coprolites	3
Base of hilloverlooking bone-pits.
21.	Pink calcareous grit (forming summit oflowest escarpment), with small flint and quartz pebbles in somelayers. An abundance of calcite and gypsum	3
22.	Mottled red and green clayey sandstone,clays and clayey marls. Passing up into a hard sandy (or clayey)dark red marl with greenish mottlings	7
23.	Light yellow finely-laminated sandrockpassing up into dark red sandrock. Some clayey bands	10
24.	Coarse unconsolidated false-bedded sands,with occasional bands of clay and consolidated sandstone bands.Numerous silicified trees and abundant mammalian and reptilianremains. (See list in Bed 49 of Widan el Faras [section]). Bone-pits are in this bed	40
25.	Thin band (½ m.) of hard sandstone withsometimes impure calcareous grit	10
26.	Hard light yellow sandstone, often verycoarse, and with red bands	10
27.	Soft brick red and light yellow sands andsandstones, (seen on plain and overlying uppermost limestone of theMiddle Eocene)	20
Base ofFluvio-marine Series.

Plate XI.

SILICIFIED TREES OF FLUVIO-MARINE SERIES, 4½ KILOMETRES NORTH OF QASR EL SAGHA.

In some localities pebbly bands occur in the sandstone-grits, especially in some of the beds above the basalt: the pebbles are mostly quartz or flint, subangular or rounded, the layer averaging perhaps two cm. in diameter, although occasional specimens three or four times that size are met with. Silicified trees of two distinct types [75] occur, and they are met with chiefly on two horizons; usually large numbers of trees occur together, completely covering the surface in places; they lie as a rule scattered about in every direction, although occasionally a large proportion may show considerable parallelism of deposition, as if arranged by the direction of the current which floated them to the spot. They always occur in a horizontal position or parallel to the dip of the bed, and it seems quite certain that none of them ever grew near where they are now found. The trees never bear attached branches, the latter having always been broken off at or near the point of junction with the trunk, where the scars are often plainly seen; this points to the trees having been drifted a considerable distance. Many trees over 25 metres [76] in length have been met with, but this by no means represents the original height, as the trunks have lost considerably in length during transport to their present localities. Although, as a rule, found completely weathered-out and exposed on the surface, in numerous localities these silicified trees are to be observed firmly embedded in the sandstones in which they were deposited, many being met with in our excavations for bones.

As the Fluvio-marine series is followed westwards from the central part of the area, the different divisions become more and more attenuated and the outcrops more and more obscured by superficial gravel. North-west of the Zeuglodon Valley an escarpment capped by a conspicuous bed of white calcareous grit occurs and perhaps represents the lower beds of the series. The higher are lost on the gravelly undulating plateau above.

F.—Age of the “Fluvio-Marine Series”.

The beds in question being as a whole remarkably unfossiliferous, a determination of their exact age on palaeontological grounds is an undertaking of some difficulty. The series, however, in certain beds is very rich in vertebrate remains; a considerable number of new and important forms have already been obtained and further additions are probable. Until the survey of the area in 1898 it appears that the only fossils obtained from these rocks were a few casts and badly-preserved specimens of mollusca from the highest beds above the basalt, collected by one or two observers from localities between the summit of the Fayûm escarpments and the Pyramids of Giza.

The Rohlfs Expedition did not visit this part of Egypt, and Zittel [77] tabulated the beds, which he called the “Schichten von Birket el Qurûn” as doubtfully Oligocene; probably the beds referred to are those of the island Geziret el Qorn, which, as already mentioned, belong to the lower division of the Birket el Qurûn series, and are therefore of Middle Eocene age. Mayer-Eymar [78] states that he was able to subdivide the series under discussion into Upper and Lower Ligurian and Lower Tongrian. Schweinfurth [79] considered the series as Miocene, comparing them with the lithologically similar Scutella beds of Der el Beda to the east of Cairo. Blanckenhorn, on the evidence of the writer’s fossil collections, states, as already mentioned, that the upper part is certainly to be regarded as Lower Oligocene and the lower part as Upper Eocene.

First as to the stratigraphical position of the series. There is no doubt that the lowest beds of the group were deposited (at any rate in the central part of the area) in practical continuity with the Qasr el Sagha series, which, as shown, is certainly of Middle Eocene age. A great change in the lithology of the beds, however, makes the junction a perfectly natural one. We pass from a truly marine series into an estuarine or fluvio-marine set of beds, and such a change near the summit of the Eocene is not an uncommon one in some parts of Europe. The stratigraphical position in the field, therefore, favours an Upper Eocene age for the lower beds. The dip being northwards, newer and newer beds are met with from south to north on the great undulating, but more or less level, desert north of the escarpment summit. The occurrence of Lower Miocene beds at Mogara, some 100 kilometres north or north-west, also points to a somewhat younger, or Oligocene, age for the underlying beds, (i.e., those between the Fayûm escarpment and Mogara). The actual relations, however, of the beds in the two localities have not yet been determined, but it is probable younger beds are continually met with from south to north.

Until the entire collection of fossils has been examined and determined, it is somewhat premature to attempt to fix the age of the series on palaeontological grounds. Up to the present the foregoing lists show the species which have been provisionally or finally determined. Some of these appear to be identical with species which have been recorded from Upper Eocene deposits of Europe, such as Potamides scalaroides, P. tiarella, while others, such as Melania cf. Nysti, Natica crassatina (found below the basalt in the so-called Sandberger Hills north-east of the Fayûm escarpment), are typically Lower Oligocene. Other forms, such as Turritella angulata, are common to both Eocene and Oligocene elsewhere.

If Blanckenhorn’s determinations of these forms are confirmed, we may regard the upper beds, i.e., those immediately above the basalt, as undoubtedly of Lower Oligocene age. The beds below the basalt mark the transition from the Eocene to Oligocene, while the base of the series, so far unfossiliferous as far as molluscan remains are concerned, must be regarded as of Upper Eocene (Bartonian) age.

We may hope that when the important vertebrate fauna occurring chiefly in the basal part of the series has been thoroughly exploited, and the remains systematically determined, confirmatory evidence will be obtained. At present the only forms described and determined, beyond pointing to a pre-Miocene age, do not indicate any definite horizon. Probably most of the animals will prove to be new, and although on that account more interesting from one point of view, will probably not assist us greatly in the exact determination of the age of the beds in question.

G.—The Position of the Land-mass from which the Mammal Remains were Derived.

The existence of remains of land animals throughout the larger part of the Qasr el Sagha series and in still greater quantity in the basal beds of the overlying Fluvio-marine series, and occasionally in the highest beds also, points to the presence of continental land within no great distance of the area in which these deposits were laid down. That the animal-remains were carried out from the land by river currents is almost certain, and although in some cases such currents are known to persist to great distances from their points of emergence, it seems probable from the quantity and mode of distribution that the Fayûm bones were deposited within a moderate distance of land. Moreover, the silicified trees, by which the bones are so often accompanied, occur together in very great quantities, and we should imagine that the individual trees would have been far more scattered if they had been floated to considerable distances from land. On the other hand the fact that among the hundreds of trees examined, in no single case were branches found attached to the trunk, points to the conclusion that these trees had travelled great distances; probably the branches were lost during their river journey, from constant jamming together of a great number in a more or less constricted space, and not after they had left the river mouth.

The exact position of this land-mass is a highly interesting and important question. There is no reason to suppose that land of any extent occurred to the north, except possibly an occasional island, such as that of the Cretaceous massif of Abu Roash,[80] west of Cairo, which probably formed an island in the sea at that time; without doubt the great Eocene sea which covered the area stretched northwards, and was continuous with that in which the southern European deposits of this period were laid down. To the west also there was certainly no land-mass within approximate distances. Eastwards, possibly part of the Red Sea Hills igneous range may have formed a restricted land-area, but even this is not probable; in fact, it seems certain that we must look to the south for the nearest land of any extent. In supposing the land lay in this direction we are confronted at the outset with the fact that the Lower Eocene limestones stretch southwards for several hundred kilometres. In Egypt the Lower Eocene consists of a great mass of nummulitic limestones, some 400-500 metres thick, with no intercalated clays or sandstones except at the base, and was evidently formed in water of considerable depth. The thickness of, and superficial area covered by, these limestones show that they were formed in a truly open sea, in contra-distinction to a littoral area; the nummulitic sea in fact covered an enormous part of Europe, North Africa and Asia. To the south of this sea lay the African continent, a land-mass dating possibly from Palæozoic times. Since, and possibly partly during, the deposition of the Lower and Middle Eocene formations, a gradual elevation of the land or lowering of the sea, resulting in a retreat of the latter, took place; this continually brought the shore-line further northwards until, during the deposition of the beds of the Qasr el Sagha series of the Middle Eocene, we may surmise that it was not very far to the south, though the exact distance is extremely doubtful; while in Upper Eocene times it was still further north. We may assume therefore that the Upper Eocene bone-bearing strata of the Fayûm represent sediments transported by rivers and currents from a fairly adjacent continental land-mass to the south and laid down as littoral and delta deposits beyond the margin of the land. That at least one large river emerged from the land in the neighbourhood of the Fayûm is certain; drainage was then, as now, from south to north, although not probably confined to a single channel like the present Nile.

Apart from broader considerations a minute examination of the more typically fluviatile beds favours the conclusion that the currents were from the south or south-west. The general dip of the strata, probably the natural inclination of the sediments at the time of deposit, is from south to north; the most frequent lamination in the current-bedded arenaceous deposits is also from south to north. In our excavations for fossil bones it was noted that of seven tortoise shells exposed at the same time in different parts of the pit, six lay with their long axes similarly orientated and were distinctly tilted to the north-east, or exactly away from the point of the compass from which, as will presently be shown, the main river probably came. As a rule, however, the scattered fossil bones and trees in these beds give no definite clue as to the direction from which they were floated. The existence of separate accumulations of fluviatile sand at different horizons, but lying one above the other in the series and along a north and south line, is of importance as indicating the continued appearance of a river current from the same quarter.

Blanckenhorn has published [81] diagrams showing what he supposes to have been the relative areas occupied by land and sea in Upper Mokattam, Lower Oligocene, Middle Pliocene and Pleistocene times. Various lines of drainage are shown, the main river, which he calls the Ur-Nil, being placed some 70 kilometres to the west of the modern Nile, although closely following the trend of the latter. We have been unable to ascertain on what evidence Blanckenhorn relies for assuming rivers in Upper Mokattam and Lower Oligocene times to have occupied the positions shown on his diagrams; the number and positions of such rivers must remain more or less problematical. In this connection however it is interesting to recall [82] the lacustrine ferruginous grits which were brought to notice by the writer in 1900 as having been deposited in a lake, occupying in post-Middle Eocene times a shallow depression in that part of the Libyan desert now occupied by the oasis-depression of Baharia. Similar deposits were found forming the hills of Gar el Hamra a few kilometres east of the extreme north end of the depression. Finally, during a traverse through the unexplored country south-west of Gar el Gehannem in the winter of 1902-1903, hills capped with dark hard ferruginous silicified grits and puddingstone were met with in the extreme south-west of the Fayûm depression at a point nearly midway, and in the direct line, between the hills of Gar el Hamra and the chief bone-bearing localities in the north of the Fayûm. The deposits in question—at Baharia, at Gar el Hamra and in the hills to the south-west of the Fayûm—are evidently of lacustrine and fluviatile origin; and we may infer, with some degree of probability, that they were laid down along the course of a river which flowed in a north-easterly direction and formed extensive delta deposits in what is now the northern part of the Fayûm. That this river had its origin in the interior of a well-wooded continent hundreds of miles to the south of Baharia is not to be questioned; its size, length and exact position must remain matters of doubt, but of its existence we can be as certain as if in times of flood we had stood on its banks and watched the passage northwards of its turbid swollen waters, laden with matted rafts of forest trees and bearing seawards the carcases of those curious Eocene animals, the remains of which are so abundant in the Fayûm of to-day.

Fig. 6.—Probable Course of chief river of Upper Eocene and Oligocene times.

In the Middle and Upper Eocene beds we first obtain an idea of the animals which inhabited Africa in Tertiary times, and the collecting and working out of this fauna will throw much light, not only on our actual knowledge of the African vertebrata of the Eocene period, which was practically nil until the discovery of the remains here described, but also on other wider biological questions, such as the origin of certain groups of animals, some of which were evolved in this part of the world.

As recently pointed out by a writer in the Field (No. 2605, Nov. 29, 1902) many years ago the late Prof. Huxley, to account for the present distribution of the mammalian fauna of Africa and Magadascar, advanced the theory that in the early part of the Tertiary period Madagascar was connected with Africa, and Africa with Europe or Asia, a connection which allowed of the immigration into Africa and Madagascar of numerous small types of European and Asian mammals. Madagascar later becoming separated from the mainland, its fauna, undisturbed by the larger carnivora, was able to develop to its present remarkable extent. Subsequently to the isolation of Madagascar the ancestors of the modern fauna were presumed to have invaded the African continent from the north.

The extinct fauna of the Fayûm, however, shows that in early Tertiary times Africa already had its own mammalian fauna, which, besides containing some remarkable large types of somewhat doubtful position, such as Arsinoitherium, Barytherium, etc., certainly in Mœritherium and Palæomastodon included the earliest known elephants, the forbears of the Mastodon and the modern elephants. There is little doubt therefore that in Upper Eocene and Oligocene times these early members of the elephant group ranged northward and eastwards into Asia and India, and since in the Upper Tertiary deposits of India and eastern Asia the extinct transitional types between the mastodons and modern elephants appear to have been found, it is not unlikely that during the later phases of the evolution of this group of animals the radiation was back towards Africa, so that the African elephant may be, as it has usually been regarded, an immigrant from the Oriental region. Further research among the later deposits of the Fayûm and the deserts to the north may, however, throw an entirely new light on the subject and it is somewhat premature to theorise at present.

Plate XII.

RAISED BEACH UNCONFORMABLY OVERLYING MIDDLE EOCENE LIMESTONES (BIRKET EL QURUN SERIES) IN THE DESERT EAST OF SIRSENA.

In this connection it is interesting to notice the observation of so eminent a palæontologist as Prof. H. F. Osborn. In two recent addresses [83] to the New York Academy of Sciences he pertinently points out his belief that the African continent has been a great centre of radiation of certain groups of the mammalia, and especially mentions the Proboscidea as likely to have been evolved in the Ethiopian region. Our discoveries in the Fayûm and Andrews’s determinations, made subsequently to these addresses, so completely confirm this view, at any rate with regard to the elephants, that it may not be out of place to give here a somewhat lengthy extract of his “Theory of Successive Invasions of an African Fauna into Europe” (op. cit. pp. 56-58). “In Europe there are in the Upper Eocene two classes of animals, first those which have their ancestors in the older rocks; second, the class including certain highly specialized animals which have no ancestors in the older rocks, among these, perhaps, are the peculiar flying rodents or Anomaluridæ, now confined to Africa, and secondly the highly specialized even-toed ruminant types the anoplotheres, xiphodonts and others, the discovery of which in the gypse near Paris Cuvier has made famous. It is tempting to imagine that these animals did not evolve in Europe but that they represent what may be called the first invasion of Europe by African types from the Ethiopian region.

“It is a curious fact that the African continent as a great theater of adaptive radiation of Mammalia has not been sufficiently considered. It is true that it is the dark continent of palæontology for it has no fossil mammal history; but it by no means follows that the Mammalia did not enjoy there an extensive evolution.[84]

“Although it is quite probable that this idea has been advanced before, most writers speak mainly or exclusively of the invasion of Africa by European types. Blanford and Allen, it is true, have especially dwelt upon the likeness of the Oriental and Ethiopian fauna, but not in connection with its antecedent cause. This cause I believe to have been mainly an invasion from south to north, correlated with the northern extension of Ethiopian climate and flora during the Middle Tertiary. It is in a less measure due to a migration from north to south. Let us therefore clearly set forth the hypothesis of the Ethiopian region or South Africa as a great center of independent evolution and as the source of successive northward migrations of animals, some of which ultimately reached even the extremity of South America, I refer to the Mastodons. This hypothesis is clearly implied if not stated by Blanford in 1876 in his paper upon the African element in the fauna of India.

“The first of these migrations we may suppose brought in certain highly specialized ruminants of the Upper Eocene, the anomalures or peculiar flying rodents of Africa; with this invasion may have come the pangolins and ard varks, and possibly certain armadillos, Dasypodidæ, if M. Filhol’s identification of Necrodasypus is correct. A second invasion of great distinctness may be that which marks the beginning of the Miocene when the mastodons and dinotheres first appear in Europe, also the earliest of the antelopes. A third invasion may be represented in the base of the Pliocene by the increasing number of antelopes, the great giraffes of the Ægean plateau and in the upper Pliocene by the hippopotami. With these forms came the rhinoceroses with no incisor or cutting teeth, similar to the smaller African rhinoceros, R. bicornis. Another recently discovered African immigrant upon the Island of Samos in the Ægean plateau is Pliohyrax or Leptodon, a very large member of the Hyracoidea, probably aquatic in its habits, indicating that this order enjoyed an extensive adaptive radiation in Tertiary times.

“It thus appears that the Proboscidea, Hyracoidea, certain edentata, the antelopes, the giraffes, the hippopotami, the most specialized ruminants, and among the rodents, the anomalures, dormice and jerboas, among monkeys the baboons, may all have enjoyed their original adaptative radiation in Africa; that they survived after the glacial period, only in the Oriental or Indo-Malayan region, and that this accounts for the marked community of fauna between this region and the Ethiopian as observed by Blanford and Allen.

“Against the prevalent theory of Oriental origin of these animals are: first, the fact observed by Blanford and Lydekker in the Bugti Beds (Sind) that the Oligocene or lower Miocene fauna of the Orient is markedly European in type; second, that if these animals had originated in Asia some of them would have found their way to North America; third, the fact that all these animals appear suddenly and without any known ancestors in older geological formations. These are the main facts in favor of the Ethiopian migration hypothesis.”

That Professor Osborn’s main contention has already been partly proved by the Fayûm mammal discoveries is apparent, and how far his detailed remarks are confirmed will be seen when the new fauna has been more completely explored and examined.

The following is a list of the new species already obtained:—

Upper Eocene.	Middle Eocene.
Mammalia
Arsinoitherium Zitteli, Beadnell.	Barytherium grave, Andr.
„ Andrewsii, Lankester.	Mœritherium Lyonsi., Andr.
Palæomastodon Beadnelli, Andrews.	„ gracile, „
„ minor, „	„ sp., „
Mœritherium Lyonsi, „	Eosiren libyca, „
„ trigodon, „	Zeuglodon Osiris, Dames.
Megalohyrax eocænus, „	„ Zitteli, v. Stromer.
„ minor, „	„ Isis, Beadn. (M.S.).
Saghatherium antiquum, Andr. andBeadn.
„ minus, „ „
„ magnum, Andr.
Ancodus Gorringei, Andr. and Beadn.
Geniohyus mirus, Andr.
„ fayumensis, Andr.
„ major, „
Phiomia serridens, Andr. and Beadn.
Pterodon africanus, Andr.
„ macrognathus, Andr. and anothermuch smaller and imperfectly known creodont.
Birds.
Eremopezus libycus, Andr.
Reptiles.
Testudo Ammon, Andr.	Gigantophis Garstini, Andr.
Pelomedusa progaleata, v. Reinach.	Pterosphenus (Mœriophis) Schweinfurthi,Andr.
Podocnemis fayumensis, Andr.	Psephophorus eocænus, Andr.
„ Blanckenhorni, v.Reinach.	Thalassochelys libyca, Andr.
„ „ var. ovata, v. Reinach.	Podocnemis antiqua, „
Stereogenys libyca. Andr.	„ Stromeri, v. Reinach.
Tomistoma sp.	„ „ var. major, v. Reinach.
Crocodilus sp.	Stereogenys Cromeri, Andr.
	„ podocnemioides, v.Reinach.
	Tomistoma africanum, Andr.
Fish.
Occasional fragments of siluroids andrays.	Propristis Schweinfurthi, Dames.

H.—The absence of Miocene deposits in the Fayûm.

No traces of deposits of this age having been met so far south as the Fayûm we may presume that in Miocene times the area had become land, the sea margin having receded northwards. The slight depression of Mogara, some 100 kilometres further north-west, is however cut out in Lower Miocene beds, lithologically somewhat similar to the Upper Eocene and Oligocene deposits of the Fayûm. Probably similar conditions obtained throughout, and the existence of vertebrate remains indicates the persistence of river-currents from the south. The fauna of the Mogara beds has only as yet been very incompletely examined, the locality being rather inaccessible.[85]

Section XII.—PLIOCENE.

We have presumed that in Miocene times the Fayûm remained land, no traces of deposits of that age having been recorded; possibly the area underwent considerable denudation during the Miocene and early Pliocene periods, but of this it is difficult to adduce definite evidence. The records of Pliocene times in the Fayûm may be classed as follows:—

(J). Marine deposits of Middle Plioceneage.
(K). Borings on rock surfaces, exact agedoubtful.
(L). Gravel Terraces, probably latePliocene.	⎱ ⎰	(or early Pleistocene).
(M). Gypseous Deposits, probably latestPliocene.	⎱ ⎰	(or early Pleistocene).

J.—Marine Deposits: Middle Pliocene.

In Middle Pliocene times the area, which had probably undergone considerable denudation, was again invaded by the sea, and we find at Sidmant el Jebel, on the south-east side, definite evidence of deposits of this age in the shape of sands containing such well known forms as Ostrea cucullata and Pecten benedictus.

The beds in question reach an altitude of from 60 to 70 metres and were first brought to notice by Schweinfurth. Although they are in reality on the Nile Valley side of the separating ridge or saddle, there is little doubt that the same beds will, when looked for, be found within the Fayûm depression in places where they have been preserved. As has already been mentioned this south-eastern side of the Fayûm yet remains to be examined and mapped in detail, and the determination of the relation of these marine sands to the gravel terraces shortly to be described is a matter of primary importance for the proper interpretation of their relative ages.

K.—Borings on Rock surfaces; of doubtful age.

There are within the Fayûm depression numerous rock-surfaces pierced by borings, apparently the work of marine boring mollusca but naturally offering no exact evidence as to their age and origin. These borings are found at two distinct levels, approximately from zero to 20 metres above sea-level, and at 112 metres above sea-level.

(α) Low level borings.

Between Tamia and Dimê, near the eastern end of the Birket el Qurûn, the lowest ground, consisting of poor sandy land with tamarisk scrub, bordering the lake and cultivation, is bounded by a low escarpment of beds of the Birket el Qurûn series. Along certain horizons one or more beds of calcareous sandstone weather into large globular masses, which as already pointed out are in reality huge concretions, but which may have been further rounded by water-action. The chief point is, however, the fact that these blocks are honey-combed in the most remarkable way by beautiful examples of borings; their presence was first noticed by Schweinfurth. The globular masses of sandstone, often several feet in diameter, are worn on the surface into a number of parallel ledges, each of which is perforated with countless numbers of vertical holes, averaging 10 millimetres in diameter (maximum 15 millimetres), placed at right angles to the ledges; these holes are not, as a rule, connected from one ledge to another. They occur in every stage of perfection, from hollows as small as the finger tips and only a few millimetres deep, to long completed chambers which generally show considerable tapering, and are often placed so close together that the dividing wall is pierced.

Fig. 7 and [Plate XIII] show the appearance of these bored rocks.

Fig. 7.—Block of sandstone pierced by numerous borings.

At El Kenîsa, a promontory jutting out into the lake, sandstones showing shell-borings occur at a height of 14 metres above sea-level. Between Dimê and the lake a calcareous sandstone contains many borings, 66 metres above the lake-level, or about 22 metres above sea-level.

Plate XIII.

BORINGS IN FALSE-BEDDED SANDSTONE, TWO KILOMETRES SOUTH OF DIMÊ.

(β) High level borings.

Further west, but at a considerably higher level, borings are again met with. In this case a hard compact limestone, forming a dip-slope surface on the top of the lower cliff of the Qasr el Sagha series, was found pierced with borings, similar in character to those of the lower level. The exact locality where these high level borings were observed is 14 kilometres west of the western end of the lake and 16 kilometres north-east of the eastern extremity of Gar el Gehannem. The height was determined as 156 metres above the Birket el Qurûn, or 112 metres above sea-level, and we have every reason to believe these figures to be approximately correct. Up to the present time borings at this altitude have not been met with in any other locality.

At first sight it seems surprising that the occurrences should be so limited, but it should be remembered that only in those cases where borings were made in the very hardest and most durable rocks could they have been preserved to the present time. Considering the amount of denudation which has taken place in the area since the Pliocene period it is surprising that any of the rocks which formed the actual surface of the country at that date should still be preserved; and in all probability the comparatively few records that exist to-day owe their preservation to the protection afforded by superficial deposits. Under the present rigorous desert conditions, when the whole surface is subjected to continual and rapid changes of temperature, and every exposed rock is being worn down by the natural sandblast, it must be admitted that in a comparatively short time every trace of the borings now exposed will have been removed. At the same time the denudation of superficial deposits will probably lay bare other bored rock-surfaces, and the conserving nature of drift sand itself where accumulated to even a limited degree must not be forgotten.

L.—Gravel Terraces: ? Upper Pliocene.

On the north, east, and south-east sides of the Fayûm, well marked terraces of gravel are found at certain levels up to a maximum of about 170-180 metres above sea-level. Nine kilometres east of Sêla the summit of the ridge separating the Fayûm and the Nile Valley is formed of thick deposits of gravel, laid irregularly and unconformably on the top of limestones belonging to the Birket el Qurûn series. The lowest terrace occurs only 15 metres above the canal [86] running along the outside of the cultivation. The main deposit of gravel is laid on the top of the limestones and marls at 70 metres above the canal; it is some 50 metres thick (summit 120 metres above canal) and consists of a mass of well-rolled flint and quartz pebbles, with blocks of limestone (frequently full of well-known Eocene fossils such as Carolia placunoides). Large well rounded blocks of grey quartzite and pebbles of black quartzite also occur, besides rounded blocks of silicified wood. A certain amount of false-bedding occurs and false-bedded sand was noticed in places. Numerous derived rolled fossils are present, but no contemporaneous remains were found. On the summit of the ridge is situated the remnant of an old pyramid-like building.

Fig. 8 shows the relation of these gravels to the underlying rocks.

Fig. 8.—Sketch showing relations of Middle Eocene to Pliocene Gravel Terraces on the east side of the Fayûm.

Birket el Qurun series.—(a) Clays, marls and limestone; (b) Limestones with Operculina (O. discoidea?). Pliocene (to Pleistocene); (c) Coarse deposits of gravel, etc., with huge blocks of derived Eocene limestone with Carolia, etc.; (d) sands and sandrock with leaves of hard sandstone; (e) sand, gravel and conglomerate.

At the spur of the cliff immediately to the east the terrace is laid on to limestones of the Birket el Qurûn series at a height of 32 metres above the canal. Enormous blocks of Carolia-limestone, some exceeding 3 × 2 × 1·5 metres in measurement, are included in this deposit; such blocks cannot have been transported far, and were doubtless derived from formerly-existing higher beds in the immediate neighbourhood. The matrix of the deposit is usually crushed limestone with sand and gravel. Occasional fragments of silicified wood (and further west large logs), evidently derived from the Fluvio-marine beds, also occur.

In favoured localities the relation of the gravels to the Eocene is still better seen; the lower beds of the terrace here are sometimes formed of sands and sandy beds dipping 10° eastward.

At the little promontory 9 kilometres east of Sersena the same deposits reach an altitude of 157 metres above the canal below.

Further north another cake of gravel caps the summit, attaining here 60-70 metres above the canal-level. Probably these deposits were originally more or less connected and continuous, but since their deposition denudation must have removed the greater part, as they are now only found here and there capping the highest points of the escarpment along the east side of the Fayûm. Such isolated gravel-capped hills occur notably 12 kilometres east of Roda, 16½ kilometres east and 17½ kilometres north-east of Tamia.

Along the north side of the Fayûm the same deposits are found, in some cases covering large areas.

Twenty-five kilometres N.N.E. of Tamia the Eocene beds, here an alternating series of clays and limestones, are capped by a deposit consisting of coarse rolled gravel, with blocks of silicified wood enclosed in a sandy gypseous base, some 10 metres thick. A larger and similar deposit caps the next high ground four kilometres to the west, and about 9 kilometres N.N.E. of Garat el Faras; in this case it forms a round-topped gravelly hill-range, attaining a height of about 165 metres above the canal to the south-east. The loose gravel at many points passes into hard conglomerate, notably in the hills 9 kilometres east and 4 kilometres north-east of Garat el Gindi. At the former spot the conglomerate is composed of blocks of limestone, with round pebbles of flint and quartz, sandstone and quartzite, and fragments of silicified wood, cemented by sand and calcareous material. Blocks of silicified wood also occur strewn on the surface of these gravel deposits.

In the hills north-east of Garat el Gindi the gravel deposits do not occupy the summit of the escarpment but occur laid on to a platform of beds belonging to the Qasr el Sagha series. Behind, another escarpment, that of the Fluvio-marine series, rises to the plateau summit.

[Fig. 9] will show the general relation of the different formations in this part of the district.

Near Elwat Hialla the deposits contain numerous blocks of basalt in addition to the usual constituents. The basalt is derived from the sheets interbedded at the base of the Oligocene a little to the north. As these gravels are here close to that formation, blocks of sandstone, basalt, and silicified wood now form a large proportion of the constituents.

Along the north side of the Fayûm depression, to the west of Elwat Hialla, the gravel terraces are almost absent, having been removed nearly completely by denudation. That the terraces once existed throughout this region is however shown by the small patches met with to the north-east of Widan el Faras, the eastern extremity of Jebel el Qatrani, and at several points high up on the escarpments as far west as the western end of the lake. Beyond the latter point these terrace gravels have not been noticed; the slopes of the depression become more and more obscured by loose superficial flints washed down from the plateau, and the existence of underlying terrace gravels could only be shown by detailed mapping.

PLIOCENE (to Pleistocene)	—1.	Terrace of gravel and conglomerate.
UPPER EOCENE-OLIGOCENE	—2.	Sands and sandstones.
MIDDLE EOCENE	—3.	Clays, marls and limestones of the Upper Mokattam.

Fig. 9.—Sketch-Section through summit of Fayûm Escarpment at Elwat Hialla.

Near Widan el Faras the terrace occurs at a level of about 220 metres above the Birket el Qurûn, or 175 metres above sea-level, and consists of a 10-metre thickness of a semi-consolidated mass of boulders and pebbles of sandstone, limestone, and basalt, with fine gravel and sand, unconformably laid on to the variegated sandstones of the Fluvio-marine series.

In the neighbourhood of the Survey’s main excavations for fossil bones, to the north of Garat el Esh, several local remnants of the formerly more or less continuous gravel terrace were detected [87]. The height was probably more accurately determined here than elsewhere and the upper limit of the deposits was found to lie at approximately 170 metres above sea-level; this figure may indeed be taken as the average height of the Pliocene terraces throughout the Fayûm.

Plate XIV.

PLEISTOCENE LACUSTRINE CLAYS WITH TAMARISK STUMPS IN SITU AT 50 METRES ABOVE PRESENT SURFACE OF THE BIRKET EL QURUN.

Briefly then we have shown the existence of the well marked remains of a gravel terrace 170-180 metres above sea-level, throughout the south-east, east, and north sides of the Fayûm depression, and the first question that suggests itself with regard to these deposits is, whether they are of marine or of freshwater origin? From their position in part capping and in part perched on the flanks of the escarpments, it is evident that the depression of the Fayûm must have been partly formed before their deposition; probably it had approximately obtained to its present form and dimensions, except as to depth. The terrace certainly marks the shoreline of the sheet of water in which its constituents were deposited, and the surface of this water must have attained a height of nearly 200 metres above present sea-level. It is not unlikely that some of the extensive plains of the Fayûm may owe their existence in part to the presence in Pliocene times of the sea or of a large inland lake, that they may in fact be plains of denudation. The plain above the escarpment of the Qasr el Sagha series, lying between 150 and 200 metres above sea-level, and stretching throughout a large part of the north of the Fayûm, has characters which tend to support this idea.

Unfortunately the gravels are entirely barren of contemporaneous organic remains, with one exception; near Ez. Qalamsha some examples of Ostrea cucullata were discovered, and these we believe to have truly belonged to the lower beds of the terraces and not to have been derived from the undoubted marine Middle Pliocene beds of Sidmant. If the existence of O. cucullata in these terraces could be confirmed we should undoubtedly class them as marine and of Middle Pliocene age. But the single evidence of the Qalamsha shells is not sufficient, and confirmatory occurrences must be obtained and, if possible, the relation of the terraces to Schweinfurth’s marine Sidmant beds determined, which has not been yet done.

M.—Gypseous deposits, probably dating from the close of the Pliocene Period.

Of distinctly later date than the gravel-terraces are the widely distributed gypseous deposits of the Fayûm and Nile Valley. These deposits are found covering the plain which separates the Nile Valley cultivation from the Fayûm depression, gradually rising from the level of the former until they overlie the gravels capping the summit overlooking the Fayûm ([Section XXI]).

Near the Pyramid of Medum the following beds are seen at the edge of the desert plain:—

		Metres.
Pure, gravelly, or marly gypsum		1-2
Clayey shales with gypsum and salt		1-1½
White marly limestone with much salt andfish-remains (fish-scales, etc.)	probable part of Ravinebeds.	2
Yellow sandstone with fish-scales,etc.	probable part of Ravinebeds.	3

The gravel deposits along the east side of the Fayûm are always capped by a gypseous bed. The latter is often 2 metres thick and frequently occurs as solid and almost pure white crystalline gypsum; sometimes it is calcareous and is frequently deposited in a tufaceous manner, especially resembling a tufa on the weathered surface. At other times it passes into a yellowish compact mass and may be very saliferous.

Frequently the deposit is full of rounded pebbles, the latter being often in the greater proportion and forming a sort of gypsum-cemented conglomerate. Not unfrequently it is impossible to draw any divisional line between the terrace gravels and the gypseous gravels above. Probably they are both closely connected and of Upper Pliocene age.

N.—Summary of the Pliocene Period.

From the above descriptions it is probable that the Pliocene period is represented in the Fayûm by the following:—

(1) Marine beds of Sidmant, undoubtedly of Middle Pliocene age and reaching a level of from 60 to 70 metres above present sea-level.

(2) Borings on exposed rock-surfaces at two distinct levels, the lower 0-20 metres, the higher some 112 metres, above sea-level. These borings appear to be the work of marine boring mollusca, and although those on the lower level may perhaps be of Middle Pliocene age with the Sidmant beds, the similar examples discovered at a much higher altitude (112 metres), point to the sea having attained a much higher level in later, perhaps Upper Pliocene, times.

(3) An extensive beach or terrace of gravel on the south-east, east, and north sides of the Fayûm, attaining a maximum level of about 170 to 180 metres above sea-level.

All the known facts seem to be satisfied if we imagine that in the Middle Pliocene the sea occupied the area, depression probably continuing until the 112 metre level with the highest borings was reached. Perhaps the lowest part of the terraces was formed during this time. In the later Pliocene times we may infer that the area was occupied, up to 180 metres above present sea-level, by a vast inland lake, perhaps of brackish water, connected with the sea on the one hand and the fiord or lakes of the Nile Valley on the other, the deposits of which have been described elsewhere [88].

Along the margins of this gigantic lake, these great accumulations of gravel might well have been formed, chiefly of material derived from the immediate shores, augmented perhaps by a certain amount of sediment brought by river-currents from the south.

Finally, from the way in which the gypsum and gypseous deposits are laid on the terrace gravels, and from their extension and thickness, we may presume that they were deposited on the bottom of just such a lake on evaporation of its water, when the sulphate of lime in solution, becoming more and more concentrated, may have been finally precipitated.[89]

Section XIII.—PLEISTOCENE.

The course of events in Pleistocene times is at present obscure. As far as can be judged it was during this period that a freshwater lake, the precursor of the great Mœris, came into existence. It might be thought that the early Pleistocene prehistoric lake was a relic of the still older body of water of Pliocene times, in which the gravel terraces and gypseous deposits were laid down. But such a remnant would have been of a high degree of salinity and could not have given rise to the fresh water Mœris. Most probably at the close of the Pliocene period, after the formation of the gypseous deposits, the area became elevated and cut off from the sea and from the Nile Valley marine fiord; probably an extensive body of water remained as an isolated lake, but this, cut off from external supply, would have gradually evaporated, its salt being left as a superficial deposit on the dried up bed. In early Pleistocene times we may presume the area became dry and was gradually eroded to its present shape and depth. The superficial deposits of salt and gypsum were for the most part removed as the depression was deepened, while the continuous terrace of gravel laid round the greater part of the rim was broken through, except where protected in favourable localities, the constituents being washed down and spread out over the lower ground. In course of time the region was moulded to its present form and dimensions, or rather to what it would be if the local alluvial deposits were stripped off and the water of the lake baled out. The area was an inland depression, probably sparsely vegetated like the rest of the higher country and separated from the Nile Valley by a low rocky ridge surmounted by a more of less continuous terrace of gravel of considerable height and thickness. In our opinion desert conditions had already set in before the early Nile broke down the ridge and formed a lake in the Fayûm; the date when this important event first took place is a matter of considerable doubt, as has already been mentioned (pp. [24,] [25]). We know that at the close of the Pliocene period the Nile Valley was a marine fiord (connected with the Fayûm and the Mediterranean) which was replaced in Pleistocene times, probably in consequence of slight elevation, by a series of fresh water lakes throughout the valley. These lakes were probably two or three in number and drained one into the other; the exact position of the barriers is as yet a matter of conjecture. Within these lakes thick lacustrine deposits were accumulated, so that the basins eventually became to a great extent silted up. In later Pleistocene times drainage down the Nile Valley appears to have become more pronounced, the barriers between the lakes were broken down and the river cut for itself a channel through the lacustrine beds, filling up the old lake basins. From this time onwards to early prehistoric times the bed of the river would appear to have steadily fallen, as it eroded its channel deeper and deeper. That this early Nile was a river of considerable size is evident from the amount of erosion it accomplished in the trough of the valley, whence the older lacustrine beds have been almost completely removed. Probably in the lower part of its course it swept against the base of the dividing ridge between the Nile Valley and the Fayûm depression. If, as we imagine, the river was at that time flowing some 20 metres higher than at present its currents would have met with little resistance from the loosely cemented terrace of gravel which formed the upper part of the dividing ridge. Once this was broken down the waters must have poured into the depression behind, until a lake of considerable size was formed. The sediment spread out over the floor in the shape of a fan, while at the same time deposits of sands and fine clays, blown and washed into the waters from the surrounding shores, were being slowly accumulated in the quieter and more remote parts of the lake.

For some time subsequent to the first connection between the Fayûm depression and the Nile, the latter continued to fall in level owing to continued erosion along its course, possibly the Fayûm again became completely isolated for a time. Subsequently in the earliest historic times under changed conditions the river commenced to carry and lay down the modern alluvial deposit of “Nile mud”, and from this time to the present day its bed has gradually risen. This is shown by the high Nile flood-readings on the early gauges of the Nile Valley; the nilometer at Roda shows a difference of 1·22 metres in 1026 years, or an annual rise of 0·12 centimetre, which is equivalent to 12 metres in 10,000 years [90]. Whether there was ever complete disconnection between the Nile and the originally formed lake in Pleistocene times is uncertain, but even so it was probably only during a comparatively short period: in early historic times the rise of the Nile bed must have brought about a reconnection.

The geological evidence for the existence of a great freshwater lake in Pleistocene and prehistoric times is afforded by the well-marked lacustrine clays and sands which are found over such a large area of the northern and western deserts of the Fayûm; the great extent of this lake will be seen by an examination of the accompanying maps. Its area must have been about 2250 square kilometres or about ten times the size of the modern Birket el Qurûn. The western limit may even have been further west than shown on [fig. 10.,][91] as some of the desert in the neighbourhood of Gar el Gehannem is very low-lying; or there may have existed subsidiary lakes in that direction. The upper limit of these ancient lacustrine clays is between 22 and 23 metres above sea-level, which exactly agrees with the figure adduced by Sir Hanbury Brown as the height of the more modern Lake Moeris from the evidence of levels. That Lake Moeris was simply the older prehistoric lake placed under artificial control admits of no doubt; the difficult question being as to when the lake first came into existence in prehistoric times.

The clays abound in freshwater shells and semi-fossil fish-bones of exactly the same species of fish (siluroid, etc) as still inhabit the Birket el Qurûn; probably some are even hardly different specifically from the Middle Eocene forms of the district. In addition remains of large animals are common, and include Hippopotamus, Elephas, Bubalis, sheep or goat, and Canis, with crocodiles and turtles, etc.[92]

Plate XV.

ISOLATED SAND-DUNE NEAR GAR EL GEHANNEM.

Martens [93] has described the following species of mollusca from Schweinfurth’s collections:—

Unio abyssinicus, Mart.
U. Schweinfurthi, Mart.
Corbicula fluminalis, var. consobrina Caill.
Neritina nilotica, Reev.
Valvata nilotica, Jick.
Cleopatra pirothi, Jick.
C. pirothi, var., unicarinata, Mart.
Bithynia aff. Boissieri, Charp.
Melania tuberculata, Müll.
Limnaea natalensis, Krauss.
L. mœris, Mart.
L. palustris, Müll.
Planorbis subangulata, Phil.

Blanckenhorn has pointed out [94] that this fauna is of special interest and differs from all fossil and living faunas in Egypt. It might be compared with the Melanopsis-fauna of the Nile Valley if the exceptional Limnaea were replaced by Melanopsis or Paludina. Its Unio Schweinfurthi recalls the youngest alluvial deposits of the Nile Valley, 2nd Cataract, Kom Ombo and Silsila; at these places, however, the beds containing the species in question are at least 20 metres above mean water level of the present day.

The sub-fossil fauna of the Fayûm alluvium, in addition to those forms everywhere met with in the Nile Valley, includes Neritina nilotica and Melania tuberculata, which are common forms of the Melanopsis stage, as well as Unio abyssinicus and Valvata nilotica. In common with the present fauna of the Birket el Qurûn it has the five forms belonging to the genera Corbicula, Neritina, Valvata, Melania, and Planorbis. The sub-fossil fauna, which passes into the modern fauna of the Birket el Qurûn, shows connection with the Mediterranean and Blue Nile, but has a total absence of White Nile forms such as Ampullaria, Lanistes, Cleopatra bulimoides, Spatha and Aetheria. Moreover Limnæa palustris, although identical with the form found on other Mediterranean coasts, is as yet entirely unknown from the Nile Valley. Blanckenhorn concludes that the diluvial subfossil deposits of the Fayûm were produced when the climate of Egypt was damper and more Europæan, the Nile carrying more arenaceous sediment in place of the mud of to-day and running at higher level, as it did when the shells of Unio Schweinfurthi were enclosed in the deposits of Jebel Silsila. Blanckenhorn thinks the Nile obtained access to the depression during the last European ice period. This last supposition, coupled with the above comparison of the Fayûm fresh-water fauna with the Melanopsis stage of the Nile Valley Pleistocene series, shows that in regarding the early Fayûm lake as dating from prehistoric times Blanckenhorn and the writer are in agreement.

Section XIV.—RECENT.

We may divide the Recent period into two epochs, Prehistoric and Historic, always remembering that the line of demarcation is not much more distinct than that between Recent and Pleistocene.

O.—Prehistoric.

The abundance of worked flints on the desert just within and around the site occupied by the Fayûm lake in late Pleistocene and prehistoric times, shows that the shores were eventually inhabited by people who made and used these primitive tools. That the edge of the lake was abundantly wooded is shown by the thousands of well preserved tamarisk stumps met with at the present day in situ ([Plate XIV]) in the clays throughout the former margin of the lake.

The implements occur chiefly along the margin of the highest level of the old lake, and have probably in many cases been buried in the lake clays until the present time, which would account for their beautiful state of preservation. We have not, however, yet actually detected them enclosed within the clays, although commonly found lying on the clean wind-worn surface. From the fine degree of workmanship we may undoubtedly refer these flint implements to the Neolithic or later stone-age, although the exact date is doubtful. That they were made and used while the lake still stood at its highest level seems certain, but as we have shown above, the lake, as a sheet of water up to 23 metres above sea-level or thereabouts, probably existed far anterior to the Egyptian historic period. They might, on the other hand, as far as the evidence from the position of the lake goes, have been used by the inhabitants of the lake-margin down to the great reclamation which took place in Ptolemaic times. As it seems impossible to date them by comparison with flints of known age from any Egyptian period, we may perhaps conclude that they are at least of older date than the earliest Egyptian records.[95]

P.—Historic.

In historical times, under conditions almost identical with those of the Nile of to-day, there would have been an annual inflow during the flood and outflow back to the Nile when the latter subsided; during the inflow a constant supply of Nile mud was brought into the lake and deposited on the surface of the earlier alluvium, continually augmenting the thickness of the latter and raising its surface, until in the central area marshy land began to appear. In the XII Dynasty this natural backwater of the Nile, which acted as a more or less efficient regulator of high and low floods, was brought under human control by Amenemhat I, and a considerable area of land reclaimed from the shallowest part of the lake, or that part of the country now lying near Edwa, Medinet el Fayûm, etc. The new artificially controlled lake was called Moeris, and its wonders are mentioned by Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo and Pliny.

The actual position of Lake Moeris has been the subject of much discussion, the late Linant de Bellefonds [96] having asserted that it was a high-level lake, quite distinct from the Birket el Qurûn, occupying the gap in the hills by which the Bahr Yusef enters the Fayûm, its encircling bank commencing at Edwa and passing through Biahmu, Medinet, etc. Sir Hanbury Brown has,[97] however, completely demolished Linant’s theory, which is shown to be absolutely untenable; and has proved conclusively that the ancient Mœris occupied the greater part of what is now the cultivated land, as well as the area covered by the present lake and a considerable part of the surrounding desert, the reclaimed land being in fact part of the very district Linant supposed the lake to have occupied. Since the publication of Brown’s work complete corroborative evidence has been forthcoming from two distinct sources, one archæological, the other geological. The latter has already been mentioned.

Fig. 10.—Sketch Map showing approximately the site of Lake Moeris.

It was clear from the map of Claudius Ptolemy that the route through the Fayûm to the Oasis Parva left Bacchias near the north end of the lake, and passing between Arsinœ and Lake Mœris, reached Dionysias near the other end. The archæological researches of Messrs. Grenfell and Hunt [98] have shown that Bacchias occupied the site of the modern Um el Atl close to one end of the Birket el Qurûn, while Dionysias was probably in the neighbourhood of Qasr el Banat or Qasr el Qurûn. Thus the Ptolemaic Lake Mœris was almost identical with the modern Birket el Qurûn. Neither did the sites excavated yield a trace of anything older than the third century B.C. Theadelphia and Philoteris were founded in the reign of the second Ptolemy, when a great reclamation of the land from the lake took place, and probably Euhemeria, Dionysias, Karanis and Bacchias date from the same reign.

The archæological evidence is thus briefly summed up by Grenfell and Hunt: “Originally the lake filled the whole basin of the Fayûm, the first reclamation being carried out by Amenemhat I, who built the great dam at El Lahûn, where the Bahr Yusef enters the province, and recovered the high ground near the entrance as far as Biahmu, and a point between Abshawai and Agamiin. This remained the Pharaonic province until the time of Herodotus, when the water still came up to the colossi at Biahmu. Subsequently all the land now cultivated below the level of the Pharaonic province was reclaimed, chiefly in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus, when Lake Mœris was reduced nearly to the size of its modern representative, the Birket el Qurûn”.

Present day Fauna of the Birket el Qurûn.As mentioned above, the Pleistocene fauna of the Fayûm differs in one or two particulars from the fauna of the present day. The commonest living molluscan forms include the following:—

Corbicula fluminalis.
Neritina nilotica.
Cleopatra bulimoides.
Hydrobia stagnalis.
Valvata nilotica.
Melania tuberculata.
Planorbis Ehrenbergi.
P. marginatus var. subangulata.

Blanckenhorn [99] has pointed out that in this fauna Hydrobia stagnalis, as a typical brackish water form is of special interest. The species appears to have established itself in the Birket el Qurûn in modern times, as it has not been found in the youngest alluvium of the lake, nor is it known in the modern Nile fauna.

Modern Deposits: Blown Sand and Erosion.Except for the gradual accumulation of silt over the bed of the Birket el Qurûn—sand and clay carried in by the wind and the fine sediment borne by the feeder canals—the only modern deposits of any importance are those of blown sand. The extensive arenaceous deposits of younger Tertiary age, forming the greater part of the continent from the latitude of the Fayûm to the Mediterranean shores, yield as a result of the action of denudation a constant and abundant supply of the raw material. The sand carried southwards by the prevailing winds accumulates as dunes in the lowest parts of the depressions, on the slopes of cliffs, and in all the less exposed localities. Wind swept areas remain free or are only gradually encroached on by slowly growing linear dunes originating in the wind-shadow of some protecting hill or ridge. An unique example of such a dune is to be seen at the south end of the well-marked ridge a few kilometres east of Gar el Gehannem ([Plate XV]).

The main accumulations of blown sand are in the southern part of the Fayûm; large areas of the floors of Wadis Rayan and Moêla are covered with dunes, while in their immediate neighbourhood the material has accumulated to such an extent as to blot out entire cliffs and valleys; immediately to the west of Gharaq a considerable area is covered with small but steep dunes; and finally must be mentioned the great linear belt of sand, known as the Ghart el Khanashat, which starting from a point about midway between the Wadi Natrûn and Mogara comes to an abrupt termination some 24 kilometres before gaining the northern escarpment of the Fayûm depression (see [page 23]).

As might be expected in an area like the Fayûm, where sedimentary rocks of every type are met with, and where the wind never wants for a sufficient supply of the necessary sand, superficial erosion is everywhere well marked. We do not propose to study here the action of wind-borne sand and it will be sufficient to mention two localities where the effects are best seen; one is in the neighbourhood of Garat el Esh, where the most remarkable scoring and grooving is to be seen on the two beds of limestone capping the upper and lower cliffs of the Middle Eocene; the other is the Zeuglodon Valley, and here the sculpturing of the sandstone of the Birket el Qurûn series is of the finest and most unique description.

Plate XVI.

THE BIRKET EL QURUN NEAR THE WESTERN END.

[33]Beadnell, The Fayûm Depression; a Preliminary Notice of the Geology of a district in Egypt containing a new Palæogene Vertebrate Fauna. Geol. Mag. Dec. IV, Vol. VIII, No. 450, Dec. 1901, pp. 540-546.

[34]Andrews, Fossil Mammalia from Egypt, Geol. Mag. 1899, No. 425, pp. 481, 482; and Blanckenhorn, Neues zur Geologie und Paleontologie Ægyptens, III, “Das Miocän,” Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. geol. Gesellschaft. Jahrg. 1901, pp. 98-101.

[35]Schweinfurth, Reise in das Depressionsgebiet im Umkreise des Fayum, Zeitschr., Ges. f. Erdkunde, Berlin, No. 122, 1886, p. 100.

[36]Op. cit. pp. 108-110.

[37]L’Oasis de Moëleh, Bull. de l’Institut Égypt., Fasc. 3, Ap. 1892.

[38]The following may be mentioned; Euspatangus (formosus? and Blanckenhorni), Schizaster, Lobocarcinus (? Paulino Wurtembergicus), Nautilus sp. etc.

[39]El Haram el Bahrl of Schweinfurth.

[40]Individuals of 60 mm. diameter are not uncommon.

[41]Cape Rayan of Schweinfurth.

[42]Blanckenhorn, Neues zur Geologie und Palæntologie Ægyptens (II. Das Palæogen) Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. Geolog. Gesellschaft, Jahrg. 1900, p. 446, has determined this as T. tenuistriata. He refers to these beds as corresponding to the Tafla of Jebel Mokattam, but I regard them as probably representing a considerably lower horizon.

[43]The nummulites from the Birket el Qurûn series have not yet been critically examined. There appear to be several species present, including N. Beaumonti, N. Sub-Beaumonti, N. Fraasi and N. Schweinfurthi. In the Zeuglodon Valley, 12 kilom. W.S.W. of Gar el Gehannem, occasional individuals of N. gizehensis occur in the basal beds. As there appears to be some doubt whether the four smaller nummulites mentioned above are specifically distinct we shall not attempt to discriminate too closely in the present report.

[44]Schweinfurth, op. cit. p. 139.

[45]Zittel, Palæontographica N.F.X. 3 (XXX) Die Versteinerungen der tertiäre Schichten von der westlichen Insel im Birket el Qurun See, von Prof. Karl Mayer-Eymar.

[46]It must be mentioned here, however, that more recently Mayer-Eymar speaks (Nouvelles Recherches sur le Ligurien et le Tongrien d’Égypte, Bull. Inst. Égypt., April, 1894, p. 216) of the Mokattam beds above Qasr el Sagha, some 100 metres higher in the series, as Parisian, but does not explain these two conflicting determinations. It seems quite certain, however, that these island beds are of Parisian age, and not Bartonian as stated by him.

[47]Lucina pharaonis, Bell., (L. pomum, May. Eym. not Dujardin) see Oppenheim, Zur Kenntnis alttertiärer Faunen in Ægypten, Palaeontographica, Bd. XXX, III, p. 124.

[48]Dames, Uber eine Tertiäre Wirbelthier Fauna von der westlichen Insel des Birket el Qurun in Fayum (Ægypten), Sitzungsber. Akad. Wissensch., Berlin, 1883.

[49]Uber Zeuglodonten aus Ægypten und die Beziehungen der Archæoceten zu den übrigen Cetacean, Palæontologische Abhandlungen von W. Dames und Kayser, I. V. 5, Jena, 1894.

[50]We propose to refer to this species as Z. Isis. See Geol. Mag. No. 479, Dec. V, Vol I, No. V, May 1904, p. 214.

[51]See also, Stromer von Reichenbach, Zeuglodonten-Reste aus dem oberen Mitteleocän des Fayum, Bayer Akad. Wissensch. Bd. XXXII, 1902, pp. 341-352.

[52]Ernest von Stromer. Zeuglodon-reste aus dem oberen Mitteleocän des Fayum, Beiträge zur Paläontologie und Geologie Osterreich-Ungarns und des Orients. Band XV. Heft II and III, p. 82.

Also Einiges über Bau und Stellung der Zeuglodonten, Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. geolog. Gesellsch. Jahr. 1903.

Compare Fraas Neue Zeuglodonten aus dem Unteren Mitteleocän vom Mokattam bei Cairo, Geol. u. Palæont. Abhand. Neue Folge Band VI Heft 3. Jena 1904.

[53]As the fossils occurring in these beds had been collected and described by Schweinfurth, Dames, and Mayer-Eymar, the writer did not spend further time on the island than was necessary for correlating the beds with his classification.

[54]Cossmann has recently described some Middle Eocene shells collected from the same locality, near Dimê, in a publication entitled Additions à la Faune Nummulitique d’Égypte, le Caire, 1901.

[55]T. pharaonica, Cossmann. A new species; apparently this is the form quoted by Blanckenhorn and Mayer-Eymar as T. angulata. According to Cossmann, however, T. pharaonica differs from T. angulata in several particulars, especially in being more thickset.

[56]Blanckenhorn, thinking that the bed capping the island of Geziret el Qorn is identical with that forming the plain around and to the north of Dimê, has, in a section recently published (Neues zur Geol. u. Palænt. Ægyptens, IV. Das Pliocän, etc., Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. geol. Gesellsch., Jahrg. 1901, Taf. XIV, fig. 2), inserted a number of faults letting the beds down continually to the south. The beds however are not identical, and no faults occur.

[57]This block was far too large to transport by camel, but it may be feasible to effect its removal to Cairo by cart when opportunity offers.

[58]Schweinfurth, op. cit. p. 139.

[59]A ruin discovered by Schweinfurth in 1886 and hence often spoken of as “Schweinfurth’s Temple.” Nothing certain is known as to its age or former use, but we may infer from its situation just beyond the limits of the high-level lacustrine clays, that it was built and inhabited only while Lake Mœris stood at its highest level.

[60]See Oppenheim, op. cit. p. 105.

[61]Details of a section of the lower beds of this group near the end of the lake have already been given on [p. 44.]

[62]As might be expected, vertebrate remains occur chiefly in the sandy and clayey beds. Skeletons of marine animals such as Zeuglodon and Eosiren may, however, be frequently observed embedded in the hard intercalated limestones. Limestone cranial-casts of these animals are thus sometimes found, and one of these has already been figured and described (Elliot Smith, The Brain of the Archæoceti, Proceedings Royal Society, Vol. 71, pp. 322-331. Some most beautifully formed casts from one of the limestone beds were eventually determined by Andrews to be casts of the air passages of crocodile skulls.

[63]Schweinfurth appears to have been the first to examine these beds.

[64]One would imagine that there must have been a considerable amount of ferruginous matter in the water at the time of deposition of the Fluvio-marine series, the prevailing colours of the deposits being red and yellow.

[65]Mayer-Eymar appears to believe the depression of the Fayûm is the result of the volcanic activity which produced these basalt flows. He says (op. cit. Nouvelles recherches, etc., p. 218.) “Or, de cette extension extraordinaire du phénomène volcanique dans l’ouest du grand désert, il est, en premier lieu, permis de conclure que c’est par suite de son action excavante qu’a eu lieu l’effondrement rempli de nos jours, en partie par le lac de Fayum.”

Personally, we cannot see the slightest evidence in support of this. Where the basalt occurs as a hard band it usually causes steep cliffs as at Widan el Faras, owing to its protecting the underlying beds from denudation. To the west, in Jebel el Qatrani, its thickness and hardness determine the character and steepness of the escarpment below.

[66]Pebble bands are occasionally met with in the coarser sandstones of the Fluvio-marine series, and it would seem that from them are derived the pebbles of quartz and flint which so invariably strew the desert-surface to the north to beyond the latitude of Cairo. Those flints on the surface are largely broken up and flaked by changes of temperature, but show comparatively little shaping by blown sand; the white quartz pebbles on the other hand, while seldom or never broken or flaked, are invariably more or less facetted, frequently into typical “dreikanter” or pyramid-pebbles; below the surface both varieties are perfectly water-rounded.

[67]Many of the fossils mentioned in this profile were only discovered after long search, and had to be inserted in the measured section afterwards. Their position therefore is only approximate, as individual beds could not always be correlated at the different points where fossils were collected.

[68]It is not intended to convey the impression that remains of all these vertebrates were found at the point where the actual line of section runs. As a matter of fact at that particular point only Palæomastodon remains were observed, while most of the others were obtained some distance further west. Remains of Mœritherium, probably identical with M. Lyonsi, of the Qasr el Sagha series, in the shape of a beautifully-preserved and almost complete skull, associated with Palæomastodon and Arsinoitherium in these same beds, I only discovered in January 1903, at a point nearly due north of the western end of the Birket el Qurûn. A preliminary description of this skull has been published by Andrews, Further Notes on the Mammals of the Eocene of Egypt; Geol. Mag. Dec. V. Vol. I. N^o III. March 1904, pp. 109-115.

[69]Andrews and Beadnell, A preliminary notice of a Land Tortoise from the Upper Eocene of the Fayûm, Egypt, P.W.M. report, Cairo, 1903.

[70]In addition to those described from the Survey and British Museum collections, some additional species are described by von Reinach from von Stromer’s collection: Schildkrötenreste aus dem ägyptischen Tertiär; Sonderabdruck aus den Abhandlungen der Sendeenbergischen naturforschenden Gesellschaft, Band XXIX, Heft I. Frankfurt 1903.

[71]Op. cit., p. 455-456. Vide Blanckenhorn, Zur Kentniss der Süsswasserablag. u. Mollusken Syriens. Palaeontographica XLIV, 1897, S. 97, t. 8, f. 2.

[72]More recently Blanckenhorn in a paper entitled Nachträge zur Kentniss des Palaeogens in Ægypten, (Centralbl. f. Mineralogie ch. 1901, No. 9, p. 272) has named this species Lanistes bartonianus (spelled bartoninus in same paper).

[73]It has 4-5 flat spiral rows, the uppermost of which on the last whorls is often more strongly developed but not keel-shaped as in M. muricata. There are longitudinal ribs to the number of 8-12 over the whorls; the largest example was 9 millimetres long and had 8 whorls.

[74]See Note 2, [p. 43.]

[75]The majority belong to the genus Nicolia, but more rarely specimens, apparently referable to a species of conifer, are met with.

[76]The largest trunk noticed had a length of 28 metres.

[77]Zittel, Beitr. z. Geol. u. Palaeont. d. Libysch. Wüste, I Th. (Palaeontographica, Vol. XXX) p. XCIII.

[78]Mayer-Eymar, Quelques mots sur les nouvelles recherches relatives au Ligurien et au Tongrien d’Egypte. Bull. de l’Inst. Egypt. (3) N. 4, 1894. Mayer-Eymar’s division of the lower beds into Ligurien inférieur and Ligurien supérieur is hardly convincing, especially as no fossils were found by that observer. The correlation of strata in widely separate areas by their lithological similarity is at least open to question, especially with beds of this type, which can indeed be exactly matched again and again at many levels in the same vertical succession. His diagnosis of the beds immediately below the basalt as Tongrien inférieur, rests, however, on firmer grounds, as this basalt sheet can be traced across the desert to beyond the latitude of Cairo, and is probably everywhere of approximately the same age.

[79]Schweinfurth, op. cit., Reise in das Depression Gebiet, etc.) p. 41.

[80]Beadnell, The Cretaceous Region of Abu Roash, near the Pyramids of Giza. Geol. Survey, Egypt, Report 1900, Pt. II. 1902, p. 44.

[81]Zur Geologie Aegypten, Pt. II, p. 458; Die Geschichte des Nil-Stroms in der Tertiär und Quartärperiode, etc., Z. d. Ges. f. Erdk. Z. Berlin, 1902, Tafel 10.

[82]Beadnell, Découvertes Géologiques Récentes dans la Vallée du Nil et le Désert Libyen, Compte rendu. VIII^e Congr. Géol. Internat. 1900, Paris, 1901, p. ; also Ball and Beadnell, Baharia Oasis: Its Topography and Geology; Survey Depart. P.W.M. report. Cairo. 1903, pp. 61-62.

[83]Correlations between Tertiary Mammal Horizons of Europe and America, Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XIII, No. 1, July 21, 1900, pp. 1-72.

[84]Compare Afrika als Entstehungszentrum für Säugetiere, Stromer, Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. Geolog. Gesellsch. Jahr 1903. Also Betrachtungen über die Geologische geschichte Aethiopiens, do. do., 1901.

[85]The locality has been briefly examined by Dr. Blanckenhorn and more recently by Mr. T. Barron, who was accompanied by Dr. Andrews; the writer spent a few days collecting in the neighbourhood in April, 1903.

[86]Approximately 10 metres above sea-level.

[87]It is worth recording here that a single worn specimen of Chicoreus anguliferus, Lam., was found on the desert surface in the neighbourhood of the bone-pits and at about the level of the highest gravel terrace. This determination was made by Bullen Newton, who informs me the species occurs in the marine Pleistocene beach deposits of the Red Sea.

[88]Beadnell, Découvertes Géologiques Récentes dans la Vallée du Nil et le Désert Libyen, VIII^e Congrès Géol. Intern. 1900. Paris 1901, pp. 25-27.

[89]Doubt has recently been thrown by American writers on the possibility of large or thick deposits of gypsum being formed by precipitation. See R. S. Sherwin. Notes on the theories of origin of gypsum deposits, Kansas Acad. Sci. Trans. Vol. 18. 1903, pp. 85-88.

[90]Egyptian Irrigation (1899), p. 32.

[91]The southern limits of the site (broken line) are taken from the maps of Brown and Willcocks.

[92]The mammalian remains collected from these lacustrine clays have not yet been systematically examined. Dr. Andrews has however determined some of the genera present: see, “Notes on an Expedition to the Fayum, Egypt”, Geol. Mag. No. 470 Aug. 1903, pp. 337-343.

[93]Martens Subfossile Süsswasser-Conchylien aus dem Fajum, Sitz. Ber. Gesell. naturforsch. Freunde, Berlin July, 1879, S. 100 u. Oct. 1886, S. 126.

[94]Geologie Ægyptens, pp. 444-446.

[95]For figures and details of these flints see a paper by the writer, Neolithic Flint Implements from the Northern Desert of the Fayûm, Egypt, Geol. Mag., Dec. IV., Vol. X., pp. 53-59, Febr. 1903.

[96]Mémoires sur les principaux travaux d’utilité publique exécutés en Egypte depuis la plus haute antiquité jusqu’à nos jours. 1872-1873, Chap. II.

[97]Op. cit. pp. 28-40.

[98]“The disposition of the Lake Mœris,” in the Archæological Report of the Egypt Explor. Fund 1898-1899, Pt. I. D., pp. 13-15.

[99]Blanckenhorn, op. cit. p. 463.

APPENDIX I.

PREVIOUS LITERATURE RELATING TO THE FAYUM.

Andrews C. W.—Extinct Vertebrates from Egypt. Parts I, II, Geol. Mag. N.S. Dec. IV. Vol. VIII, Sept. and Oct, 1901.
Notes on an Expedition to the Fayûm, Egypt, with description of some new Mammals, Geol. Mag. N.S. Dec. IV. Vol. X. Aug. 1903.
Further Notes on the Mammals of the Eocene of Egypt, (Pts I, II, III), Geol. Mag. N.S. Dec. V. Vol. I. March, April, May, 1904.
A note on the occurrence of a Ratite Bird in the Upper Eocene beds of the Fayûm, Egypt. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1904, Vol. I.
Andrews, C. W. and Beadnell, H. J. L.—A preliminary note on Some New Mammals from the Upper Eocene of Egypt, Survey Dept., P.W.M., Cairo, 1902.
A preliminary Notice of a Land Tortoise from the Upper Eocene of the Fayûm, Egypt. Survey Dept., P.W.M., Cairo, 1903.
Beadnell, H. J. L.—Découvertes Géologiques Récentes dans la Vallée du Nil et le Désert Libyen, VIII. Congr. Géol. Intern. 1900. Paris, 1901.
The Fayûm Depression; a Preliminary Notice of the Geology of a district in Egypt containing a new Palaeogene Vertebrate Fauna. Geol. Mag. Dec. IV. Vol. VIII No. 450, Dec. 1901.
A preliminary note on Arsinoitherium Zitteli, Beadn., Survey Dept., P.W.M., Cairo, 1902.
Neolithic Flint Implements from the Northern Desert of the Fayûm, Egypt. Geol. Mag. Dec. IV. Vol. X. Febr. 1903.
Blanckenhorn, M.—Geologie Ægyptens (Pts I-IV) Zeitsch. Deutsch. Geol. Gesell. Berlin, 1901.
Neue geologisch-stratigraphische Beobachtungen in Ægypten, S.-Ber. d. math.-phys. Classe d. Kgl. bayer. Ac. d. Wiss. Bd. XXXII, 1902, Heft III, München, 1902.
Die Geschichte des Nil-Stroms in der Tertiär- und Quartär periode, sowie des Palaeolithischen Menschen in Ægypten. Z. d. Ges. f. Erdk. Z. Berlin, 1902.
Nachträge zur Kenntniss des Palaeogens in Ægypten, Centralb. f. Mineral. No. 9. 1903.
Brown, Sir Hanbury.—The Fayûm and Lake Mœris, London, 1892.
Cossmann, M.—Additions a la Faune Nummulitique d’Egypte, Cairo, 1901.
Dames, W.—Uber eine Tertiäre Wirbelthier Fauna von der westlichen Insel des Birket-el-Qurûn in Fayûm (Ægypten). Sitzungsber. Akad. Wissensch., Berlin, 1883.
Dames, W. and Kayser.—Uber Zeuglodonten aus Ægypten und die Beziehungen der Archæoceten zu den übrigen Cetacean. Palaeont. Abhand. I. V. 5, Jena, 1894.
Editor Geological Magazine.—A New Egyptian Mammal (Arsinoitherium) from the Fayûm. Geol. Mag. N.S., Dec. IV, Vol. X, Dec. 1903.
Elliot Smith, G.—The Brain of the Archaeoceti, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vol. 71.
Flinders Petrie.—Hawara, Biahmu and Arsinœ, Egypt. Explor. Fund Reports, 1889.
Garstin, Sir William.—Report upon the Basin of the Upper Nile, Cairo, 1904.
Grenfell and Hunt.—The disposition of the Lake Mœris, Archaeol. Rep. Egypt. Exploration Fund. 1898-99. Pt. I. D.
Liernur, Western and Scott Moncrieff, Sir Colin.—Notes on the Wadi Rayan, Cairo, 1888.
Linant de Bellefonds.—Mémoires sur les travaux publics en Egypte, Paris, 1873.
Mémoires sur les principaux travaux d’utilité publique exécutés en Egypte depuis la plus haute antiquité jusqu’à nos jours, 1872-1873.
Lucas, A.—A preliminary Investigation of the Soil and Water of the Fayûm Province, Survey Dept., P.W.M., Cairo, 1902.
Martens. E. v.—Subfossile Süsswasser-Conchylien aus dem Fajum. Sitz. Ber. Gesell. naturf. Freunde, Berlin, 1879.
Mayer-Eymar,—L’oasis de Moëleh, Bull. de l’Inst. Egypt., April, 1892.
Nouvelles Recherches sur le Ligurien et le Tongrien d’Egypte, Bull. de l’Instit. Egypt., April, 1894.
Die Versteinerungen der tertiären Schichten von der westlichen Insel im Birket-el-Qurûn See, Paleontogr. N.F.X., 3, (XXX).
Oppenheim, P.—Zur Kenntnis alttertiärer Faunen in Aegypten, (I). Palaeontographica, Dreif. Band. III, Public Works Ministry reports, 1889-1904. Abt. Erst. Lief. Stuttgart, 1903.
Reinach, v.—Schildkrötenreste aus dem ägyptischen Tertiär. Sonderabd. aus d. Abhand. d. Senckenb. natur. Gesellsch. XXIX, I. Frankfurt, 1903.
Schweinfurth, G.—Reise in das Depressionsgebiet im Umkreise des Fajûm, Zeitschr. Ges. F. Erdkunde, Berlin, 1886.
A note on the Salt in the Wadi Rayan, Appendix II, Egyptian Irrigation (Willcocks), London, 1899.
Scott Moncrieff, Sir Colin—Note on the Wadi Raian Project, Cairo, 1889.
Stromer, E.—Zeuglodonten-Reste aus dem oberen Mitteleocän des Fayûm, Bayer. Akad. Wissensch., Bd. XXXII, 1902.
Einiges über Bau und Stellung der Zeuglodonten, Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. Geolog. Gesellsch. 1903. See also Beiträge zur Paläont. u. Geol. Osterr.-Ungarins u. des Orients. Band XV. Heft II and III.
Afrika als Entstehungszentrum für Säugetiere, Zeitschr. d. Deutsch. Geolog. Gesellsch. 1903.
Whitehouse, Cope.—Bull. of the American Geographical Society, 1882.
Willcocks, Sir William.—Perennial Irrigation and Flood Protection in Egypt, P.W.M. Report, Cairo, 1894.
Egyptian Irrigation, 2nd Edit. London, 1899.
The Assuan Reservoir and Lake Mœris, London, 1904.
Zittel, K. v.—Geologie u. Palaeontologie der Libyschen Wüste, Cassel, 1883.

APPENDIX II.

Paul Oppenheim has recently published [100] a description of a large collection of Egyptian lamellibranchs; the following is a list of the species of which examples have been collected in the Fayûm (including Rayan and Moêla). Figured species are marked by an asterisk.

*	Gryphaea pharaonum, Oppenh	Lower Mokattam.
*	Ostrea (Gryphaea) Whitehousei, May.-Eym.	„
*	O. „ Edmondstonei, May-Eym.	„
*	O. „ histris, May.-Eym.	„
*	Gryphaea (?) arabica, May.-Eym.	„
*	O. elegans, Desh.	Upper (and intermediate) Mokattam.
*	O. Fraasi, May.-Eym.	Lower and Upper Mokattam.
*	O. Stanleyi, May.-Eym.	„ „
*	O. Cailliaudi, May.-Eym.	Upper Mokattam.
*	O. ramosa, May.-Eym.	Lower Mokattam.
*	O. plicata, Sol.	Mokattam Series.
	O. paucicostata, Oppenh.	Lower Mokattam.
	O. Reili, Fraas.	Lower and Upper Mokattam.
	O. Schweinfurthi, May.-Eym.	Upper Mokattam.
	O. Sickenbergeri, May.-Eym.	„
*	O. Hessi, May.-Eym.	Lower and Upper Mokattam.
*	O. qeruniana, May.-Eym.	Mokattam Series.
	O. gigantica, Sol.	Upper (and intermediate) Mokattam.
*	O. (Alectryonia) Clot-Beyi, Bell.	Lower and Upper Mokattam.
*	O. ( „ ) Bellardi, May.-Eym.	Lower Mokattam.
	O. ( „ ) semipectinata, Schafh.	„
*	O. ( „ ) Mehemeti, May.-Eym.	„
	Carolia placunoides, Cantraine	Lower and Upper Mokattam.
*	Pecten moëlehensis, May.-Eym.	Lower Mokattam.
*	P. Cailliaudi, Oppenh.	Lower and Upper Mokattam.
	Plicatula pyramidarum, Fraas	Upper Mokattam.
	P. Bellardi, May.-Eym.	Mokattam Series.
	P. indigena, May.-Eym.	„
*	P. Schweinfurthi, Oppenh.	Lower Mokattam.
*	Spondylus ægyptiacus, Newton	Mokattam Series.
*	S. Rouaulti, d’Arch.	Lower and Upper Mokattam.
*	S. perhorridus, Oppenh.	Lower Mokattam.
*	Vulsella crispata, Fischer	Lower and Upper Mokattam.
*	V. lignaria, Oppenh.	Lower Mokattam.
*	V. moëlehensis, Oppenh.	„
*	V. chamiformis, May.-Eym.	„
*	Nucula Mœridis, Oppenh.	Upper Mokattam.
*	Cucullaea dimehensis, Oppenh.	„
*	Arca subplanicostata, Oppenh.	Upper Mokattam.
*	A. Tethyis, Oppenh.	Mokattam Series.
*	A. uniformis, Oppenh.	Upper Mokattam.
*	A. tenuifilosa, Cossm.	Mokattam Series.
*	Pectunculus juxtadentatus, Cossm.	Upper Mokattam.
*	P. aegyptiacus, Oppenh.	„
*	Cardita Viquesneli, d’Arch.	Lower and Upper Mokattam.
	C. acuticostata, Lk.	„ „
*	C. mokattamensis, Oppenh.	Upper Mokattam.
*	C. fayumensis, Oppenh.	„
*	C. fidelis, May.-Eym.	„
*	C. Mosis, Oppenh.	Mokattam Series.
*	Crassatella fajumensis, Oppenh.	Upper Mokattam.
	C. Junkeri, May.-Eym.	„
	C. puellula, May.-Eym.	„
*	C. trigonata, Lk.	Mokattam Series.
*	Lucina pharaonis, Bell.	Lower and Upper Mokattam.
*	L. Rai, Oppenh.	Mokattam Series.
*	L. polythele, Oppenh.	„
*	L. calliste, Oppenh.	„
*	L. gibbosula, Lk.	Upper Mokattam.
*	L. fajumensis, Oppenh.	„
*	L. sinuosa, Bell.	„
*	Diplodonta cycloidea, Bell.	Mokattam Series.
*	D. inflata, Bell.	„
*	Lucina (Diplodonta) corpusculum, Oppenh.	„
*	Cardium desertorum, Oppenh.	Upper Mokattam.
*	C. Schweinfurthi, May.-Eym.	„
*	Cyrena (Corbicula) Blanckenhorni, Oppenh.	„
*	Cyprina aegyptiaca, Oppenh.	„

[100]Zur Kenntnis alttertiärer Faunen in Ägypten. Pt. I. Der Bivalven, erster Teil. Palaeontographica Bd. XXX, III.

INDEX

A
Abshawai—[30]-31, [84].
Abu Roash as an island—[65].
Acacias—[25].
Adaptive radiation of Hyracoidea, &c.—[69].
Aegean plateau, Giraffes, &c. of—[69].
Aetheria—[81].
Africa with Europe or Asia, Connection of—[68].
Africa as centre of mammalian radiation—[68], [88].
Agamiin—[84].
Agassizia gibberulus—[52].
Ain Warshat el Melh—[20].
Air passages of crocodile skulls, as casts—[52].
Akera aff. striatella—[51]-52.
Alectryonia Clot-Beyi—[35], [50]-52.
Allen—[69].
Alluvial deposits—[23], [25]-26, [29], [39], [79]-81.
Alluvial soil, Composition of—[11]-12.
Alluvium covering eastern area—[25], [30].
Amenemhat I—[13], [26], [82], [84].
Ampullina hybrida—[51].
Ampullaria—[51], [81].
Analyses of water—[13], [22].
Analysis of fossil bones—[54].
Analysis of ox bone—[55].
Ancodus Gorringei—[34], [59], [70].
Andrews, Dr. C. W.—[10], [34], [52], [59], [68], [71], [80], [87].
Anisaster gibberulus—[52].
Anomaluridae—[68]-69.
Anoplotheres—[69].
Antelopes—[69].
Aquatic animals—[55].
Aquatic hyracoid—[69].
Arca—[53], [60].
Arca Edwardsi—[43].
Arca subplanicostata—[90].
Arca tenuifilosa—[90].
Arca tethyis—[52], [90].
Arca uniformis—[90].
Archæoceti—[44], [52], [87].
Ard varks—[69].
Area of Birket el Qurûn—[13].
Area of cultivated land—[11].
Area of desert in depression—[15].
Area of Fayûm depression—[9]-11.
Area of Fayûm freshwater lake—[80].
Arenaceous deposits—[84].
Arenaceous sediments of Nile—[81].
Argillaceous sandstone—[36], [39], [46].
Argillaceous sands—[57].
Armadillos—[69].
Arsinœ—[13], [83], [87].
Arsinoitherium—[10], [54], [59], [62], [68]-87.
Arsinoitherium Andrewsii—[34], [70].
Arsinoitherium Zitteli—[10], [34], [59], [70], [87].
Assuan Reservoir—[88].
Astarte—[46].
Astrohelia similis—[35], [43], [51].
B
Baboons—[69].
Bacchias—[83]-84.
Baharia Oasis—[9], [25], [27], [29], [66], [67].
Bahr Belama—[18].
Bahr Yusef—[11]-12, [17]-18, [25]-26, [83]-84.
Balanus—[39], [47].
Ball, Dr. J.—[66].
Barbatia—[60].
Barriers between Nile lakes—[79].
Barron, T.—[71].
Barton Clay—[58].
Bartonian beds—[43], [53]-70.
Barytherium—[10], [51], [68].
Barytherium grave—[35], [51], [70].
Basalt sheet—[15], [28], [34], [53], [56]-64, [75]-76 (derived).
Basins receiving drainage—[25], [79].
Bats, Ravine of El—[29]-30, [37], [39]-40.
Beadnell, H. J. L.—[10], [33], [59]-60, [65]-66, [78], [87].
Beauchamp sands—[58].
Beekite—[61].
Biahmu—[13], [83]-84, [87].
Birds, Fossil—[70]-87.
Birket el Qurûn—[11], [12]-14, [16], [23]-25, [27]-28, [30]-32, [36], [40]-41, [43]-47, [49]-50, [56], [61], [72]-73, [80]-81, [83]-84, [87]-88.
Birket el Qurun Schichten—[63].
Birket el Qurûn Series—[23], [27], [35], [41]-50, [52], [64], [72]-74.
Bithynia aff. Boissieri—[81].
Blanford—[69]-70.
Blanckenhorn, Dr. M.—[30]-31, [34], [39], [45], [58], [60], [64], [66], [71], [81], [87].
Blue Nile fauna—[81].
Bone horizons & pits—[52], [54], [62], [76].
Borings, Artesian—[18].
Borings at Medinet el Fayûm—[29]-30, [41].
Borings by molluscs—[23], [34], [43], [71]-73, [78].
Borings by shells at two levels—[72]-73.
Borsonia—[37].
Boulders in gravel terraces—[76].
Brackish-water shells—[84].
Brain of archæoceti—[52], [87].
Branches wanting on fossil trees—[64]-65.
British Museum collections—[59].
Brown coal—[53].
Brown, Sir Hanbury—[11], [13], [80], [83], [87].
Bryozoa—[36], [52].
Bubalis—[80].
Bugti beds (Sind)—[70].
Bullen Newton, R.—[76].
C
Cairo—[9], [16], [28], [49], [56], [64], [65].
Calcareous beds in lake—[12].
Calcareous grits—[33], [53], [56]-63.
Calcareous sandstone—[25], [42]-43, [45], [50]-51, [59], [72].
Calcite—[51], [58]-59, [61]-62.
Callianassa—[36], [58].
Calyptræa trochiformis—[43].
Canals—[11]-12, [18]-19, [29], [73].
Canals, Mud brought to lake by—[14].
Canis—[80].
Cape Rayan—[21], [36].
Carbonaceous clays—[46].
Carbonaceous matter—[42], [51].
Cardita—[38]-39, [47].
Cardita acuticostata—[90].
Cardita aff. carinata—[52].
Cardita aff. depressa—[52].
Cardita ægyptiaca—[46].
Cardita fidelis—[90].
Cardita fajumensis—[35], [46], [50]-52, [90].
Cardita cf. gracilis and depressa—[52].
Cardita mokattamensis—[90].
Cardita Mosis—[90].
Cardita aff. triparticostata—[52].
Cardita Viquesneli—[35], [45]-46, [90].
Cardium—[59].
Cardium desertorum—[90].
Cardium Schweinfurthi—[35], [43]-44, [50]-51, [90].
Carolia—[36]-39, [48], [50], [52].
Carolia Beds—[33], [48]-53, [74] (rolled blocks).
Carolia placunoides—[35]-36, [38]-39, [45]-49, [51]-52, [73], [89].
Cassidaria—[51].
Cassidaria nilotica—[51].
Cassidaria aff. nodosa—[51].
Casts of crocodilian skull air passages—[52].
Casts of shells—[39], [44], [51], [59], [63].
Cavernous limestone—[37].
Celestine—[48].
Cellular weathering of sandstone—[46].
Central African character of Fayûm shells—[60].
Central Area of Fayûm—[24]-25.
Centres of independent evolution—[69].
Cerithium—[39], [46]-47, [53], [57]-58.
Cerithium crispum—[58].
Cerithium fodicatum—[37].
Cerithium perditum—[58].
Cerithium tiarella—[58].
Cetacea—[9], [43]-44, [47], [49], [87].
Chalcedony—[61].
Chalky limestones—[40].
Charcoal, Natural—[51], [53].
Chelonians—[34], [44], [54], [62].
Chert, Tabular—[61]-62.
Cherty limestones—[57], [59], [61].
Chicoreus anguliferus—[76].
Claudius Ptolemy—[83].
Clavellithes longævus—[35], [45]-46.
Clays—[12], [15], [18], [20], [22]-25, [28]-30, [33]-53, [55]-59, [61]-62, [74]-76, [80], [82].
Clays, Variegated—[62].
Clayey marls—[37], [53], [62].
Clayey sands—[29], [36]-37, [42], [58].
Clayey sandstones—[36], [50], [57], [62].
Clayey shales—[77].
Cleopatra pirothi—[81].
Cleopatra pirothi var. unicarinata—[81].
Cleopatra bulimoides—[81], [84].
Cliffs—[12], [14]-15, [20]-24, [27], [32], [36], [40]-41, [45]-46, [48]-50, [53], [56], [73]-74, [84]-85.
Climate, Variations in Egyptian—[81].
Coal, Thin seam of—[53].
Coast-line of old continent—[54].
Colossi at Biahmu—[84].
Concretions—[35]-36, [38]-40, [42]-46, [50], [72].
Concretionary sands—[58].
Concretionary sandstones—[35], [46], [49], [51], [55]-56, [62].
Concretionary weathering—[42], [46].
Conglomerate—[25], [74]-76, [78].
Conical hill near Wadi Muêla—[36].
Coniferous fossil trees—[63].
Constancy of beds over wide areas—[33].
Continental land in Oligocene times—[64].
Continuance of Oligocene continental conditions—[54].
Cope Whitehouse—[16]-17.
Coprolites—[50]-51, [62].
Corals—[36]-37, [44], [46], [51], [53].
Corbicula Blanckenhorni—[90].
Corbicula fluminalis, var. consobrina—[81], [84].
Corbula—[40].
Corbula aff. pixidicula—[35], [39], [43].
Cossmann, M.—[45], [58], [87].
Cossmannella ægyptiaca—[50].
Cranial casts in limestone—[52].
Crassatella fajumensis—[90].
Crassatella Junkeri—[90].
Crassatella puellula—[90].
Crassatella trigonata—[90].
Crassatellithes—[50].
Creodonts—[70].
Crocodiles—[9], [34], [51]-55, [59], [62], [80].
Crocodilus—[59], [70].
Crystals of quartz, calcite &c.—[61].
Cucullæa aff. crassatina—[52].
Cucullæa dimehensis—[89].
Cultivated lands—[9], [11]-14, [39]-42, [73], [83]-84.
Currents in Birket el Qurûn—[14].
Currents in ancient river—[52], [54], [65]-66, [71]-78, [80].
Current-bedded clays, sands, &c.—[51], [56].
Cuvier—[69].
Cyprina ægyptiaca—[90].
Cyrena Blanckenhorni—[90].
Cytherea—[46].
Cytherea Newboldi—[43].
D
Dakhla Oasis—[29].
Dam at El Lahûn—[84].
Dames—[9], [43]-44, [49], [87].
Damp climate formerly in Egypt—[81].
Dashûr, Pyramids of—[28].
Dasypodidae—[69].
Defile of Wadi Muêla—[9], [21].
Delta, Ancient—[54], [66]-67.
Dentalium—[46].
Denudation, Effects of—[39], [73], [75], [77], [84].
Deposition of sediments in Eocene times—[54].
Depression, Origin of Fayûm—[15], [29], [33], [79].
Depression cut out in sedimentary rocks—[33].
Depression, Fayûm—[9], [11]-16, [20], [24], [26]-30, [33]-36, [39], [53], [61], [64], [67], [71], [75], [77]-81, [84]-85, [87]-88.
Depression, Mogara—[71].
Depression, Wadi Rayan &c.—[17]-19, [21]-24.
Depressions of Libyan Desert—[16], [29], [67].
Depth of Birket et Qurûn—[13].
Der el Beda—[64].
Der el Galamûn—[21], [36].
Desert conditions—[73], [79].
Desert region—[11], [14], [16], [26]-28.
Deshasleh—[17].
Dictyopleurus Haimi—[52].
Diluvial deposits—[81].
Dimê—[13], [31], [45], [50], [72].
Dinotheres—[69].
Diodorus Siculus—[13], [82].
Dionysias—[83]-84.
Dip, Importance and nature of—[15], [33], [48]-49, [55], [57], [64].
Diplodonta corpusculum—[90].
Diplodonta cycloidea—[90].
Diplodonta inflata—[90].
Dip-slopes of central area &c., of Fayûm—[24], [25], [27], [50].
Disconnection of Nile Valley and Fayûm—[80].
Dormice—[69].
Downthrow of faults—[32], [50].
Drainage basins—[11], [13], [23], [25].
Drains—[12].
Dreikanter—[56].
Druses of calcite—[62].
Dugongs—[53].
Dunes—[17], [21]-23, [26]-27, [84]-85.
Dunes, Slope of—[26].
Dunes, Straight-lined character of—[26], [85].
E
Earth-pillars—[46].
Earthy limestone—[46].
Echinids—[36]-37, [39].
Echinolampas Crameri—[35], [50].
Edentata—[69].
Edwa—[82]-83.
Egyptian irrigation—[88].
Elephants, Early—[68].
Elephas—[80].
El-Gayat, village—[20].
Elliot Smith, Dr.—[52], [87].
Elwat Hialla—[28], [55]-56, [75]-76.
Emigration of African animals—[68].
Eocene sea, Extension of—[66].
Eosiren—[10], [52].
Eosiren libyca—[35], [51], [70].
Eremopezus libycus—[34], [70].
Erosion by Nile—[79], [80].
Erosion, Superficial—[85].
Escarpments—[15], [21], [26]-28, [31]-32, [45], [49], [52], [56]-58, [60]-61, [75]-77.
Escarpments determined by fractures—[32].
Eschara Duvali—[37].
Estuarine conditions of upper beds—[53], [55].
Ethiopian faunal region—[68]-69.
Ethiopian region centre of independent evolution—[69]-70.
Euhemeria—[84].
Euspatangus Blanckenhorni—[36].
Euspatangus cairensis—[52].
Euspatangus formosus—[36].
Evaporation of late Pliocene lake—[78]-79.
Even-toed ruminants—[68].
Exogyra Fraasi—[35], [50]-52.
F
Facetted quartz pebbles—[56].
False-bedding—[50]-51, [55]-57, [62], [73].
Farafra Oasis—[29].
Faulting and folding—[16], [29]-32, [49]-50.
Fault near Qasr el Sagha—[32].
Fault, Nile Valley—[15].
Fayûm beds shallower water than those of Mokattam—[41].
Fayûm, Causes of origin of—[15], [29], [33].
Ferruginous bands—[51]-52, [58].
Ferruginous clays—[51].
Ferruginous grits—[27], [58], [62], [66]-67.
Ferruginous sand—[54].
Ferruginous sandstone—[46], [50], [52], [57].
Feshn—[11].
Fibrous gypsum—[52].
Ficula tricarinata—[43].
Filhol, M.—[69].
Fiord, Nile Valley—[78]-79.
Fish remains—[9], [35], [39]-40, [42]-44, [46]-47, [50]-52, [59], [70], [77], [70].
Fish-scales—[39]-40, [42], [44], [77].
Fish-spines—[39], [50].
Fish-teeth—[39], [43], [50].
Fish-vertebrae—[50].
Flat-topped hills—[20].
Flinders, Petrie—[13], [87].
Flint implements—[61], [82].
Flint pebbles—[20], [50], [56], [62]-63, [73], [75]-76.
Flint, Tabular—[61]-62.
Floods—[26], [54], [67], [82].
Flood protection—[88].
Flood-readings—[80].
Floor of depression—[39].
Fluviatile conditions of deposition—[58].
Fluviatile sands, etc.—[60], [66]-67.
Fluviomarine conditions of deposition—[33].
Fluviomarine Series—[9], [27], [34], [53]-65, [74]-76.
Flying rodents—[68]-69.
Fold near Qasr el Sagha—[32], [49].
Foraminiferal beds—[33], [35]-39, [41]-42, [45]-48, [74].
Formation of Fayûm lake—[26], [78]-80, [82]-84.
Fractures determining escarpments—[32].
Freshness of Birket el Qurûn—[14], [24].
Freshwater conditions of deposition—[58].
Freshwater lake before Mœris—[79]-80.
Freshwater lakes of Nile Valley—[79].
Freshwater shells—[18], [44], [47], [60], [80]-81, [88].
Freshwater shells absent in Wadi Rayan—[23].
Fusus—[37], [48].
G
Gar el Gehannem—[9], [23], [25], [27], [32], [36]-39, [41], [46]-47, [50], [52], [61], [67], [73], [80], [85].
Gar el Hamra—[27], [67].
Garat el Esh—[32], [61], [76], [85].
Garat el Faras—[28], [50], [75].
Garat el Gindi—[28], [75].
Garstin, Sir W.—[18], [87].
Gasteropods—[36], [58].
Geniohyus—[10].
Geniohyus fayumensis—[34], [70].
Geniohyus major—[34], [70].
Geniohyus mirus—[34], [70].
Geodes—[61].
Geological Succession in Wadi Rayan—[22].
Geological Magazine—[10], [87].
Geology of Fayûm—[33], [90].
Geziret el Qorn—[31], [40], [43]-45, [63].
Gharaq, Bahr el—[11], [17].
Gharaq Basin—[11], [13], [19]-20, [23]-26, [31], [36], [85].
Gharaq, Wadi—[17].
Ghardag bushes—[22].
Ghart el Khanashat—[26]-27, [85].
Gigantophis—[10].
Gigantophis Garstini—[35], [51], [70].
Giraffes—[69].
Gisortia—[37].
Gisortia gigantea—[51].
Giza, Pyramids of—[28], [63].
Glacial period—[69], [81].
Glauconitic clays—[36], [39], [50].
Glauconitic marl—[39].
Glauconitic sands—[37].
Globular concretions—[35], [42]-46, [72].
Glycimeris pulvinatus—[52].
Goat remains—[80].
Goniastræa cocchii—[43].
Goniaræa elegans—[51].
Goniopora—[51].
Grass in desert—[27].
Gravels—[15], [25]-27, [32], [34], [40]-42, [73]-78.
Gravel-capped hills—[75].
Gravel terraces—[25], [34], [42], [71], [73]-80.
Gravelly gypsum—[77].
Grenfell, Mr.—[83]-84, [87].
Grits—[27], [33]-34, [57]-63, [66].
Grooving due to blown sand—[85].
Gryphæa arabica—[89].
Gryphæa Edmonstonei—[89].
Gryphæa histris—[89].
Gryphæa pharaonum—[89].
Gryphæa Whitehousei—[89].
Gauges, Nile—[80].
Gypseous clays—[33], [35], [37]-40, [44]-46, [51]-52.
Gypseous deposits—[71], [75], [77], [79].
Gypseous limestone—[50], [52].
Gypseous marls—[37]-39.
Gypseous plain—[20]-21.
Gypseous sands—[39].
Gypseous shale—[42], [48].
Gypsum—[18], [20], [36]-37, [39], [42], [50]-52, [61]-62, [77]-79.
Gypsum of Paris, Animals in—[69].
H
Hade of fault—[32].
Haram el Bahrl, El—[36].
Harpoons, Flint—[61].
Hawara—[11], [13], [26], [87].
Headon Hill beds—[58].
Height of Pliocene terraces—[76].
Heliastræa acervularia—[43].
Heliastræa Ellisi—[13].
Heliastræa flattersi—[43].
Heluan—[16].
Herodotus—[13], [82], [84].
High-level lake—[83].
Hippopotamus—[69], [80].
Historic epoch—[81]-85.
Horns of Birket el Qurûn due to siliceous bands—[41].
Hunt, Mr.—[83]-84, [87].
Huxley, Prof.—[68].
Hydractinia—[38].
Hydractinia cornuta—[35].
Hydrobia stagnalis—[84].
Hyracoidea—[69].
I
Ice periods—[69], [81].
Immigration of animals into Africa—[68].
Implements, Flint—[61].
India, Fauna of—[69].
Indo-Malayan faunal region—[69].
Invasion of Africa by European animals—[69].
Invasion of Europe by African animals—[69].
Ironstone—[50], [58]-59.
Irrigation works, Result of—[12], [88].
Isocardia cyprinoides—[43].
J
Jerboas—[69].
Joint-planes—[36].
K
Kafr el Ayat—[11].
Karanis—[84].
Kayser—[87].
Kenîsa, El—[72].
Kharga Oasis—[29].
Knobs along line of fault—[32].
Kom Ombo—[81].
Korif, Wadi—[21].
L
Lacustrine deposits—[12]-13, [34], [40], [44], [47], [49], [66]-67, [79]-80, [82].
Lahûn—[11], [26], [39], [84].
Lahûn Pyramid—[28], [42].
Lake deposits—[67], [79].
Lake in Fayûm—[11]-14, [78]-80.
Lake Mœris—[12]-13, [18]-19, [23]-24, [43], [49], [79]-80, [82]-84, [87]-88.
Lake, Nile Valley—[78]-79.
Lake of the Horns—[12].
Lamellibranchs—[12], [58]-59, [89].
Lamination of arenaceous deposits—[66].
Land-animal remains—[52]-54.
Land-areas, Ancient—[65]-67, [71].
Lanistes—[53], [58], [81].
Lanistes antiquus—[51].
Lanistes bartonianus—[34], [60].
Lanistes carinatus—[60].
Lava Flows—[15], [33]-34, [53], [56]-58, [61]-62, [75].
Leakage through ridge of Wadi Rayan—[23].
Leda—[35], [39].
Lenticular sand-beds—[55].
Leptodon—[69].
Levels made from Rayan to Nile Valley—[17].
Libyan Desert, Area, etc., of—[15], [88].
Liernur Bey—[17]-18, [87].
Liernur, Wadi—[17], [19].
Lignite—[51], [53].
Ligurian beds—[43], [64], [88].
Limb-bones of vertebrates—[52].
Limestones—[12], [15]-16, [20]-25, [29], [33]-42, [45]-53, [56]-57, [59]-62, [65]-66, [73]-77.
Limnæa mœris—[81].
Limnæa natalensis—[81].
Limnæa palustris—[81].
Linant de Bellefonds—[16], [83], [88].
Linthia—[52].
Little Rayan—[22].
Littoral deposits—[66].
Loam—[39].
Lobocarcinus Paulino-Wurtembergicus—[36].
Lower Headon Hill beds—[58].
Lower Oligocene—[53]-70.
Lucas, A.—[9], [14], [22], [54], [88].
Lucina—[36], [39], [45]-46, [48], [53], [58].
Lucina calliste—[90].
Lucina consobrina—[37].
Lucina Defrancei—[37].
Lucina fajumensis—[90].
Lucina fortisiana—[51].
Lucina gibbosula—[90].
Lucina globulosa—[37].
Lucina pharaonis—[35], [43], [45], [51], [90].
Lucina polythele—[90].
Lucina pomum—[43].
Lucina Rai—[90].
Lucina sinuosa—[90].
Lucina cf. tabulata—[43].
Lulu, Wadi—[17].
Lydekker, R.—[70].
M
Macrosolen Hollowaysi—[35], [46], [51].
Mactra compressa—[43].
Madagascar and Africa, Connection of—[68].
Mammalia, Fossil—[34]-35, [55], [62], [38]-70, [80], [87].
Mammillary weathering—[57].
Mandibles of vertebrates—[52].
Marls—[18], [29]-30, [33]-35, [37], [39]-42, [49]-50, [53], [55], [61]-62, [73]-74, [76].
Marls in lake—[12].
Marls, Saliferous—[19].
Marly clays—[29]-30, [57], [62].
Marly gypsum—[77].
Marly limestones—[33], [35], [37]-39, [47]-48, [62], [77].
Marsh land—[26], [40], [82].
Martens, Prof. von.—[60], [81], [88].
Masaigega, Wadi—[19].
Masaret-Abusia—[40].
Mastodons—[68]-69.
Mayer-Eymar, K.—[37], [43], [49], [53], [64], [88].
Mazana—[17], [19].
Medinet el Fayûm—[29]-30, [41], [82]-83.
Mediterranean fauna—[81].
Medum—[40], [77] (pyramid).
Megalohyrax—[10].
Megalohyrax eocænus—[34], [59], [70].
Megalohyrax minor—[34], [70].
Melania—[53], [57]-60.
Melania muricata—[60].
Melania cf. Nysti—[60], [64].
Melania tuberculata—[81], [84].
Melanopsis—[81].
Melanopsis fauna—[81].
Melongena nilotica, var. bicarinata—[51].
Menesi Ali, Ezba—[17].
Meretrix nitidula—[51].
Meretrix parisiensis—[51].
Mesalia—[51].
Mesalia fasciata—[35], [51].
Mesalia oxycrepis—[51].
Middle Eocene—[9]-10, [15], [32]-33, [35]-53, [54]-55, [57]-58, [60], [62], [64], [66]-67, [70], [80].
Migrations of mammalia—[69]-70.
Miocene beds suggested—[64].
Miocene, Lower—[34], [54], [70].
Miocene, Lower, of Orient European in type—[70].
Miocene strata, Absence of—[34], [71].
Mitra—[36].
Mœriophis Schweinfurthi—[50], [70].
Mœris (see Lake Mœris).
Mœritherium—[10], [52], [59], [68], [70].
Mœritherium gracilis—[35], [51], [70].
Mœritherium Lyonsi—[34], [35], [51], [59], [70].
Mœritherium trigodon—[34]-70.
Mogara—[34], [54], [71], [85].
Mokattam beds, Lower—[35], [89]-90.
Mokattam beds, Upper—[33], [41], [49], [89]-90.
Mokattam beds deeper water than Fayûm beds—[41].
Mokattam, Jebel—[39], [41], [49].
Monastery in Wadi Muêla—[21].
Moncrieff, Sir C. S.—[16]-17, [87].
Monkeys—[69].
Monoclinal fold—[16].
Monograph of Fayûm vertebrates—[10].
Monotony of desert—[26].
Muêla, Wadi—[9], [14], [16]-17, [20]-21, [35]-37, [88]-89.
Mutela—[53], [60].
Mytilus affinis—[51].
N
Natica—[46].
Natica crassatina—[64].
Natrûn, Wadi—[26], [27], [54], [85].
Nautilus—[36], [46], [48].
Nawamis—[40].
Necrodasypus—[69].
Neolithic implements—[82], [87].
Neritina nilotica—[81], [84].
Nezleh Canal—[19].
Nicolia—[63].
Nile deposit absent in Wadi Rayan—[23].
Nile mud—[80]-82.
Nile Valley, Connection with—[11], [13], [17]-18, [79]-82.
Nile Valley, History of—[79], [87].
Nile waters enter depression—[26], [79]-80, [82].
Nilometer—[80].
Nodular bands—[44], [47].
Nodular limestones—[48].
Nodules, Calcareous—[39], [61].
Nonionina—[46].
Northern Desert Region—[9], [26]-28, [87].
Nucula Mœridis—[89].
Nucularia—[35], [39].
Nummulites—[33], [36], [39], [41], [46]-48.
Nummulites Beaumonti—[35], [41].
Nummulites curvispira—[35]-37.
Nummulites Fraasi—[35], [41]-42.
Nummulites gizehensis—[33], [35]-37, [39], [41], [48].
Nummulites gizehensis limestones—[33], [35]-37, [39], [41], [48].
Nummulites Schweinfurthi—[41].
Nummulites sub-Beaumonti—[41].
Nummulitic limestones—[36]-39, [65].
O
Oases depressions—[67].
Oases, Origin of—[29].
Oasis, Parva—[83].
Oldest beds in Fayûm—[33].
Oligocene beds—[34], [53], [70].
Oligocene of Orient European in type—[70].
Oliva—[46].
Operculina—[33], [46], [74].
Operculina discoidea—[35], [41]-42, [47], [74].
Operculina-Nummulite Beds—[35], [41]-48, [74].
Oppenheim, Dr. P.—[43], [50], [88]-89.
Oriental faunal region—[69].
Origin of Fayûm, Causes of—[15].
Original floor of depression—[39].
Osborn, Prof. H. F.—[68], [70].
Ostrea—[36]-39, [42], [44]-46, [48]-50, [52].
Ostrea Bellardi—[89].
Ostrea Caillaudi—[89].
Ostrea Clot-Beyi—[38], [46], [89].
Ostrea cucullata—[41], [71], [77].
Ostrea digitalina—[43].
Ostrea Edmonstonei—[89].
Ostrea elegans—[35], [51], [89].
Ostrea flabellula—[51].
Ostrea Fraasi—[38]-39, [47], [89].
Ostrea gigantea—[43].
Ostrea gigantica—[89].
Ostrea Gumbeli—[37].
Ostrea Hessi—[89].
Ostrea aff. heteroclyta—[51].
Ostrea histris—[89].
Ostrea longirostris—[43].
Ostrea Mehemeti—[89].
Ostrea paucicostata—[89].
Ostrea plicata—[43], [89].
Ostrea producta—[43].
Ostrea qeruniana—[89].
Ostrea ramosa—[89].
Ostrea Reili—[35], [39], [45]-47, [51]-52, [89].
Ostrea Schweinfurthi—[89].
Ostrea semipectinata—[89].
Ostrea Sickenbergeri—[89].
Ostrea Stanleyi—[89].
Ostrea Whitehousei—[89].
Oudardia ovalis—[39].
Outlets, Subterranean, to lake—[14], [24].
Outliers—[21], [28].
Output of water from springs—[22].
Oysters—[36], [39], [42], [48].
Oyster-beds—[36], [50].
Oyster-limestone—[52].
P
Palæogene freshwater shells—[60].
Palæogene vertebrate fauna—[87].
Palæontographica—[43], [63], [88].
Palæomastodon—[10], [59], [68].
Palæomastodon Beadnelli—[34], [59], [70].
Palæomastodon minor—[34], [70].
Palms—[21]-22.
Paludina—[81].
Pangolins—[69].
Paper-shales—[36], [51].
Paris basin—[58].
Parisian beds—[18], [35]-53.
Pass from Muêla to Rayan—[21].
Pebble deposits—[18], [30], [39]-40, [56], [58], [76], [78].
Pecten—[39], [42], [46]-47.
Pecten benedictus—[71].
Pecten Caillaudi—[89].
Pecten corneus—[37].
Pecten moëlehensis—[37], [52], [59].
Pecten solariolum—[52].
Pectunculus—[46].
Pectunculus juxtadentatus—[90].
Pectunculus ægyptiacus—[51], [90].
Pectunculus pseudopulvinatus—[35].
Pectunculus pulvinatus—[52].
Pelomedusa progaleata—[70].
Pelvis of Arsinoitherium—[54].
Perforate weathering of sandstone—[46].
Permeability of Wadi Rayan—[24].
Perennial irrigation in Egypt—[88].
Pharaonic province—[84].
Philotera—[84].
Phiomia—[10].
Phiomia serridens—[34], [59], [70].
Pinna—[39], [47].
Plains—[50], [52], [54], [77].
Plain of subaerial denudation—[39].
Planorbis Ehrenbergi—[84].
Planorbis marginatus var. subangulata—[84].
Planorbis subangulata—[81].
Plant-remains—[42], [50]-51, [53], [57].
Plateau bounding Fayûm to north—[26].
Plateaux—[15], [21], [25], [27]-28, [32], [62].
Pleistocene Beds—[30], [34], [47], [50], [54], [71], [79]-81, [84].
Pleurotoma—[37], [43], [46], [53], [58].
Pleurotoma ingens—[34], [58].
Plicatula Bellardi—[50]-51, [89].
Plicatula indigena—[89].
Plicatula polymorpha—[35], [45]-46, [51].
Plicatula pyramidarum—[89].
Plicatula Schweinfurthi—[89].
Pliny—[82].
Pliocene Beds—[30], [34], [41]-42, [54], [69], [71]-78.
Pliocene sea, Invasion of—[43], [71], [78].
Pliohyrax—[69].
Podocnemis antiqua—[37], [70].
Podocnemis Blanckenhorni—[70].
Podocnemis Blanckenhorni var. ovata—[70].
Podocnemis fajumensis—[70].
Podocnemis Stromeri—[35], [70].
Podocnemis Stromeri var. major—[70].
Pools formed by rainfall—[25].
Pools produced by springs—[20], [22].
Potamides—[53].
Potamides scalaroides—[34], [58], [64].
Potamides tiarella—[64].
Potamides tristriatus—[34].
Prehistoric epoch—[81]-82.
Prehistoric lake—[23], [79]-82.
Preservation of fossil remains—[55].
Proboscidea—[68]-69.
Promontories of Birket el Qurûn, Origin of—[41].
Propristis Schweinfurthi—[35], [51], [70].
Psephophorus eocænus—[35], [70].
Pseudodon—[58], [60].
Pterodon—[10].
Pterodon africanus—[34], [59], [70].
Pterodon macrognathus—[34], [70].
Pterosphenus—[10].
Pterosphenus Schweinfurthi—[35], [50]-51, [70].
Ptolemaic lake—[84].
Ptolemaic period—[82].
Ptolemy Philadelphus—[84].
Ptolemy the second—[84].
Puddingstone of ancient rivers—[26], [67].
Pyramid-like building—[74].
Pyramid pebbles—[56].
Q
Qalamsha, Ezba—[23], [25]-26, [41]-42, [77].
Qasr el Banat—[84].
Qasr el Qurûn—[84].
Qasr el Sagha—[9], [31]-32, [43], [49], [52], [56]-58, [60]-61.
Qasr el Sagha Series—[27], [32]-33, [35], [38], [41], [44]-57, [64]-66, [75], [77].
Qatrani, Jebel El—[28], [55], [61], [75].
Qatrani beds—[34], [53]-70.
Qerunia—[38].
Qerunia cornuta—[35], [45]-46, [48], [51]-52.
Quartz pebbles—[20], [50], [56], [62]-63, [73], [75].
Quartz sand—[55].
Quartzite—[62], [73]-75.
R
Radiation of Mammalia from Africa—[69].
Railway to Fayûm—[40].
Raised beaches—[34], [41].
Ratite bird—[87].
Ravine Beds—[23], [25], [29]-30, [35], [37]-42, [46], [77].
Ravines—[12], [19], [29], [37], [39]-40.
Rayan, Jebel—[36]-37.
Rayan, Geology of Wadi—[22]-23.
Rayan, Little—[22].
Rayan Series—[24], [25], [30], [33], [35]-39, [41].
Rayan, Wadi—[9], [11], [14]-24, [27]-28, [31], [85], [87]-89.
Rays—[70].
Recent Beds—[34], [81]-85.
Reclamation of Fayûm lake—[82]-84.
Reconnection of Nile Valley and Fayûm—[80].
Reeds—[20].
Regulator of floods, Fayûm as—[82].
Reinach, Von—[59], [88].
Reptiles, Fossil—[70].
Reservoir at Assuan—[88].
Reservoir proposed in Wadi Rayan—[16]-19.
Retreat of Eocene sea—[54], [55], [66].
Rhinoceros bicornis—[69].
Ridge separating Nile Valley and Fayûm—[25]-26, [71], [73]-74, [79]-80.
Ridge separating Rayan and Gharaq—[23].
Rimella rimosa—[35], [51].
Ripple-marked sandstone—[51].
Rise of Nile bed—[80].
River, Ancient—[27], [52]-55, [66]-67, [79].
River-currents—[65], [71], [78].
River-sand—[55].
Roads in desert—[27].
Rocks forming Libyan Desert—[15].
Roda—[13], [75], [80].
Rodents, Flying—[68]-69.
Rohlfs’ Expedition—[9], [63.]
Rolled fossils—[73].
Rostellaria—[37].
Round-topped hill-ranges—[75].
Rubiat—[39]-42.
Ruins—[20]-22, [48]-50, [52].
Ruminants, Even-toed—[68]-69.
Rushes—[20].
S
Saghatherium—[10].
Saghatherium antiquum—[34], [59], [70].
Saghatherium magnum—[34], [70].
Saghatherium minus—[34], [59], [70].
Salines—[20].
Salinity of lake—[14].
Salinity of water in Wadi Rayan—[24].
Salt—[18], [36], [77], [79].
Salt in Wadis Rayan & Muêla—[19], [20], [88].
Samos, Island of—[69].
Sands—[15], [18], [21], [29], [33]-34, [40], [42], [47], [50], [53], [55]-59, [61]-62, [71], [74]-76, [80].
Sand accumulations, Wind-blown—[12], [20]-21, [32], [34], [73], [84]-85.
Sand, &c., deposited in Birket el Qurûn—[13], [80], [84].
Sandberger Hills—[62].
Sandblast action—[73].
Sand-rock—[44], [50]-51, [56]-60, [62], [74].
Sands, Variegated—[34], [53], [57], [59].
Sandstones—[15], [28], [32]-36, [38]-39, [42]-63, [72], [74]-77.
Sandstone, Concretionary—[35], [38].
Sandstone-grit—[56], [58], [62]-63.
Sandstones, Mottled—[62].
Sandstones, Variegated—[76].
Sandy clays—[12], [18], [36]-37, [42], [44], [46], [50]-52, [56]-59, [62].
Sandy conglomerate—[18].
Sandy limestones—[25], [35]-36, [38]-39, [42], [49]-52.
Sandy marl—[37], [42], [62].
Sandy shale—[42].
Saqâra, Pyramid of—[28].
Saws, Flint—[61].
Scalenohedra of calcite—[51].
Schizaster—[36].
Schizaster aff. africanus—[52].
Schweinfurth, Dr.—[9], [14], [19], [24], [34]-37, [43]-44, [49], [64], [71]-72, [77]-80, [88].
Schweinfurth’s Temple—[49].
Scoring due to blown sand—[85].
Scott Moncrieff, Sir C.—[88].
Sculpturing of sandstone—[85].
Scutella beds—[64].
Second Cataract—[81].
Sections, Geological—[36]-42, [44]-47, [50]-52, [56], [58]-62.
Sediment deposited in Fayûm—[26], [54].
Sêla—[9], [26], [39]-40, [73].
Septaria—[46].
Serpula—[46].
Sersena—[25], [42], [75].
Shales—[36], [42], [48].
Shaly Clays—[44], [47], [62], [77].
Shaly marl—[39]-41, [44].
Sharks—[39].
Sharks’ teeth—[46], [51].
Sheep remains—[80].
Shell-borings—[72].
Shell-impressions—[39]-40, [42], [44], [50].
Shelly limestone—[38]-39, [46], [51]-52.
Shelly sands—[36].
Shelly sandstone—[46], [51].
Sherwin, R. S.—[78].
Shore-line, Ancient—[77].
Shore-line, Movements of—[65].
Shrinkage of Birket el Qurûn—[13].
Sidmant el Jebel—[17], [34], [71], [77].
Siliceous bands, Horns of Birket el Qurûn due to—[41].
Siliceous beds capping hills—[61].
Siliceous limestone—[37], [41].
Silicified grits—[27], [62], [67].
Silicified sandstones—[32], [57].
Silicified trees—[27], [34], [51], [53], [55]-59, [61], [63], [65], [73]-75.
Silicified trees, Size of—[53], [63].
Silsila—[81].
Siluroid fish—[35], [51], [70], [80].
Sirenia—[51].
Sites, Excavated—[84].
Skeleton-carrying currents—[53].
Soil, Character of—[11]-12, [88].
Soil survey—[9].
Solarium—[51].
Solarium aff. bistriatum—[51].
South Africa as centre of evolution—[69].
South America, Migrations to—[69].
Spatha—[53], [58], [60], [81].
Spatha dahomeyensis—[60].
Spatha Droueti—[60].
Spondylus ægyptiacus—[52], [89].
Spondylus perhorridus—[89].
Spondylus Ruaulti—[89].
Springs in Wadi Muêla—[20].
Springs of Wadi Rayan—[22].
Stem-weathering in sandstone—[56].
Step-faults—[31].
Stereogenys Cromeri—[35], [51], [70].
Stereogenys libyca—[70].
Stereogenys podocnemioides—[35], [70].
Stock-work—[50].
Stone Age, Neolithic—[82].
Strabo—[13], [82].
Strata, Classification of—[34].
Strike faults—[32].
Stromer von Reichenbach, E.—[44], [59], [69], [88].
Strontium sulphate pseudomorphs—[48].
Subaerial denudation—[39].
Sub-fossil fauna of Fayûm—[81].
Successive faunal invasions, Theory of—[68].
Sulphate of lime—[78].
Sulphate of strontium pseudomorphs—[48].
Survey collections—[59].
Surveying operations—[9].
Surveying by Colonel Western—[17].
T
Table-land of cultivated area—[11].
Tafla beds—[39].
Tamarisk growth—[22], [25], [72], [82].
Tamia—[12]-13, [15], [25], [27]-28, [31], [40], [42], [49]-50, [55]-56, [72], [75].
Tamia lake—[40].
Tectonics—[16], [29]-32.
Tellina—[40], [42], [51].
Tellina pellucida—[43].
Tellina scalaroides—[35].
Tellina tenuistriata—[35], [39].
Temperature changes in desert—[73].
Temperature effects on pebbles—[56].
Temperature of springs in Wadi Rayan—[22].
Temple of Qasr el Sagha—[49], [56].
Terebellum sopitum—[36].
Teredo—[39], [47].
Testudo Ammon—[10], [34], [59], [70].
Thallassochelys libyca—[35], [70].
Theadelphia—[84].
Thickness of beds in section—[37]-29, [42], [45]-46, [49]-52, [56]-60, [65], [76]-77.
Thickness of sediments in Fayûm—[15].
Thinning of Fluvio-marine series—[55].
Tomistoma—[70].
Tomistoma africanum—[35], [51], [59], [70].
Tongrian beds—[13], [64], [88].
Toothed whales—[39].
Topography and structural geology—[11]-28.
Tortoises, Large—[10], [53]-54, [59], [66], [87].
Trachelochetus bituberculatus—[51].
Tropical shells in Fayûm—[60].
Tuba, El—[40].
Tudicla aff. umbilicaris—[51].
Tufaceous gypsum—[77].
Turbo Parkinsoni—[43].
Turritella—[38]-39, [44]-53.
Turritella angulata—[43], [45], [60], [64].
Turritella carinifera—[35], [38], [43], [51]-52.
Turritella imbricataria—[51]-52.
Turritella Lessepsi—[51].
Turritella parisiana—[51].
Turritella pharaonica—[34]-35, [45], [51]-52, [58].
Turritella transitoria—[43].
Turritella turris—[43].
Turtles—[53]-55, [59], [60].
Twelfth Dynasty—[26], [82].
Twigs preserved in clays—[53].
U
Um el Atl—[84].
Unconformable junctions—[39]-40, [73], [76].
Underground outlets of Birket el Qurûn—[14].
Ungulate, Horned—[10].
Unio—[34], [53], [58]-60.
Unio abyssinicus—[81].
Unio Bonneaudi—[60].
Unio Caillaudi—[60].
Unio Homsensis—[60].
Unio lithophagus—[60].
Unio Nyassænsis—[60].
Unio Schweinfurthi—[81].
Unio teretiusculus—[60].
Upper Eocene—[10], [32]-34, [53]-70, [76].
Upper Mokattam beds—[33].
Upper Nile basin—[87].
Ur-Nil—[66].
V
Valvata nilotica—[80], [84].
Vegetation in water-courses—[25].
Velates Schmiedeli—[37].
Venus—[46].
Venus plicatella—[35].
Vermetus—[46].
Vertebrae of Mœritherium—[52].
Vertebrae of Zeuglodon—[45], [47], [50].
Vertebrate fauna, Discovery of—[9].
Vertebrates, Extinct—[10], [34]-35, [43], [49], [51]-52, [55], [61], [63], [65], [67], [70], [87].
Voluta—[46].
Voluta arabica—[35].
Vulsella chamiformis—[37], [89].
Vulsella crispata—[89].
Vulsella lignaria—[89].
Vulsella moëlehensis—[89].
W
Wadi, Ravine of El—[29]-30, [37], [39].
Wadi Rayan, Muêla, etc. (see under Rayan, Muêla).
Wadi Rayan series—[35]-37.
Warshat el Melh—[20].
Water analyses—[22].
Water-courses—[25].
Water-rounded pebbles—[56], [72].
Water-supply of Fayûm—[11], [88].
Weathering—[57].
Wells—[21].
Western, Colonel—[16]-18, [22], [87].
Whales, Frequency of river and shore-frequenting—[53].
Whales, Toothed—[39].
Whitehouse, Cope—[88].
White Nile fauna, Absence of—[81].
Widan el Faras—[28], [55], [58], [60], [62], [75]-76.
Willcocks, Sir William—[13]-14, [17]-19, [80]-88.
Wind-shadow—[84].
X
Xiphodonts—[29].
Z
Zeuglodon—[9], [39], [44], [49], [52], [87]-88.
Zeuglodon brachyspondylus—[44].
Zeuglodon Isis—[35], [44]-45, [47], [70].
Zeuglodon macrospondylus—[44].
Zeuglodon Osiris—[35], [44], [47], [49]-51, [70].
Zeuglodon Zitteli—[44], [70].
Zeuglodon Valley—[41], [46]-49, [61], [63], [85].
Zittel, Prof. K.—[43], [49], [62], [89].