One Thousand Ways to Make a Living; or, An Encyclopædia of Plans to Make Money

by Harold Morse Dunphy

Training

Auto drivers should have some mechanical training and aptitude so that they may be able to make adjustments and repair minor defects in their machines. They should learn the roads and routes in their territory and allow a good margin of safety either in loads or speed. No great amount of training is required, and the work is largely manipulative. There are a number of schools in which this occupation is taught. Hours, wages, and working conditions are far from being standardized the country over. If you are interested in this work, you should find out what conditions prevail in the locality in which you wish to work.

PLAN No. 1010. MANAGERS AND PROPRIETORS

Managers of taxicab companies must know the automobile thoroughly as well as the neighborhood from which they draw their trade. Only in a small concern does the keeper or manager need to be able to drive a car. It will, however, be advantageous at times if he can drive or repair a car. The greatest qualifications for success in this undertaking are ability and skill in handling men and money. Although the rate of profit is usually large in the business, there are many “leaks” to guard against. The manager must know how to keep accounts accurately, or at least understand them and be able to see that they are properly kept. The work requires business ability rather than physical activity, and so can be done by disabled soldiers or sailors who have this ability. Courtesy is a valuable asset, since the manager must come in contact with the public. It is this contact that makes deafness a handicap, particularly where much business is done over the telephone.

Practically the same thing may be said of proprietors and managers of livery and transfer companies. The proprietors and managers must have business ability and know how to manage men. Disabled men with these qualifications can undertake this business if none of their disabilities will interfere with business dealings. The field for auto delivery is developing rapidly, and will give a permanent occupation to the man who has the necessary qualifications for success.

PLAN No. 1011. FOREMAN

Foremen of livery and transfer companies must have ability to handle men under conditions where immediate supervision is possible only a small part of the time. Accordingly, they must be able to judge what allowances should be made for loads, roads, horses, and equipment, or automobile in supervising drivers. Since the foremen must occasionally do the work of drivers, they must usually not be seriously disabled by loss of limbs, and since they must sometimes do the work of the manager they must not suffer from deafness.

Wages and hours are good on the average, but vary greatly in the different localities.

PLAN No. 1012. DRAYMEN

Draymen or expressmen may be either teamsters or auto drivers. In either case, ordinarily they have a considerable amount of heavy lifting to do. The loss of an eye, or of fingers, or of a foot need not prevent anyone from doing this work if he is otherwise physically strong. Very little training is required for the teamster. He must learn the streets and business houses, and how to manage horses that are usually well broken. All of this is best learned on the job. Wages are a little above those of unskilled labor. For the auto driver training may be acquired largely in a school. Wages are higher than those paid to teamsters.

Carriage and hack drivers must have good eyesight and hearing. The work is rather unskilled, although the handling of spirited horses does require some special skill. Courtesy is a distinct asset. It should be noted that the demand for carriage and hack drivers is declining rapidly, and accordingly the disabled soldier should not elect this occupation unless he has the assurance of permanent employment from some responsible employer.

Hostlers and stable hands are usually classed and paid as unskilled laborers, and for most disabled men the work is unsuitable. A disabled man should not work around vicious horses, and in large stables there are always some vicious horses.

PART IV. WATER TRANSPORTATION[21]

[21] In the preparation of this part the following publications have been utilized extensively: “United States Department of Labor Description of Occupations—Water Transportation,” Reisenberg’s “The Men on Deck,” and “United Spates Shipping Board Emergency Fleet Corporation Hearings before the Committee on Commerce, United States Senate, 1918.”

Water transportation may be considered from two standpoints, terminal and interterminal. Terminal transportation does not differ materially from transportation upon the rivers and canals. Interterminal transportation, whether on the Great Lakes or on the sea, is practically the same. In this place we shall, accordingly, deal with only terminal and ocean transportation.

PLAN No. 1013. TERMINAL TRANSPORTATION

Terminal transportation has to do with the loading and unloading of cargoes, and is usually heavy work that requires men with strong backs and little training. The men who supervise the laborers on the boats must have executive ability and a knowledge of boats, equipment, and harbors. The chief qualification of a captain of a barge, a scow, a lighter, or a covered barge, is ability to direct other men at the work of loading and unloading the vessel, of handling lines, and of shifting the boat, and ability to make minor repairs. On lighters and covered barges the captain tallies and signs up for the cargo received. The master steers the boat, gives orders to the crew, and signals the engineer for movement of the boat. He is responsible for the safety of the passengers and the crew. He must have keen eyesight and the ability to act quickly and efficiently in an emergency. He must be thoroughly familiar with the harbor and with harbor conditions. He supervises the pilot, if one is carried on the boat. On smaller boats, the pilot acts as master, and then his duties are the same as the master’s. The wheelsman is an assistant to the master, and performs part of the latter’s duties. Deckhands sometimes act as wheelsmen, and may advance to that position, or higher—to pilot, captain, or master. The engineer is usually a man of considerable skill and experience and possesses a thorough knowledge of the machinery of the boat. He sees that the engine is properly cared for, oiled and kept in good working condition. He directs the work of his assistant, of the oiler who oils the machinery, and of the firemen. He receives his orders for the movement of the boat from the master.

Disabilities

Of these men, only those who supervise other men could have sustained serious injuries. None of them may have either defective eyesight or hearing. The loss of an arm would usually be a serious handicap, and also the loss of a leg would be such an inconvenience for most men in climbing on and about the boat as to be a serious handicap. In these occupations good opportunities for men seriously disabled are comparatively few.

Ocean Transportation

On board a large ocean liner is to be found a complete organization of officers, supervisors, clerks, and skilled and unskilled laborers. As a general rule, all of these men must be physically sound, and about the only disabilities allowable are the loss of fingers, of a foot, and perhaps of one eye if the remaining eye is very good. For men so disabled there is some slight opportunity for advancement. Only the clerical positions such as the purser, assistant purser, or freight clerk, can be filled by men who have lost a hand or leg, or who are otherwise physically unfit for climbing about on slippery decks in a rolling sea. Wages paid during the war have been abnormally high.

Ocean Vessels Vary Greatly

There are two general classes of ocean vessels—sail and steam, steam vessels being in many instances equipped for sailing. In these two general classes there are, however, all sorts and types of boats and ships.

PLAN No. 1014. CREW AND DUTIES LIKEWISE VARY

The crew of a steam vessel has three departments—deck, engineer’s, and steward’s.[22]

[22] The United States Shipping Board has made the following announcement of free training for deck officers and engineers: “The United States Shipping Board is creating a new national fleet of merchantmen, controlled by the United States Government. The Shipping Board needs for these ships 4,000 new watch officers and 4,000 new engineers. Men of proper experience will be trained free of charge to take examinations for licenses in either branch of the service to fill these positions.” The experience required ranges from two to three years at certain maritime occupations. You can learn more about this opportunity to get training by conferring with representatives of the Federal Board for Vocational Education.

The deck crew of a steamer depends upon the size and type of the vessel, and ranges from as low as nine on a small steamer to 972 on the Olympic, officers included. The average number of able seamen is about seven for ocean-carrying vessels. The others are officers, ordinary seamen, deck boys, etc. It has been charged that boats frequently ship without any able seamen, and depend upon ordinary seamen and deck boys in emergencies.

Deck duty is varied and crowded with emergencies. “The sailor’s daily work in all kinds of vessels and weather, at the wheel, on the lookout, and on deck, teaches him to know the sea and how to work with it. His work with tackles, lines, and cables, in hoisting and lowering, trains his judgment of strains and distances.”[23] “The amount of gear and equipment used in the deck department on different classes of steamships varies greatly, but the difference is one of degree rather than of the kind.”[24]

[23] International Conference on Safety at Sea, p. 119.

[24] International Conference on Safety at Sea, p. 121.

PLAN No. 1015. NAVAL VERSUS MERCHANT MARINE CREWS

The crew and the work done on a merchant vessel are so different from those on a naval vessel that the disabled sailor would have much to learn in going from a naval vessel to a merchant vessel. One fundamental difference is this: The merchant vessel carries generally only about one-third the crew—ton for ton—that the naval vessel does. On a naval vessel the men work in groups; on a merchant vessel the man works as an individual and not in a group.

The crew of a large merchant vessel consists more or less of the following officers, seamen, and attendants: Master, chief mate, second mate, third officer, fourth officer, senior quartermaster, quartermaster, master-at-arms, chief steward, chief second-class steward, chief third-class steward, chief engineer, first assistant engineer, second assistant engineer, third assistant engineer, junior engineer, deck engineer, leading fireman, oiler, electrician, carpenter, boatswain, able seamen, ordinary seamen, deck boy, water tender, lookout, purser, assistant purser, freight clerk, and bakers, chefs, cooks, buglers, butchers, cadets, storekeeper, and watchman.

PLAN No. 1016. THE MASTER OR CAPTAIN

The master has general supervision over the vessel, crew, and passengers. He has complete charge of the vessel at all times, but during a severe storm or other emergency he stands on the watch continuously day and night and issues the necessary orders. He is responsible for the safe navigation of his vessel. His responsibility extends to the management of the various departments as well as to the vessel and its care as a whole—for the safety of the lives of passengers and crew, and for the safe storage, carriage, and unloading of cargo. He must have a thorough knowledge of navigation, which subject he must have studied thoroughly, and in which he must have passed a rigid examination before he received his license as a master. He must likewise possess a legal knowledge of the laws governing right upon the sea and determining his duties as regards the ship and its passengers, crew, and cargo. Among his other duties are to keep the log properly and to inspect the ship regularly as to ventilation, warmth, and cleanliness. He must be the last man to leave the ship in case of disaster, and must do everything within his power for the safety of the passengers and crew. He must have received much of his training in lower positions upon the sea, but he must also have studied navigation in some school or under some able master. He must have executive ability of a high order and be able to act efficiently in an emergency.

PLAN No. 1017. THE CHIEF MATE

Next to the master in authority and responsibility comes the chief mate. He shares with the master responsibility for safe and proper navigation of the ship. He is the chief executive officer and must organize and supervise the routine work of keeping order throughout the ship. He is held responsible for discipline. Under him is the master-at-arms, the ship’s policeman, who keeps order among the crew and steerage passengers. His knowledge of the vessel, its equipment, stores, and complement of men must be thorough. He supervises the preparation and care of the holds, and the loading, stowing, and unloading of cargo. This is done under his personal direction or under another officer to whom he has delegated the duty. He sees that the cargo-handling gear is kept in proper working condition. It is his duty to inspect the lifeboats and have them kept properly equipped and in working order, and to hold regular lifeboat drills. The firefighting equipment is likewise in his care, and he must also hold fire drills regularly. His training and knowledge is very similar to that required of the master. Ordinarily he takes his turn with the third and fourth officers at a watch on the bridge.

PLAN No. 1018. THE SECOND MATE

The second mate stands his watch on the bridge, takes various observations, and gives orders to the quartermasters. On large liners he has complete charge of the navigating equipment, and is known as the navigating officer. When the vessel docks he supervises matters at the after end of the boat. In general, he has charge of the after holds, the after cargo, and the after gears. Only in experience and degree of training do his qualifications differ from those of the chief mate.

PLAN No. 1019. WATCH OFFICERS

The third and fourth officers are watch officers. The fourth officer is frequently left in charge of the bridge in fair weather and under good conditions, and like the third officer takes observations, and gives orders to the quartermaster. The third officer has general charge of the forward holds, under the supervision of the chief mate. On some vessels, he is the signal officer and has charge of the care and use of the signal flag and other signaling equipment. Frequently he supervises the placing of the gangway and the embarkation of the passengers when the vessel docks. Both of these officers must have had instruction in navigation, and must be alert and attentive to duty.

PLAN No. 1020. THE CHIEF ENGINEER AND HIS ASSISTANTS

The chief engineer, the assistant engineers, the junior engineers, the deck engineers, the firemen, oilers, and electricians care for all machinery of the ship. The chief engineer stands no watch, but the assistant engineers do, and are responsible for all that takes place in the engine room and fireroom during their watch at sea. Under these assistant engineers are the junior engineers, one of whom is in direct charge during each watch of each of the firerooms, the engine room, and the auxiliaries. In port the junior engineers help the other engineers, the firemen, and the oilers in the repair, packing and overhauling of the machinery. The chief engineer is held responsible for the proper functioning of the engines and boilers, the deck machinery, the electrical, refrigerating and sanitary equipment, and for all steam connections on the ship. He must see that the regulations of his department are carried out, that the engine and fireroom crews are qualified and conduct themselves with sobriety. At the end of each voyage he reports on these matters, and on the working of the machinery—its breakdowns and repairs, especially any exceptional one made away from port—the miles traveled, temperatures, and consumption of fuel. It is his duty to have the steamer properly coaled, both as to quality and quantity of coal. He must possess executive ability, and must have studied engineering in a nautical school or under a competent engineer for a period of years. The first assistant engineer has as his special duty the general charge of all boilers and machinery in the engine department. The second assistant engineer usually employs the fireroom crew and reports to the chief engineer on their qualifications and conduct. He has charge of the repairs and overhauling of the main engines and auxiliaries on the starboard side. The deck engineer supervises and keeps in repair the deck machinery, the steering gear, windlass engine, capstans, and the sanitary systems. The leading fireman has supervision over the firing of the boilers, the keeping of water in the boilers, and over the firemen, coal passers and water tenders. He personally tends a set of fires. On some boats he acts as interpreter of the orders of superior officers to the firemen who are foreigners and can not understand the orders in English. The oiler must keep all the engines clean and well oiled, and see that they are running smoothly and without undue heat. The electrician supervises and keeps in repair the dynamo engines, the electric motors, and other electrical apparatus on the ship. The work of keeping the ship in working condition is usually done by the engineering department. There is, however, some work of repairing that is done by the carpenter, whose duties depend greatly upon the character of the ship. He is generally charged with the upkeep of masts and booms, the repair of wooden decks, and the opening and covering of the hatches.

PLAN No. 1021. THE BOATSWAIN

The boatswain, under the supervision of the chief mate, has active charge of the deck crew, and works the seamen at washing, repairing, and painting decks.

PLAN No. 1022. ABLE SEAMEN

Since all officers must have served as able seamen, the required duties of the able seamen are worth noting in detail. “While on board ship in port, the able seaman is occupied with cleaning, painting, repairing, and overhauling. When the vessel is at sea, the able seaman washes decks and the outside of deckhouses, slacks off exposed gear when shrinking too tight in damp weather, and tightens it again when it becomes too lose in dry weather. When a storm comes on the able seaman closes all open hatches, ports, etc., and lashes down all movables on deck or stows them away.” The ordinary seaman does the same work as the able seaman, so far as his training and ability will permit. The deck boy is simply an apprentice seaman.

“The man who expects to be known as an able seaman on a steamship must know the use of rigging screws, fids, marlinspikes, serving mallets, the palm and needle, calking tools, and most of the carpenter tools; the mixing of paints and colors; how to obtain strong leverages with bars, ropes, tackles; how to brace with wedges and shores; besides knowing the various knots and splices; and to worm, parcel, serve, and seize, with rope and wire; and must be able to hold up his end of a job when it comes to climbing and working in places where both armhold and foothold is difficult. He must know the lead line, not only its marks but how to use it to get correct sounding when the ship is in close quarters, the night dark, and the sea heavy, whether he stands in a smother of sea on a low freighter or far up the side of an immense liner. The compass, of course, is a familiar object to him, but he must know how to use it, how to steer the ship under all conditions, what to expect and how to meet it when he is steering across a current as well as with it or against it, through the swift rush of a narrows, passing at close quarters in and out of the suction of another heavy ship under speed, with the wind light or strong from any direction, heading into a heavy sea, taking it on either bow or quarter or abeam, under check or full speed, rolling and pitching heavily, or running before it, when a blunder may mean total loss of ship with lives and cargo. The man at the wheel must know his work, what to expect and how to meet it instantly, in calm or storm, daylight or dark, in clear weather or in fog. The man who learns to be a reasonably good helmsman in even three years is an exception, because, regardless of the aptitude of the individual, the personal knowledge of varying conditions, different ships and how they act under differing circumstances, familiarity with the various steering gears, can only be gained through experience necessarily covering a good deal of time. The steam steering gear, rendering less physical strength necessary and making possible the handling of larger ships, requires greater skill than the old hand method, which permitted the man at the wheel to feel the increasing or decreasing rudder pressure and thus warned him of just how the ship was acting.

“Prepared paint is seldom brought on board ship. The raw material is put on board and is mixed according to needs by the able seaman. Graining, filling, varnishing, and lettering is done as well as ordinary flat painting. Sailors become sufficiently skilled at this work to qualify as journeymen painters on shore. The deck crew cleans all outside parts of the ship, except the funnel, from the masts and booms to the deck houses, decks, and sides of the ship.”[25]

[25] International Conference on Safety of Life at Sea, pp. 124-125.

Hours of Labor

The hours of labor for workmen are: On deck, two shifts (watch and watch) 12 hours each; in the engine room three shifts of 8 hours each. In emergencies the hours are greatly lengthened.

Wages

Following is the wage scale which has been established during the war. In 1915 wages were about half the amounts here given:

Sailors and firemen, $60 per month; coal passers, $50 per month; oilers and water tenders, $65 per month; boatswain, $70 per month; carpenters, $75 per month; overtime pay for cargo work 50 cents per hour, and for ship work 40 cents per hour. The bonus for going into the war zone was 50 per cent of the wages, the wages and bonus to continue until crew arrive back in the United States; $100 compensation was paid for loss of effects caused by war conditions. Board and quarters are of course provided in addition to the wages.[26]

[26] United States Emergency Fleet Corporation Hearing before the Committee on Commerce, United States Senate, pp. 854-857.