CHAPTER XXII.
THE POST-PLIOCENE PERIOD—Continued.
As regards the life of the Post-Pliocene period, we have, in the first place, to notice the effect produced throughout the northern hemisphere by the gradual supervention of the Glacial period. Previous to this the climate must have been temperate or warm-temperate; but as the cold gradually came on, two results were produced as regards the living beings of the area thus affected. In the first place, all those Mammals which, like the Mammoth, the Woolly Rhinoceros, the Lion, the Hyæna, and the Hippopotamus, require, at any rate, moderately warm conditions, would be forced to migrate southwards to regions not affected by the new state of things. In the second place, Mammals previously inhabiting higher latitudes, such as the Reindeer, the Musk-ox, and the Lemming, would be enabled by the increasing cold to migrate southwards, and to invade provinces previously occupied by the Elephant and the Rhinoceros. A precisely similar, but more slowly-executed process, must have taken place in the sea, the northern Mollusca moving southwards as the arctic conditions of the Glacial period became established, whilst the forms proper to temperate seas receded. As regards the readily locomotive Mammals, also, it is probable that this process was carried on repeatedly in a partial manner, the southern and northern forms alternately fluctuating backwards and forwards over the same area, in accordance with the fluctuations of temperature which have been shown by Mr James Geikie to have characterised the Glacial period as a whole. We can thus readily account for the intermixture which is sometimes found of northern and southern types of Mammalia in the same deposits, or in deposits apparently synchronous, and within a single district. Lastly, at the final close of the arctic cold of the Glacial period, and the re-establishment of temperate conditions over the northern hemisphere, a reversal of the original process took place—the northern Mammals retiring within their ancient limits, and the southern forms pressing northwards and reoccupying their original domains.
The Invertebrate animals of the Post-Pliocene deposits require no further mention—all the known forms, except a few of the shells in the lowest beds of the formation, being identical with species now in existence upon the globe. The only point of importance in this connection has been previously noticed—namely, that in the true Glacial deposits themselves a considerable number of the shells belong to northern or Arctic types.
As regards the Vertebrate animals of the period, no extinct forms of Fishes, Amphibians, or Reptiles are known to occur, but we meet with both extinct Birds and extinct Mammals. The remains of the former are of great interest, as indicating the existence during Post-Pliocene times, at widely remote points of the southern hemisphere, of various wingless, and for the most part gigantic, Birds. All the great wingless Birds of the order Cursores which are known as existing at the present day upon the globe, are restricted to regions which are either wholly or in great part south of the equator. Thus the true Ostriches are African; the Rheas are South American; the Emeus are Australian; the Cassowaries are confined to Northern Australia, Papua, and the Indian Archipelago; the species of Apteryx are natives of New Zealand; and the Dodo and Solitaire (wingless, though probably not true Cursores), both of which have been exterminated within historical times, were inhabitants of the islands of Mauritius and Rodriguez, in the Indian Ocean. In view of these facts, it is noteworthy that, so far as known, all the Cursorial Birds of the Post-Pliocene period should have been confined to the same hemisphere as that inhabited by the living representatives of the order. It is still further interesting to notice that the extinct forms in question are only found in geographical provinces which are now, or have been within historical times, inhabited by similar types. The greater number of the remains of these have been discovered in New Zealand, where there now live several species of the curious wingless genus Apteryx; and they have been referred by Professor Owen to several generic groups, of which Dinornis is the most important (fig. 257). Fourteen species of Dinornis have been described by the distinguished palæontologist just mentioned, all of them being large wingless birds of the type of the existing Ostrich, having enormously powerful hind-limbs adapted for running, but with the wings wholly rudimentary, and the breast-bone devoid of the keel or ridge which characterises this bone in all birds which fly. The largest species is the Dinornis giganteus, one of the most gigantic of living or fossil birds, the shank (tibia) measuring a yard in length, and the total height being at least ten feet. Another species, the Dinornis Elephantopus (fig. 257), though not standing more than about six feet in height, was of an even more ponderous construction—"the framework of the skeleton being the most massive of any in the whole class of Birds," whilst "the toe-bones almost rival those of the Elephant" (Owen). The feet in Dinornis were furnished with three toes, and are of interest as presenting us with an undoubted Bird big enough to produce the largest of the foot-prints of the Triassic Sandstones of Connecticut. New Zealand has now been so far explored, that it seems questionable if it can retain in its recesses any living example of Dinornis; but it is certain that species of this genus were alive during the human period, and survived up to quite a recent date. Not only are the bones very numerous in certain localities, but they are found in
Fig. 257.—Skeleton of Dinornis elephantopus, greatly reduced. Post-Pliocene, New Zealand. (After Owen.) the most recent and superficial deposits, and they still contain a considerable proportion of animal matter; whilst in some instances bones have been found with the feathers attached, or with the horny skin of the legs still adhering to them. Charred bones have been found in connection with native "ovens;" and the traditions of the Maories contain circumstantial accounts of gigantic wingless Birds, the "Moas," which were hunted both for their flesh and their plumage. Upon the whole, therefore, there can be no doubt but that the Moas of New Zealand have been exterminated at quite a recent period—perhaps within the last century—by the unrelenting pursuit of Man,—a pursuit which their wingless condition rendered them unable to evade.
In Madagascar, bones have been discovered of another huge wingless Bird, which must have been as large as, or larger than, the Dinornis giganteus, and which has been described under the name of Æpiornis maximus. With the bones have been found eggs measuring from thirteen to fourteen inches in diameter, and computed to have the capacity of three Ostrich eggs. At least two other smaller species of Æpiornis have been described by Grandidier and Milne-Edwards as occurring in Madagascar; and they consider the genus to be so closely allied to the Dinornis of New Zealand, as to prove that these regions, now so remote, were at one time united by land. Unlike New Zealand, where there is the Apteryx, Madagascar is not known to possess any living wingless Birds; but in the neighbouring island of Mauritius the wingless Dodo (Didus ineptus) has been exterminated less than three hundred years ago; and the little island of Rodriguez, in the same geographical province, has in a similar period lost the equally wingless Solitaire (Pezophaps), both of these, however, being generally referred to the Rasores.
The Mammals of the Post-Pliocene period are so numerous, that in spite of the many points of interest which they present, only a few of the more important forms can be noticed here, and that but briefly. The first order that claims our attention is that of the Marsupials, the headquarters of which at the present day is the Australian province. In Oolitic times Europe possessed its small Marsupials, and similar forms existed in the same area in the Eocene and Miocene periods; but if size be any criterion, the culminating point in the history of the order was attained during the Post-Pliocene period in
Fig. 258.—Skull of Diprotodon Australis, greatly reduced. Post-Pliocene, Australia. Australia. From deposits of this age there has been disentombed a whole series of remains of extinct, and for the most part gigantic, examples of this group of Quadrupeds. Not to speak of Wombats and Phalangers, two forms stand out prominently as representatives of the Post-Pliocene animals of Australia. One of these is Diprotodon (fig. 258), representing, with many differences, the well-known modern group of the Kangaroos. In its teeth, Diprotodon shows itself to be closely allied to the living, grass-eating Kangaroos; but the hind-limbs were not so disproportionately long. In size, also, Diprotodon must have many times exceeded the dimensions of the largest of its living successors, since the skull measures no less than three feet in length. The other form in question is Thylacoleo (fig. 259), which is believed by Professor Owen to belong to the same group as the existing "Native Devil" (Dasyurus) of Van Diemen's Land, and therefore to have been flesh-eating and rapacious in its habits, though this view is not accepted by others. The principal feature in the skull of Thylacoleo is the presence, on each side of each jaw,
Fig. 259.—Skull of Thylacoleo. Post-Pliocene, Australia. Greatly reduced. (After Flower.) of a single huge tooth, which is greatly compressed, and has a cutting edge. This tooth is regarded by Owen as corresponding to the great cutting tooth of the jaw of the typical Carnivores, but Professor Flower considers that Thylacoleo is rather related to the Kangaroo-rats. The size of the crown of the tooth in question is not less than two inches and a quarter; and whether carnivorous or not, it indicates an animal of a size exceeding that of the largest of existing Lions.
The order of the Edentates, comprising the existing Sloths, Ant-eaters, and Armadillos, and entirely restricted at the present day to South America, Southern Asia, and Africa, is one alike singular for the limited geographical range of its members, their curious habits of life, and the well-marked peculiarities of their anatomical structure. South America is the metropolis of the existing forms; and it is an interesting fact that there flourished within Post-Pliocene times in this continent, and to some extent in North America also, a marvellous group of extinct Edentates, representing the living Sloths and Armadillos, but of gigantic size. The most celebrated of these is the huge Megatherium Cuvieri (fig. 260) of the South American Pampas.
Fig. 260.—Megatherium Cuvieri. Post-Pliocene, South America. The Megathere was a colossal Sloth-like animal which attained a length of from twelve to eighteen feet, with bones more massive than those of the Elephant. Thus the thigh-bone is nearly thrice the thickness of the same bone in the largest of existing Elephants, its circumference at its narrowest point nearly equalling its total length; the massive bones of the shank (tibia and fibula) are amalgamated at their extremities; the heel-bone (calcaneum) is nearly half a yard in length; the haunch-bones (ilia) are from four to five feet across at their crests; and the bodies of the vertebræ at the root of the tail are from five to seven inches in diameter, from which it has been computed that the circumference of the tail at this part might have been from five to six feet. The length of the fore-foot is about a yard, and the toes are armed with powerful curved claws. It is known now that the Megathere, in spite of its enormous weight and ponderous construction, walked, like the existing Ant-eaters and Sloths, upon the outside edge of the fore-feet, with the claws more or less bent inwards towards the palm of the hand. As in the great majority of the Edentate order, incisor and canine teeth are entirely wanting, the front of the jaws being toothless. The jaws, however, are furnished with five upper and four lower molar teeth on each side. These grinding teeth are from seven to eight inches in length, in the form of four-sided prisms, the crowns of which are provided with well-marked transverse ridges; and they continue to grow during the whole life of the animal. There are indications that the snout was prolonged, and more or less flexible; and the tongue was probably prehensile. From the characters of the molar teeth it is certain that the Megathere was purely herbivorous in its habits; and from the enormous size and weight of the body, it is equally certain that it could not have imitated its modern allies, the Sloths, in the feat of climbing, back downwards, amongst the trees. It is clear, therefore, that the Megathere sought its sustenance upon the ground; and it was originally supposed to have lived upon roots. By a masterly piece of deductive reasoning, however, Professor Owen showed that this great "Ground-Sloth" must have truly lived upon the foliage of trees, like the existing Sloths—but with this difference, that instead of climbing amongst the branches, it actually uprooted the tree bodily. In this tour de force, the animal sat upon its huge haunches and mighty tail, as on a tripod, and then grasping the trunk with its powerful arms, either wrenched it up by the roots or broke it short off above the ground. Marvellous as this may seem, it can be shown that every detail in the skeleton of the Megathere accords with the supposition that it obtained its food in this way. Similar habits were followed by the allied Mylodon (fig. 261), another of the great "Ground-Sloths," which inhabited South America during the Post-Pliocene period. In most respects, the Mylodon is very like the Megathere; but the crowns of the molar teeth are flat instead of being ridged. The nearly-related genus Megalonyx, unlike the Megathere, but like the Mylodon, extended its range northwards as far as the United States.
Just as the Sloths of the present day were formerly represented in the same geographical area by the gigantic Megatheroids, so the little banded and cuirassed Armadillos of South America were formerly represented by gigantic species, constituting the genus Glyptodon. The Glyptodons (fig. 262) differed from the living Armadillos in having no bands in their armour, so that they must have been unable to roll themselves up. It is rare at the present day to meet with any Armadillo over two or three feet in length; but the length of the Glyptodon clavipes, from the tip of the snout to the end of the tail, was more than nine feet.
There are no canine or incisor teeth in the Glyptodon, but
Fig. 261.—Skeleton of Mylodon robustus. Post-Pliocene, South America. there are eight molars on each side of each jaw, and the crowns of these are fluted and almost trilobed. The head is covered
Fig. 262.—Skeleton of Glyptodon clavipes. Post-Pliocene, South America. by a helmet of bony plates, and the trunk was defended by an armour of almost hexagonal bony pieces united by sutures, and exhibiting special patterns of sculpturing in each species. The tail was also defended by a similar armour, and the vertebræ were mostly fused together so as to form a cylindrical bony rod. In addition to the above-mentioned forms, a number of other Edentate animals have been discovered by the researches of M. Lund in the Post-Pliocene deposits of the Brazilian bone-caves. Amongst these are true Ant-eaters, Armadillos, and Sloths, many of them of gigantic size, and all specifically or generically distinct from existing forms.
Passing over the aquatic orders of the Sirenians and Cetaceans, we come next to the great group of the Hoofed Quadrupeds, the remains of which are very abundant in Post-Pliocene deposits both in Europe and North America. Amongst the Odd-toed Ungulates the most important are the Rhinoceroses, of which three species are known to have existed in Europe during the Post-Pliocene period. Two of these are the well-known Pliocene forms, the Rhinoceros Etruscus and the R. Megarhinus still surviving in diminished numbers; but the most famous is the Rhinoceros tichorhinus (fig. 263), or so-called "Woolly
Fig. 263.—Skull of the Tichorhine Rhinoceros, the horns being wanting. One-tenth of the natural size. Post-Pliocene deposits of Europe and Asia. Rhinoceros." This species is known not only by innumerable bones, but also by a carcass, at the time of its discovery complete, which was found embedded in the frozen soil of Siberia towards the close of last century, and which was partly saved from destruction by the exertions of the naturalist Pallas. From this, we know that the Tichorhine Rhinoceros, like its associate the Mammoth, was provided with a coating of hair, and therefore was enabled to endure a more severe climate than any existing species. The skin was not thrown into the folds which characterise most of the existing forms; and the technical name of the species refers to the fact that the nostrils were completely separated by a bony partition. The head carried two horns, placed one behind the other, the front one being unusually large. As regards its geographical range, the Woolly Rhinoceros is found in Europe in vast numbers north of the Alps and Pyrenees, and it also abounded in Siberia; so that it would appear to be a distinctly northern form, and to have been adapted for a temperate climate. It is not known to occur in Pliocene deposits, but it makes its first appearance in the Pre-Glacial deposits, surviving the Glacial period, and being found in abundance in Post-Glacial accumulations. It was undoubtedly a contemporary of the earlier races of men in Western Europe; and it may perhaps be regarded as being the actual substantial kernel of some of the "Dragons" of fable.
The only other Odd-toed Ungulate which needs notice is the so-called Equus fossilis of the Post-Pliocene of Europe. This made its appearance before the Glacial period, and appears to be in reality identical with the existing Horse (Equus caballus). True Horses also occur in the Post-Pliocene of North America; but, from some cause or another, they must have been exterminated before historic times.
Amongst the Even-toed Ungulates, the great Hippopotamus major of the Pliocene still continued to exist in Post-Pliocene times in Western Europe; and the existing Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), the parent of our domestic breeds of Pigs, appeared for the first time. The Old World possessed extinct representatives of its existing Camels, and lost types of the living Llamas inhabited South America. Amongst the Deer, the Post-Pliocene accumulations have yielded the remains of various living species, such as the Red Deer (Cervus elaphus), the Reindeer (Cervus tarandus), the Moose or Elk (Alces malchis), and the Roebuck (Cervus capreolus), together with a number of extinct forms. Among the latter, the great "Irish Elk" (Cervus megaceros) is justly celebrated both for its size and for the number and excellent preservation of its discovered remains. This extinct species (fig. 264) has been found principally in peat-mosses and Post-Pliocene lake-deposits, and is remarkable for the enormous size of the spreading antlers, which are widened out towards their extremities, and attain an expanse of over ten feet from tip to tip. It is not a genuine Elk, but is intermediate between the Reindeer and the Fallow-deer. Among the existing Deer of the Post-Pliocene, the most noticeable is the Reindeer, an essentially northern type, existing at the present day in Northern Europe, and also (under the name of the "Caribou")
Fig. 264—Skeleton of the "Irish Elk" (Cervus megaceros). Post-Pliocene, Britain. in North America. When the cold of the Glacial period became established, this boreal species was enabled to invade Central and Western Europe in great herds, and its remains are found abundantly in cave-earths and other Post-Pliocene deposits as far south as the Pyrenees.
In addition to the above, the Post-Pliocene deposits of Europe and North America have yielded the remains of various Sheep and Oxen. One of the most interesting of the latter is the "Urus" or Wild Bull (Bos primigenius, fig. 265), which, though much larger than any of the existing fossils, is believed to
Fig. 265.—Skull of the Urns (Bos primigenius). Post-Pliocene and Recent. (After Owen.) be specifically undistinguishable from the domestic Ox (Bos taurus), and to be possibly the ancestor of some of the larger European varieties of oxen. In the earlier part of its existence the Urus ranged over Europe and Britain in company with the Woolly Rhinoceros and the Mammoth; but it long survived these, and does not appear to have been finally exterminated till about the twelfth century. Another remarkable member of the Post-Pliocene Cattle, also to begin with an associate of the Mammoth and Rhinoceros, is the European Bison or "Aurochs" (Bison priscus). This "maned" ox formerly abounded in Europe in Post-Glacial times, and was not rare even in the later periods of the Roman empire, though much diminished in numbers, and driven back into the wilder and more inaccessible parts of the country. At present this fine species has been so nearly exterminated that it no longer exists in Europe save in Lithuania, where its preservation has been secured by rigid protective laws. Lastly, the Post-Pliocene deposits have yielded the remains of the singular living animal which is known as the Musk-ox or Musk-sheep (Ovibos moschatus). At the present day, the Musk-ox is an inhabitant of the "barren grounds" of Arctic America, and it is remarkable for the great length of its hair. It is, like the Reindeer, a distinctively northern animal; but it enjoyed during the Glacial period a much wider range than it has at the present day, the conditions suitable for its existence being then extended over a considerable portion of the northern hemisphere. Thus remains of the Musk-Ox are found in greater or less abundance in Post-Pliocene deposits over a great part of Europe, extending even to the south of France; and closely-related forms are found in similar deposits in the United States.
Coming to the Proboscideans, we find that the Mastodons seem to have disappeared in Europe at the close of the Pliocene period, or at the very commencement of the Post-Pliocene. In the New World, on the other hand, a species of Mastodon (M. Americanus or M. Ohioticus) is found abundantly in deposits of Post-Pliocene age, from Canada to Texas. Very perfect skeletons of this species have been exhumed from morasses and swamps, and large individuals attained a length (exclusive of the tusks) of seventeen feet and a height of eleven feet, the tusks being twelve feet in length. Remains of Elephants are also abundant in the Post-Pliocene deposits of both the Old and the New World. Amongst these, we find in Europe the two familiar Pliocene species E. Meridionales and E. Antiquus still surviving, but in diminished numbers. With these are found in vast abundance the remains of the characteristic Elephant of the Post-Pliocene, the well-known "Mammoth" (Elephas primigenius), which is accompanied in North America by the nearly-allied, but more southern species, the Elephas Americanus. The Mammoth (fig. 266) is considerably larger than the largest of the living Elephants, the skeleton being over sixteen feet in length, exclusive of the tusks, and over nine feet in height. The tusks are bent almost into a circle, and are sometimes twelve feet in length, measured along their curvature. In the frozen soil of Siberia several carcasses of the Mammoth have been discovered with the flesh and skin still attached to the bones, the most celebrated of these being a Mammoth which was discovered at the beginning of this century at the mouth of the Lena, on the borders of the Frozen Sea, and the skeleton of which is now preserved at St Petersburg (fig. 266). From the occurrence of the remains of the Mammoth in vast numbers in Siberia, it might have been safely inferred that this ancient Elephant was able to endure a far more rigorous climate than its existing congeners. This inference has, however, been rendered a certainty by the specimens just referred to, which show that the Mammoth was protected against the cold by a thick coat of reddish-brown wool, some nine or ten inches long, interspersed with strong, coarse black hair more than a foot in length. The teeth of the Mammoth (fig.267) are of the type of those of the existing Indian Elephant, and are found in immense numbers in certain localities. The Mammoth was essentially northern in its
Fig. 266.—Skeleton of the Mammoth (Elephas primigenius). Portions of the integument still adhere to the head, and the thick skin of the soles is still attached to the feet. Post-Pliocene. distribution, never passing south of a line drawn through the Pyrenees, the Alps, the northern shores of the Caspian, Lake Baikal, Kamschatka, and the Stanovi Mountains (Dawkins). It occurs in the Pre-Glacial forest-bed of Cromer in Norfolk,
Fig. 267.—Molar tooth of the Mammoth (Elephas primigenius), upper jaw, right side, one-third of the natural size. a, Grinding surface; b, Side view. Post-Pliocene. survived the Glacial period, and is found abundantly in Post-Glacial deposits in France, Germany, Britain, Russia in Europe, Asia, and North America, being often associated with the Reindeer, Lemming, and Musk-ox. That it survived into the earlier portion of the human period is unquestionable, its remains having been found in a great number of instances associated with implements of human manufacture; whilst in one instance a recognisable portrait of it has been discovered, carved on bone.
Amongst other Elephants which occur in Post-Pliocene deposits may be mentioned, as of special interest, the pigmy Elephants of Malta. One of these—the Elephas Melitensis, or so-called "Donkey-Elephant"—was not more than four and a half feet in height. The other—the Elephas Falconeri, of Busk—was still smaller, its average height at the withers not exceeding two and a half to three feet.
Whilst herbivorous animals abounded during the Post-Pliocene, we have ample evidence of the coexistence with them of a number of Carnivorous forms, both in the New and the Old World. The Bears are represented in Europe by at least three species, two of which—namely, the great Grizzly Bear (Ursus ferox) and the smaller Brown Bear (Ursus arctos)—are in existence at the present day. The third species is the celebrated Cave-bear (Ursus spelœus, fig. 268), which is now extinct. The Cave-bear exceeded in its dimensions the largest of modern Bears;
Fig. 268.—Skull of Ursus spelpeus. Post-Pliocene, Europe. One-sixth of the natural size. and its remains, as its name implies; have been found mainly in cavern-deposits. Enormous numbers of this large and ferocious species must have lived in Europe in Post-Glacial times; and that they survived into the human period, is clearly shown by the common association of their bones with the implements of man. They are occasionally accompanied by the remains of a Glutton (the Gulo spelœus), which does not appear to be really separable from the existing Wolverine or Glutton of northern regions (the Gulo luscus). In addition, we meet with the bones of the Wolf, Fox, Weasel, Otter, Badger, Wild Cat, Panther, Hyæna, and Lion, &c., together with the extinct Machairodus or "Sabre-toothed Tiger." The only two of these that deserve further mention are the Hyæna and the Lion. The Cave-hyæna (Hyœna spelœa, fig. 269) is regarded by high authorities as nothing more than a variety of the living Spotted Hyæna (H. Crocuta) of South Africa. This well-known species inhabited Britain and a considerable portion of Europe during a large part of the Post-Pliocene period; and its remains often occur in great abundance. Indeed, some caves, such as the Kirkdale Cavern in Yorkshire, were dens inhabited during long periods by these animals, and thus contain the remains of numerous individuals and of successive generations of Hyænas, together with innumerable gnawed and bitten bones of their prey. That the Cave-hyæna was a contemporary with Man in Western Europe during Post-Glacial times is shown beyond a doubt by the common association of its bones with human implements.
Lastly, the so-called Cave-lion (Felis spelœa), long supposed to be a distinct species, has been shown to be nothing
Fig. 269.—Skull of Hyœna spelœa, one-fourth of the natural size. Post-Phocene, Europe. more than a large variety of the existing Lion (Felis leo). This animal inhabited Britain and Western Europe in times posterior to the Glacial period, and was a contemporary of the Cave-hyæna, Cave-bear, Woolly Rhinoceros, and Mammoth. The Cave-lion also unquestionably survived into the earlier portion of the human period in Europe.
The Post-Pliocene deposits of Europe have further yielded the remains of numerous Rodents—such as the Beaver, the Northern Lemming, Marmots, Mice, Voles, Rabbits, &c.—together with the gigantic extinct Beaver known as the Trogontherium Cuvieri (fig. 270). The great Castoroides Ohioensis of the
Fig. 270.—Lower jaw of Trogontherium Cuvieri, one-fourth of the natural size. Post-Pliocene, Britain. Post-Pliocene of North America is also a great extinct Beaver, which reached a length of about five feet. Lastly, the Brazilian bone-caves have yielded the remains of numerous Rodents of types now characteristic of South America, such as Guinea-pigs, Capybaras, tree-inhabiting Porcupines, and Coypus.
The deposits just alluded to have further yielded the remains of various Monkeys, such as Howling Monkeys, Squirrel Monkeys, and Marmosets, all of which belong to the group of Quadrumana which is now exclusively confined to the South American continent—namely, the "Platyrhine" Monkeys.
We still have very briefly to consider the occurrence of Man in Post-Pliocene deposits; but before doing so, it will be well to draw attention to the evidence afforded by the Post-Pliocene Mammals as to the climate of Western Europe at this period. The chief point which we have to notice is, that a considerable revolution of opinion has taken place on this point. It was originally believed that the presence of such animals as Elephants, Lions, the Rhinoceros, and the Hippopotamus afforded an irrefragable proof that the climate of Europe must have been a warm one, at any rate during Post-Glacial times. The existence, also, of numbers of Mammoths in Siberia, was further supposed to indicate that this high temperature extended itself very far north. Upon the whole, however, the evidence is against this view. Not only is there great difficulty in supposing that the Arctic conditions of the Glacial period were immediately followed by anything warmer than a cold-temperate climate; but there is nothing in the nature of the Mammals themselves which would absolutely forbid their living in a temperate climate. The Hippopotamus major, though probably clad in hair, offers some difficulty—since, as pointed out by Professor Busk, it must have required a climate sufficiently warm to insure that the rivers were not frozen over in the winter; but it was probably a migratory animal, and its occurrence may be accounted for by this. The Woolly Rhinoceros and the Mammoth are known with certainty to have been protected with a thick covering of wool and hair; and their extension northwards need not necessarily have been limited by anything except the absence of a sufficiently luxuriant vegetation to afford them food. The great American Mastodon, though not certainly known to have possessed a hairy covering, has been shown to have lived upon the shoots of Spruce and Firs, trees characteristic of temperate regions—as shown by the undigested food which has been found with its skeleton, occupying the place of the stomach. The Lions and Hyænas, again, as shown by Professor Boyd Dawkins, do not indicate necessarily a warm climate. Wherever a sufficiency of herbivorous animals to supply them with food can live, there they can live also; and they have therefore no special bearing upon the question of climate. After a review of the whole evidence, Professor Dawkins concludes that the nearest approach at the present day to the Post-Pliocene climate of Western Europe is to be found in the climate of the great Siberian plains which stretch from the Altai Mountains to the Frozen Sea. "Covered by impenetrable forests, for the most part of Birch, Poplar, Larch, and Pines, and low creeping dwarf Cedars, they present every gradation in climate from the temperate to that in which the cold is too severe to admit of the growth of trees, which decrease in size as the traveller advances northwards, and are replaced by the grey mosses and lichens that cover the low marshy 'tundras.' The maximum winter cold, registered by Admiral Von Wrangel at Nishne Kolymsk, on the banks of the Kolyma, is—65° in January. 'Then breathing becomes difficult; the Reindeer, that citizen of the Polar region, withdraws to the deepest thicket of the forest, and stands there motionless as if deprived of life;' and trees burst asunder with the cold. Throughout this area roam Elks, Black Bears, Foxes, Sables, and Wolves, that afford subsistence to the Jakutian and Tungusian fur-hunters. In the northern part countless herds of Reindeer, Elks, Foxes, and Wolverines make up for the poverty of vegetation by the rich abundance of animal life. 'Enormous flights of Swans, Geese, and Ducks arrive in the spring, and seek deserts where they may moult and build their nests in safety. Ptarmigans run in troops amongst the bushes; little Snipes are busy along the brooks and in the morasses; the social Crows seek the neighbourhood of new habitations; and when the sun shines in spring, one may even sometimes hear the cheerful note of the Finch, and in autumn that of the Thrush.' Throughout this region of woods, a hardy, middle-sized breed of horses lives under the mastership and care of man, and is eminently adapted to bear the severity of the climate.... The only limit to their northern range is the difficulty of obtaining food. The severity of the winter through the southern portion of this vast wooded area is almost compensated for by the summer heat and its marvellous effect on vegetation."—(Dawkins, 'Monograph of Pleistocene Mammalia.')
Finally, a few words must be said as to the occurrence of the remains of Man in Post-Pliocene deposits. That Man existed in Western Europe and in Britain during the Post-Pliocene period, is placed beyond a doubt by the occurrence of his bones in deposits of this age, along with the much more frequent occurrence of implements of human manufacture. At what precise point of time during the Post-Pliocene period he first made his appearance is still a matter of conjecture. Recent researches would render it probable that the early inhabitants of Britain and Western Europe were witnesses of the stupendous phenomena of the Glacial period; but this cannot be said to have been demonstrated. That Man existed in these regions during the Post-Glacial division of Post-Pliocene time cannot be doubted for a moment. As to the physical peculiarities of the ancient races that lived with the Mammoth and the Woolly Rhinoceros, little is known compared with what we may some day hope to know. Such information as we have, however, based principally on the skulls of the Engis, Neanderthal, Cro-Magnon, and Bruniquel caverns, would lead to the conclusion that Post-Pliocene Man was in no respect inferior in his organisation to, or less highly developed than, many existing races. All the known skulls of this period, with the single exception of the Neanderthal cranium, are in all respects average and normal in their characters; and even the Neanderthal skull possessed a cubic capacity at least equal to that of some existing races. The implements of Post-Pliocene Man are exclusively of stone or bone; and the former are invariably of rude shape and undressed. These "palæolithic" tools (Gr. palaios; ancient; lithos, stone) point to a very early condition of the arts; since the men of the earlier portion of the Recent period, though likewise unacquainted with the metals, were in the habit of polishing or dressing the stone implements which they fabricated.
It is impossible here to enter further into this subject; and it would be useless to do so without entering as well into a consideration of the human remains of the Recent period—a period which lies outside the province of the present work. So far as Post-Pliocene Man is concerned, the chief points which the palæontological student has to remember have been elsewhere summarised by the author as follows:—
1. Man unquestionably existed during the later portion of what Sir Charles Lyell has termed the "Post-Pliocene" period. In other words, Man's existence dates back to a time when several remarkable Mammals, previously mentioned, had not yet become extinct; but he does not date back to a time anterior to the present Molluscan fauna.
2. The antiquity of the so-called Post-Pliocene period is a matter which must be mainly settled by the evidence of Geology proper, and need not be discussed here.
3. The extinct Mammals with which man coexisted in Western Europe are mostly of large size, the most important being the Mammoth (Elephas primogenius), the Woolly Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros tichorhinus), the Cave-lion (Felis spelœa), the Cave-hyæna(Hyœna spelœa), and the Cave-bear (Ursus spelœus). We do not know the causes which led to the extinction of these Mammals; but we know that hardly any Mammalian species has become extinct during the historical period.
4. The extinct Mammals with which man coexisted are referable in many cases to species which presumably required a very different climate to that now prevailing in Western Europe. How long a period, however, has been consumed in the bringing about of the climatic changes thus indicated, we have no means of calculating with any approach to accuracy.
5. Some of the deposits in which the remains of man have been found associated with the bones of extinct Mammals, are such as to show incontestably that great changes in the physical geography and surface-configuration of Western Europe have taken place since the period of their accumulation. We have, however, no means at present of judging of the lapse of time thus indicated except by analogies and comparisons which may be disputed.
6. The human implements which are associated with the remains of extinct Mammals, themselves bear evidence of an exceedingly barbarous condition of the human species. Post-Pliocene or "Palæolithic" Man was clearly unacquainted with the use of any of the metals. Not only so, but the workmanship of these ancient races was much inferior to that of the later tribes, who were also ignorant of the metals, and who also used nothing but weapons and tools of stone, bone, &c.
7. Lastly, it is only with the human remains of the Post-Pliocene period that the palæontologist proper has to deal. When we enter the "Recent" period, in which the remains of Man are associated with those of existing species of Mammals, we pass out of the region of pure palæontology into the domain of the Archæologist and the Ethnologist.
LITERATURE.
The following are some of the principal works and memoirs to which the student may refer for information as to the Post-Pliocene deposits and the remains which they contain, as well as to the primitive races of mankind:—
CHAPTER XXIII.
THE SUCCESSION OF LIFE UPON THE GLOBE.
In conclusion, it may not be out of place if we attempt to summarise, in the briefest possible manner, some of the principal results which may be deduced as to the succession of life upon the earth from the facts which have in the preceding portion of this work been passed in review. That there was a time when the earth was void of life is universally admitted, though it may be that the geological record gives us no direct evidence of this. That the globe of to-day is peopled with innumerable forms of life whose term of existence has been, for the most part, but as it were of yesterday, is likewise an assertion beyond dispute. Can we in any way connect the present with the remote past, and can we indicate even imperfectly the conditions and laws under which the existing order was brought about? The long series of fossiliferous deposits, with their almost countless organic remains, is the link between what has been and what is; and if any answer to the above question can be arrived at, it will be by the careful and conscientious study of the facts of Palæontology. In the present state of our knowledge, it may be safely said that anything like a dogmatic or positive opinion as to the precise sequence of living forms upon the globe, and still more as to the manner in which this sequence may have been brought about, is incapable of scientific proof. There are, however, certain general deductions from the known facts which may be regarded as certainly established.
In the first place, it is certain that there has been a succession of life upon the earth, different specific and generic types succeeding one another in successive periods. It follows from this, that the animals and plants with which we are familiar as living, were not always upon the earth, but that they have been preceded by numerous races more or less differing from them. What is true of the species of animals and plants, is true also of the higher zoological divisions; and it is, in the second place, quite certain that there has been a similar succession in the order of appearance of the primary groups ("sub-kingdoms," "classes," &c.) of animals and vegetables. These great groups did not all come into existence at once, but they made their appearance successively. It is true that we cannot be said to be certainly acquainted with the first absolute appearance of any great group of animals. No one dare assert positively that the apparent first appearance of Fishes in the Upper Silurian is really their first introduction upon the earth: indeed, there is a strong probability against any such supposition. To whatever extent, however, future discoveries may push back the first advent of any or of all of the great groups of life, there is no likelihood that anything will be found out which will materially alter the relative succession of these groups as at present known to us. It is not likely, for example, that the future has in store for us any discovery by which it would be shown that Fishes were in existence before Molluscs, or that Mammals made their appearance before Fishes. The sub-kingdoms of Invertebrate animals were all represented in Cambrian times—and it might therefore be inferred that these had all come simultaneously into existence; but it is clear that this inference, though incapable of actual disproof, is in the last degree improbable. Anterior to the Cambrian is the great series of the Laurentian, which, owing to the metamorphism to which it has been subjected, has so far yielded but the singular Eozoön. We may be certain, however, that others of the Invertebrate sub-kingdoms besides the Protozoa were in existence in the Laurentian period; and we may infer from known analogies that they appeared successively, and not simultaneously.
When we come to smaller divisions than the sub-kingdoms—such as classes, orders, and families—a similar succession of groups is observable. The different classes of any given sub-kingdom, or the different orders of any given class, do not make their appearance together and all at once, but they are introduced upon the earth in succession. More than this, the different classes of a sub-kingdom, or the different orders of a class, in the main succeed one another in the relative order of their zoological rank—the lower groups appearing first and the higher groups last. It is true that in the Cambrian formation—the earliest series of sediments in which fossils are abundant—we find numerous groups, some very low, others very high, in the zoological scale, which appear to have simultaneously flashed into existence. For reasons stated above, however, we cannot accept this appearance as real; and we must believe that many of the Cambrian groups of animals really came into being long before the commencement of the Cambrian period. At any rate, in the long series of fossiliferous deposits of later date than the Cambrian the above-stated rule holds good as a broad generalisation—that the lower groups, namely, precede the higher in point of time; and though there are apparent exceptions to the rule, there are none of such a nature as not to admit of explanation. Some of the leading facts upon which this generalisarion is founded will be enumerated immediately; but it will be well, in the first place, to consider briefly what we precisely mean when we speak of "higher" and "lower" groups.
It is well known that naturalists are in the habit of "classifying" the innumerable animals which now exist upon the globe; or, in other words, of systematically arranging them into groups. The precise arrangement adopted by one naturalist may differ in minor details from that adopted by another; but all are agreed as to the fundamental points of classification, and all, therefore, agree in placing certain groups in a certain sequence. What, then, is the principle upon which this sequence is based? Why, for example, are the Sponges placed below the Corals; these below the Sea-urchins; and these, again, below the Shell-fish? Without entering into a discussion of the principles of zoological classification, which would here be out of place, it must be sufficient to say that the sequence in question is based upon the relative type of organisation of the groups of animals classified. The Corals are placed above the Sponges upon the ground that, regarded as a whole, the plan or type of structure of a Coral is more complex than that of a Sponge. It is not in the slightest degree that the Sponge is in any respect less highly organised or less perfect, as a Sponge, than is the Coral as a Coral. Each is equally perfect in its own way; but the structural pattern of the Coral is the highest, and therefore it occupies a higher place in the zoological scale. It is upon this principle, then, that the primary subdivisions of the animal kingdom (the so-called "sub-kingdoms") are arranged in a certain order. Coming, again, to the minor subdivisions (classes, orders, &c.) of each sub-kingdom, we find a different but entirely analogous principle employed as a means of classification. The numerous animals belonging to any given sub-kingdom are formed upon the same fundamental plan of structure; but they nevertheless admit of being arranged in a regular series of groups. All the Shell-fish, for example, are built upon a common plan, this plan representing the ideal Mollusc; but there are at the same time various groups of the Mollusca, and these groups admit of an arrangement in a given sequence. The principle adopted in this case is simply of the relative elaboration of the common type. The Oyster is built upon the same ground-plan as the Cuttle-fish; but this plan is carried out with much greater elaboration, and with many more complexities, in the latter than in the former: and in accordance with this, the Cephalopoda constitute a higher group than the Bivalve Shell-fish. As in the case of superiority of structural type, so in this case also, it is not in the least that the Oyster is an imperfect animal. On the contrary, it is just as perfectly adapted by its organisation to fill its own sphere and to meet the exigencies of its own existence as is the Cuttle-fish; but the latter lives a life which is, physiologically, higher than the former, and its organisation is correspondingly increased in complexity.
This being understood, it may be repeated that, in the main, the succession of life upon the globe in point of time has corresponded with the relative order of succession of the great groups of animals in zoological rank; and some of the more striking examples of this may be here alluded to. Amongst the Echinoderms, for instance, the two orders generally admitted to be the "lowest" in the zoological scale—namely, the Crinoids and the Cystoids—are likewise the oldest, both, appearing in the Cambrian, the former slowly dying out as we approach the Recent period, and the latter disappearing wholly before the close of the Palæozoic period. Amongst the Crustaceans, the ancient groups of the Trilobites, Ostracodes, Phyllopods, Eurypterids, and Limuloids, some of which exist at the present day, are all "low" types; whereas the highly-organised Decapods do not make their appearance till near the close of the Palæozoic epoch, and they do not become abundant till we reach Mesozoic times. Amongst the Mollusca, those Bivalves which possess breathing-tubes (the "siphonate" Bivalves) are generally admitted to be higher than those which are destitute of these organs (the "asiphonate" Bivalves); and the latter are especially characteristic of the Palæozoic period, whilst the former abound in Mesozoic and Kainozoic formations. Similarly, the Univalves with breathing-tubes and a corresponding notch in the mouth of the shell ("siphonostomatous" Univalves) are regarded as higher in the scale than the round-mouthed vegetable-eating Sea-snails, in which no respiratory siphons exist ("holostomatous" Univalves); but the latter abound in the Palæozoic rocks—whereas the former do not make their appearance till the Jurassic period, and their higher groups do not seem to have existed till the close of the Cretaceous. The Cephalopods, again—the highest of all the groups of Mollusca—are represented in the Palæozoic rocks exclusively by Tetrabranchiate forms, which constitute the lowest of the two orders of this class; whereas the more highly specialised Dibranchiates do not make their appearance till the commencement of the Mesozoic. The Palæozoic Tetrabranchiates, also, are of a much simpler type than the highly complex Ammonitidœ of the Mesozoic.
Similar facts are observable amongst the Vertebrate animals. The Fishes are the lowest class of Vertebrates, and they are the first to appear, their first certain occurrence being in the Upper Silurian; whilst, even if the Lower Silurian and Upper Cambrian "Conodonts" were shown to be the teeth of Fishes, there would still remain the enormously long periods of the Laurentian and Lower Cambrian, during which there were Invertebrates, but no Vertebrates. The Amphibians, the next class in zoological order, appears later than the Fishes, and is not represented till the Carboniferous; whilst its highest group (that of the Frogs and Toads) does not make its entrance upon the scene till Tertiary times are reached. The class of the Reptiles, again, the next in order, does not appear till the Permian, and therefore not till after Amphibians of very varied forms had been in existence for a protracted period. The Birds seem to be undoubtedly later than the Reptiles; but, owing to the uncertainty as to the exact point of their first appearance, it cannot be positively asserted that they preceded Mammals, as they should have done. Finally, the Mesozoic types of Mammals are mainly, if not exclusively, referable to the Marsupials, one of the lowest orders of the class; whilst the higher orders of the "Placental" Quadrupeds are not with certainty known to have existed prior to the commencement of the Tertiary period.
Facts of a very similar nature are offered by the succession of Plants upon the globe. Thus the vegetation of the Palæozoic period consisted principally of the lowly-organised groups of the Cryptogamous or Flowerless plants. The Mesozoic formations, up to the Chalk, are especially characterised by the naked-seeded Flowering plants—the Conifers and the Cycads; whilst the higher groups of the Angiospermous Exogens and Monocotyledons characterise the Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks.
Facts of the above nature—and they could be greatly multiplied—seem to point clearly to the existence of some law of progression, though we certainly are not yet in a position to formulate this law, or to indicate the precise manner in which it has operated. Two considerations, also, must not be overlooked. In the first place, there are various groups, some of them highly organised, which make their appearance at an extremely ancient date, but which continue throughout geological time almost unchanged, and certainly unprogressive. Many of these "persistent types" are known—such as various of the Foraminifera, the Lingulœ, the Nautili, &c.; and they indicate that under given conditions, at present unknown to us, it is possible for a life-form to subsist for an almost indefinite period without any important modification of its structure. In the second place, whilst the facts above mentioned point to some general law of progression of the great zoological groups, it cannot be asserted that the primeval types of any given group are necessarily "lower," zoologically speaking, than their modern representatives. Nor does this seem to be at all necessary for the establishment of the law in question. It cannot be asserted, for example, that the Ganoid and Placoid Fishes of the Upper Silurian are in themselves less highly organised than their existing representatives; nor can it even be asserted that the Ganoid and Placoid orders are low groups of the class Pisces. On the contrary, they are high groups; but then it must be remembered that these are probably not really the first Fishes, and that if we meet with Fishes at some future time in the Lower Silurian or Cambrian, these may easily prove to be representatives of the lower orders of the class. This question cannot be further entered into here, as its discussion could be carried out to an almost unlimited length; but whilst there are facts pointing both ways, it appears that at present we are not justified in asserting that the earlier types of each group—so far as these are known to us, or really are without predecessors—are necessarily or invariably more "degraded" or "embryonic" in their structure than their more modern representatives.
It remains to consider very briefly how far Palæontology supports the doctrine of "Evolution," as it is called; and this, too, is a question of almost infinite dimensions, which can but be glanced at here. Does Palæontology teach us that the almost innumerable kinds of animals and plants which we know to have successively flourished upon the earth in past times were produced separately and wholly independently of each other, at successive periods? or does it point to the theory that a large number of these supposed distinct forms, have been in reality produced by the slow modification of a comparatively small number of primitive types? Upon the whole, it must be unhesitatingly replied that the evidence of Palæontology is in favour of the view that the succession of life-forms upon the globe has been to a large extent regulated by some orderly and constantly-acting law of modification and evolution. Upon no other theory can we comprehend how the fauna of any given formation is more closely related to that of the formation next below in the series, and to that of the formation next above, than to that of any other series of deposits. Upon no other view can we comprehend why the Post-Tertiary Mammals of South America should consist principally of Edentates, Llamas, Tapirs, Peccaries, Platyrhine Monkeys, and other forms now characterising this continent; whilst those of Australia should be wholly referable to the order of Marsupials. On no other view can we explain the common occurrence of "intermediate" or "transitional" forms of life, filling in the gaps between groups now widely distinct.
On the other hand, there are facts which point clearly to the existence of some law other than that of evolution, and probably of a deeper and more far-reaching character. Upon no theory of evolution can we find a satisfactory explanation for the constant introduction throughout geological time of new forms of life, which do not appear to have been preceded by pre-existent allied types; The Graptolites and Trilobites have no known predecessors, and leave no known successors. The Insects appear suddenly in the Devonian, and the Arachnides and Myriapods in the Carboniferous, under well-differentiated and highly-specialised types. The Dibranchiate Cephalopods appear with equal apparent suddenness in the older Mesozoic deposits, and no known type of the Palæozoic period can be pointed to as a possible ancestor. The Hippuritidœ of the Cretaceous burst into a varied life to all appearance almost immediately after their first introduction into existence. The wonderful Dicotyledonous flora of the Upper Cretaceous period similarly surprises us without any prophetic annunciation from the older Jurassic.
Many other instances could be given; but enough has been said to show that there is a good deal to be said on both sides, and that the problem is one environed with profound difficulties. One point only seems now to be universally conceded, and that is, that the record of life in past time is not interrupted by gaps other than those due to the necessary imperfections of the fossiliferous series, to the fact that many animals are incapable of preservation in a fossil condition, or to other causes of a like nature. All those who are entitled to speak on this head are agreed that the introduction of new and the destruction of old species have been slow and gradual processes, in no sense of the term "catastrophistic." Most are also willing to admit that "Evolution" has taken place in the past, to a greater or less extent, and that a greater or less number of so-called species of fossil animals are really the modified descendants of pre-existent forms. How this process of evolution has been effected, to what extent it has taken place, under what conditions and laws it has been carried out, and how far it may be regarded as merely auxiliary and supplemental to some deeper law of change and progress, are questions to which, in spite of the brilliant generalisations of Darwin, no satisfactory answer can as yet be given. In the successful solution of this problem—if soluble with the materials available to our hands—will lie the greatest triumph that Palæontology can hope to attain; and there is reason to think that, thanks to the guiding-clue afforded by the genius of the author of the 'Origin of Species,' we are at least on the road to a sure, though it may be a far-distant, victory.
APPENDIX.
TABULAR VIEW OF THE CHIEF DIVISIONS OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.
(Extinct groups are marked with an asterisk. Groups not represented at all as fossils are marked with two asterisks.)
INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.
SUB-KINGDOM I.—PROTOZOA.
Animal simple or compound; body composed of "sarcode," not definitely segmented; no nervous system; and no digestive apparatus, beyond occasionally a mouth and gullet.
| CLASS I. | GREGARINIDÆ.** |
| CLASS II. | RHIZOPODA. |
| Order 1. Monera.** " 2. Amœbea.** " 3. Foraminifera. " 4. Radiolaria (Polycystines, &c.) " 5. Spongida (Sponges). | |
| Order | 1. Monera.** |
| " | 2. Amœbea.** |
| " | 3. Foraminifera. |
| " | 4. Radiolaria (Polycystines, &c.) |
| " | 5. Spongida (Sponges). |
| CLASS III. | INFUSORIA.** |
SUB-KINGDOM II.—CŒLENTERATA.
Animal simple or compound; body-wall composed of two principal layers; digestive canal freely communicating with the general cavity of the body; no circulating organs, and no nervous system or a rudimentary one; mouth surrounded by tentacles, arranged, like the internal organs, in a "radiate" or star-like manner.
SUB-KINGDOM III.—ANNULOIDA.
Animals in which the digestive canal is completely shut off from the cavity of the body; a distinct nervous system; a system of branched "water-vessels," which usually communicate with the exterior. Body of the adult often "radiate," and never composed of a succession of definite rings.
| CLASS I. | ECHINODERMATA. |
| Order 1. Crinoidea ("Sea-lilies"). Ex. Feather-star (Comatula), Stone-lily (Encrinus*). Order 2. Blastoidea* ("Pentremites"). " 3. Cystoidea* ("Globe-lilies"). " 4. Ophiuroidea ("Brittle-stars"). Ex. " Sand-stars (Ophiura), Brittle-stars (Ophiocoma). Order 5. Asteroidea ("Star-fishes"). Ex. Cross-fish (Uraster), Sun-star (Solaster). Order 6. Echinoidea ("Sea-urchins"). Ex. Sea-eggs (Echinus), Heart-urchins (Spatangus). Order 7. Holothuroidea ("Sea-cucumbers"). Ex. Trepangs (Holothuria). | |
| Order | 1. Crinoidea ("Sea-lilies"). Ex. Feather-star (Comatula), Stone-lily (Encrinus*). |
| Order | 2. Blastoidea* ("Pentremites"). |
| " | 3. Cystoidea* ("Globe-lilies"). |
| " | 4. Ophiuroidea ("Brittle-stars"). Ex. |
| " | Sand-stars (Ophiura), Brittle-stars (Ophiocoma). |
| Order | 5. Asteroidea ("Star-fishes"). Ex. Cross-fish (Uraster), Sun-star (Solaster). |
| Order | 6. Echinoidea ("Sea-urchins"). Ex. Sea-eggs (Echinus), Heart-urchins (Spatangus). |
| Order | 7. Holothuroidea ("Sea-cucumbers"). Ex. Trepangs (Holothuria). |
| CLASS II. | SCOLECIDA** (Intestinal Worms, Wheel Animalcules, &c.) |
SUB-KINGDOM IV.—ANNULOSA.
Animal composed of numerous definite segments placed one behind the other; nervous system forming a knotted cord placed along the lower (ventral) surface of the body.
Division A. Anarthropoda. No jointed limbs.
| CLASS I. | GEPHYREA** ("Spoon-worms"). |
| CLASS II. | ANNELIDA. ("Ringed-worms"). |
| Ex. Leeches** (Hirudinea), Earthworms** (Oligochœta), Tube-worms (Tubicola), Sea-worms and Sea-centipedes (Errantia). | |
| CLASS III. | CHÆTOGNATHA** ("Arrow-worms"). |
Division B. Arthropoda or Articulata. Limbs jointed to the body.
SUB-KINGDOM V.—MOLLUSCA.
Animal soft-bodied, generally with a hard covering or shell; no distinct segmentation of the body; nervous system of scattered masses.
| CLASS I. | POLYZOA ("Sea-Mosses"). |
| Ex. Sea-mats (Flustra), Lace-corals (Fenestellidœ*). | |
| CLASS II. | TUNICATA** ("Tunicaries"). |
| Ex. Sea-squirts (Ascidia). | |
| CLASS III. | BRACHIOPODA ("Lamp-shells"). |
| Ex. Goose-bill Lamp-shell (Lingula). | |
| CLASS IV. | LAMELLIBRANCHIATA ("Bivalves"). |
| Ex. Oyster (Ostrea), Mussel (Mytilus), Scallop (Pecten), Cockle (Cardium). | |
| CLASS V. | GASTEROPODA ("Univalves"). |
| Ex. Whelks (Buccinum), Limpets (Patella), Sea-slugs** (Doris), Land-snails (Helix). | |
| CLASS VI. | PTEROPODA ("Winged Snails"). |
| Ex. Hyalea, Cleodora. | |
| CLASS VII. | CEPHALOPODA ("Cuttle-fishes"). |
| Ex. Calamary (Loligo), Poulpe (Octopus), Paper Nautilus (Arganauta), Pearly Nautilus (Nautilus), Belemnites,* Orthoceratites,* Ammonites.* |
VERTEBRATE ANIMALS.
SUB-KINGDOM VI.—VERTEBRATA.
Body composed of definite segments arranged longitudinally one behind the other; main masses of the nervous system placed dorsally; a backbone or "vertebral column" in the majority.
GLOSSARY.
ABDOMEN (Lat. abdo, I conceal). The posterior cavity of the body, containing the intestines and others of the viscera. In many Invertebrates there is no separation of the body-cavity into thorax and abdomen, and it is only in the higher Annulosa that a distinct abdomen can be said to exist.
ABERRANT (Lat. aberro, I wander away). Departing from the regular type.
ABNORMAL (Lat. ab, from; norma, a rule). Irregular; deviating from the ordinary standard.
ACRODUS (Gr. akros, high; odous, tooth). A genus of the Cestraciont fishes, so called from the elevated teeth.
ACROGENS (Gr. akros, high; gennao, I produce). Plants which increase in height by additions made to the summit of the stem by the union of the bases of the leaves.
ACROTRETA (Gr. akros, high; tretos, pierced). A genus of Brachiopods, so called from the presence of a foramen at the summit of the shell.
ACTINOCRINUS (Gr. aktin, a ray; krinon, a lily). A genus of Crinoids.
ACTINOZOA (Gr. aktin, a ray; and zoön, an animal). That division of the Cœlenterata of which the Sea-anemones may be taken as the type.
ÆGLINA (Æglé, a sea-nymph). A genus of Trilobites.
ÆPIORNIS (Gr. aipus, huge; ornis, bird). A genus of gigantic Cursorial birds.
AGNOSTUS (Gr. a, not; gignosko, I know). A genus of Trilobites.
ALCES (Lat. alces, elk). The European Elk or Moose.
ALECTO (the proper name of one of the Furies). A genus of Polyzoa.
ALETHOPTERIS (Gr. alethes, true; pteris, fern). A genus of Ferns.
ALGÆ. (Lat. alga, a marine plant). The order of plants comprising the Sea-weeds and many fresh-water plants.
ALVEOLUS (Lat. alvus, belly). Applied to the sockets of the teeth.
AMBLYPTERUS (Gr. amblus, blunt; pteron, fin). An order of Ganoid Fishes.
AMBONYCHIA (Gr. ambon, a boss; onux, claw). A genus of Palæozoic Bivalves.
AMBULACRA (Lat. ambulacrum, a place for walking). The perforated spaces or "avenues" through which are protruded the tube-feet, by means of which locomotion is effected in the Echinodermata.
AMMONITIDÆ. A family of Tetrabranchiate Cephalopods, so called from the resemblance of the shell of the type-genus, Ammonites, to the horns of the Egyptian God, Jupiter-Ammon.
AMORPHOZOA (Gr. a, without; morphe, shape; zoön, animal). A name sometimes used to designate the Sponges.
AMPHIBIA (Gr. amphi, both; bios, life). The Frogs, Newts, and the like, which have gills when young, but can always breathe air directly when adult.
AMPHICYON (Gr. amphi, both—implying doubt; kuon, dog). An extinct genus of Carnivora.
AMPHILESTES (Gr. amphi, both; lestes, a thief). A genus of Jurassic Mammals.
AMPHISPONGIA (Gr. amphi, both; spoggos, sponge). A genus of Silurian sponges.
AMPHISTEGINA (Gr. amphi, both; stegé, roof). A genus of Foraminifera.
AMPHITHERIUM (Gr. amphi, both; therion, beast). A genus of Jurassic Mammals.
AMPHITRAGULUS (Gr. amphi, both; dim. of tragos, goat). An extinct genus related to the living Musk-deer.
AMPLEXUS (Lat. an Ambrace). A genus of Rugose Corals.
AMPYX (Gr. ampux, a wreath or wheel). A genus of Trilobites.
ANARTHROPODA (Gr. a. without; arthros, a joint; pous, foot). That division of Annulose animals in which there are no articulated appendages.
ANCHITHERIUM (Gr. agchi, near; therion, beast). An extinct genus of Mammals.
ANCYLOCERAS (Gr. agkulos, crooked; ceras, horn). A genus of Ammonitidœ.
ANCYLOTHERIUM (Gr. agkulos, crooked; therion, beast). An extinct genus of Edentate Mammals.
ANDRIAS (Gr. andrias, image of man). An extinct genus of tailed Amphibians.
ANGIOSPERMS (Gr. angeion, a vessel; sperma, seed). Plants which have their seeds enclosed in a seed-vessel.
ANNELIDA (a Gallicised form of Annulata). The Ringed Worms, which form one of the divisions of the Anarthropoda.
ANNULARIA (Lat. annulus, a ring). A genus of Palæozoic plants, with leaves in whorls.
ANNULOSA (Lat. annulus). The sub-kingdom comprising the Anarthropoda and the Arthropoda or Articulata, in all of which the body is more or less evidently composed of a succession of rings.
ANOMODONTIA (Gr. anomos, irregular; odous, tooth). An extinct order of Reptiles, often called Dicynodontia.
ANOMURA (Gr. anomos, irregular; oura, tail). A tribe of Decapod Crustacea, of which the Hermit-crab is the type.
ANOPLOTHERIDÆ (Gr. anoplos, unarmed; ther, beast). A family of Tertiary Ungulates.
ANOURA (Gr. a, without; oura, tail). The order of Amphibia comprising the Frogs and Toads, in which the adult is destitute of a tail. Often, called Batrachia.
ANTENNÆ (Lat. antenna, a yard-arm). The jointed horns or feelers possessed by the majority of the Articulata.
ANTENNULES (dim. of Antennœ). Applied to the smaller pair of antennæ in the Crustacea.
ANTHRACOSAURUS (Gr. anthrax, coal; saura, lizard). A genus of Labyrinthodont Amphibians.
ANTHRAPALÆMON (Gr. anthrax, coal; palœmon, a prawn—originally a proper name). A genus of long-tailed Crustaceans from the Coal-measures.
ANTLERS. Properly the branches of the horns of the Deer tribe (Cervidœ), but generally applied to the entire horns.
APIOCRINIDÆ (Gr. apion, a pear; krinon, lily). A family of Crinoids—the "Pear-encrinites."
APTERYX (Gr. a, without; pterux, a wing). A wingless bird of New Zealand, belong to the order Cursores.
AQUEOUS (Lat. aqua, water). Formed in or by water.
ARACHNIDA (Gr. arachne, a spider). A class of the Articulata, comprising Spiders, Scorpions, and allied animals.
ARBORESCENT. Branched like a tree.
ARCHÆOCIDARIS (Gr. archaios, ancient; Lat. cidaris, a diadem). A Palæozoic genus of Sea-urchins, related to the existing Cidaris.
ARCHÆOCYATHUS (Gr. archaios, ancient; kuathos, cup). A genus of Palæozoic fossils allied to the Sponges.
ARCHÆOPTERYX (Gr. archaios, ancient; pterux, a wing). The singular fossil bird which alone constitutes the order of the Saururœ.
ARCTOCYON (Gr. arctos, bear; kuon, dog). An extinct genus of Carnivora.
ARENACEOUS. Sandy, or composed of grains of sand.
ARENICOLITES (Lat. arena, sand; colo, I inhabit). A genus founded on burrows supposed to be formed by worms resembling the living Lobworms (Arenicola).
ARTICULATA (Lat. articulus, a joint). A division of the animal kingdom, comprising Insects, Centipedes, Spiders, and Crustaceans, characterised by the possession of jointed bodies or jointed limbs. The term Arthropoda is now more usually employed.
ARTIODACTYLA (Gr. artios, even; daktulos, a finger or toe). A division of the hoofed quadrupeds (Ungulata) in which each foot has an even number of toes (two or four).
ASAPHUS (Gr. Asaphes, obscure). A genus of Trilobites.
ASCOCERAS (Gr. askos, a leather bottle; keras, horn). A genus of Tetrabranchiate Cephalopods.
ASIPHONATE. Not possessing a respiratory tube or siphon. (Applied to a division of the Lamellibranchiate Molluscs.)
ASTEROID (Gr. aster, a star; and eidos, form). Star-shaped, or possessing radiating lobes or rays like a star-fish.
ASTEROIDEA. An order of Echinodermata, comprising the Star-fishes, characterised by their rayed form.
ASTEROPHYLLITES (Gr. aster, a star; phullon, leaf). A genus of Palæozoic plants, with leaves in whorls.
ASTRÆIDÆ (Gr. Astrœa, a proper name). The family of the Star-corals.
ASTYLOSPONGIA (Gr. a, without; stulos, a column; spoggos, a sponge). A genus of Silurian Sponges.
ATHYRIS (Gr. a, without; thura, door). A genus of Brachiopods.
ATRYPA (Gr. a, without; trupa, a hole). A genus of Brachiopods.
AVES (Lat. avis, a bird). The class of the Birds.
AVICULA (Lat. a little bird). The genus of Bivalve Molluscs comprising the Pearl-oysters.
AXOPHYLLUM (Gr. axon, a pivot; phullon, a leaf). A genus of Rugose Corals.
AZOIC (Gr. a, without; zoé, life). Destitute of traces of living beings.
BACULITES (Lat. baculum, a staff). A genus of the Ammonitidœ.
BALÆNA (Lat. a whale). The genus of the Whalebone Whales.
BALANIDÆ (Gr. balanos, an acorn). A family of sessile Cirripedes, commonly called "Acorn-shells."
BATRACHIA (Gr. batrachos, a frog). Often loosely applied to any of the Amphibia, but sometimes restricted to the Amphibians as a class, or to the single order of the Anoura.
BELEMNITIDÆ (Gr. belemnon, a dart). An extinct group of Dibranchiate Cephalopods, comprising the Belemnites and their allies.
BELEMNOTEUTHIS (Gr. belemnon, a dart; teuthis, a cuttle-fish). A genus allied to the Belemnites proper.
BELINURUS (Gr. belos, a dart; oura, tail). A genus of fossil King-crabs.
BELLEROPHON (Gr. proper name). A genus of oceanic Univalves (Heteropoda).
BELOTEUTHIS (Gr. belos, a dart; teuthis, a cuttle-fish). An extinct genus of Dibranchiate Cephalopods.
BEYRICHIA (named after Prof. Beyrich). A genus of Ostracode Crustaceans.
BILATERAL. Having two symmetrical sides.
BIMANA (Lat. Bis, twice; manus, a hand). The order of Mammalia comprising man alone.
BIPEDAL (Lat. bis, twice; pes, foot). Walking upon two legs.
BIVALVE (Lat. bis, twice; valvœ, folding-doors). Composed of two plates or valves; applied to the shell of the Lamellibranchiata and Brachiopoda, and to the carapace of certain Crustacea.
BLASTOIDEA (Gr. blastos, a bud; and eidos, form). An extinct order of Echinodermata, often called Pentremites.
BRACHIOPODA (Gr. brachion, an arm; pous, the foot). A class or the Molluscoida, often called "Lamp-shells," characterised by possessing two fleshy arms continued from the sides of the mouth.
BRACHYURA (Gr. brachus, short; oura, tail). A tribe of the Decapod Crustaceans with short tails (i.e., the Crabs).
BRADYPODIDÆ. (Gr. bradus, slow; podes, feet). The family of Edentata comprising the Sloths.
BRANCHIA (Gr. bragchia, the gill of a fish). A respiratory organ adapted to breathe air dissolved in water.
BRANCHIATE. Possessing gills or branchiæ.
BRONTEUS (Gr. broné, thunder—an epithet of Jupiter the Thunderer). A genus of Trilobites.
BRONTOTHERIUM (Gr. bronté, thunder; therion beast). An extinct genus of Ungulate Quadrupeds.
BRONTOZOUM (Gr. bronté, thunder; zoön, animal). A genus founded on the largest footprints of the Triassic Sandstones of Connecticut.
BUCCINUM (Lat. buccinun, a trumpet). The genus of Univalves comprising the Whelks.
CAINOZOIC (See Kainozoic.)
CALAMITES (Lat. calamus, a reed). Extinct plants with reed-like stems, believed to be gigantic representatives of the Equisetaceœ.
CALCAREOUS (Lat. calx, lime). Composed of carbonate of lime.
CALICE. The little cup in which the polype of a coralligenous Zoophyte (Actinozoön) is contained.
CALYMENE (Gr. kalumené, concealed). A genus of Trilobites.
CALYX (Lat. a cup). Applied to the cup-shaped body of a Crinoid (Echinodermata).
CAMAROPHORIA (Gr. kamara, a chamber; phero, I carry). A genus of Brachiopods.
CAMELOPARDALIDÆ. (Lat. camelus, a camel; pardalis, a panther). The family of the Giraffes.
CANINE (Lat. canis, a dog). The eye-tooth of Mammals, or the tooth which is placed at or close to the præmaxillary suture in the upper jaw, and the corresponding tooth in the lower jaw.
CARAPACE. A protective shield. Applied to the upper shell of Crabs, Lobsters, and many other Crustacea. Also the upper half of the immovable case in which the body of a Chelonian is protected.
CARCHARODON (Gr. karcharos. rough; odous, tooth). A genus of Sharks.
CARDIOCARPON (Gr. kardia, the heart; karpos, fruit). A genus of fossil fruit from the Coal-measures.
CARDIUM (Gr. kardia, the heart). The genus of Bivalve Molluscs comprising the Cockles. Cardinia, Cardiola, and Cardita have the same derivation.
CARNIVORA (Lat. caro, flesh; voro, I devour). An order of the Mammalia. The "Beasts of Prey."
CARNIVOROUS (Lat. caro, flesh; voro, I devour). Feeding upon flesh.
CARYOCARIS (Gr. karua, a nut; karis, a shrimp). A genus of Phyllopod Crustaceans.
CARYOCRINUS (Gr. karua, a nut; krinon, a lily). A genus of Cystideans.
CAUDAL (Lat. cauda, the tail). Belonging to the tail.
CAVICORNIA (Lat. cavus, hollow; cornu, a horn). The "hollow-horned" Ruminants, in which the horn consists of a central bony "horn-core" surrounded by a horny sheath.
CENTRUM (Gr. kentron, the point round which a circle is described by a pair of compasses). The central portion or "body" of a vertebra.
CEPHALASPIDÆ. (Gr. kephale, head; aspis, shield). A family of fossil fishes.
CEPHALIC (Gr. kephale, head). Belonging to the head.
CEPHALOPODA (Gr. kephale; and podes, feet). A class of the Mollusca, comprising the Cuttle-fishes and their allies, in which there is a series of arms ranged round the head.
CERATIOCARIS (Gr. keras, a horn; karis, a shrimp). A genus of Phyllopod Crustaceans.
CERATITES (Gr. keras, a horn). A genus of Ammonitidœ.
CERATODUS (Gr. keras, a horn; odous, tooth). A genus of Dipnoous fishes.
CERVICAL (Lat. cervix, the neck). Connected with or belonging to the region of the neck.
CERVIDÆ (Lat. cervus, a stag). The family of the Deer.
CESTRAPHORI (Gr. kestra, a weapon; phero, I carry). The group of the "Cestraciont Fishes," represented at the present day by the Port-Jackson Shark; so called from their defensive spines.
CETACEA (Gr. ketos, a whale). The order of Mammals comprising the Whales and the Dolphins.
CETIOSAURUS (Gr. ketos, whale; saura, lizard). A genus of Deinosaurian Reptiles.
CHEIROPTERA (Gr. cheir, hand; pteron, wing). The Mammalian order of the Bats.
CHEIROTHERIUM (Gr. cheir, hand; therion, beast). The generic name applied originally to the hand-shaped footprints of Labyrinthodonts.
CHEIRURUS (Gr. cheir, hand; oura, tail). A genus of Trilobites.
CHELONIA (Gr. cheloné, a tortoise). The Reptilian order of the Tortoises and Turtles.
CHONETES (Gr. choné or choané, a chamber or box). A genus of Brachiopods.
CIDARIS (Lat. a diadem). A genus of Sea-urchins.
CLADODUS (Gr. klados, branch; odous, tooth). A genus of Fishes.
CLATHROPORA (Lat. clathti, a trellis; porus, a pore). A genus of Lace-corals (Polyzoa).
CLISIOPHYLLUM (Gr. klision, a hut; phullon, leaf). A genus of Rugose Corals.
CLYMENIA (Clumene, a proper name). A genus of Tetrabranchiate Cephalopods.
COCCOSTEUS (Gr. kokkos, berry; osteon, bone). A genus of Ganoid Fishes.
COCHLIODUS (Gr. kochlion, a snail-shell; odous, tooth). A genus of Cestraciont Fishes.
CŒLENTERATA (Gr. koilos, hollow; enteron, the bowel). The sub-kingdom which comprises the Hydrozoa and Actinozoa. Proposed by Frey and Leuckhart in place of the old term Radiata, which included other animals as well.
COLEOPTERA (Gr. koleos, a sheath; pteron, wing). The order of Insects (Beetles) in which the anterior pair of wings are hardened, and serve as protective cases for the posterior pair of membranous wings.
COLOSSOCHELYS (Gr. kolossos, a gigantic statue; chelus, a tortoise). A huge extinct Land-tortoise.
COMATULA (Gr. koma, the hair). The Feather-star, so called in allusion to its tress-like arms.
CONDYLE (Gr. kondulos, a knuckle). The surface by which one bone articulates with another. Applied especially to the articular surface or surfaces by which the skull articulates with the vertebral column.
CONIFERÆ (Lat. conus, a cone; fero, I carry). The order of the Firs, Pines, and their allies, in which the fruit is generally a "cone" or "fir-apple."
CONULARIA (Lat. conulus, a little-cone). An extinct genus of Pteropods.
COPRALITES (Gr. kopros, dung; lithos, stone). Properly applied to the fossilised excrements of animals; but often employed to designate phosphatic concretions which are not of this nature.
CORALLITE. The corallum secreted by an Actinozoön which consists of a single polype; or the portion of a composite corallum which belongs to, and is secreted by, an individual polype.
CORALLUM (from the Latin for Red Coral). The hard structures deposited in, or by the tissues of an Actinozoön,—commonly called a "coral."
CORIACEOUS (Lat. corium. hide). Leathery.
CORYPHODON (Gr. korus, helmet; odous, tooth). An extinct genus of Mammals, allied to the Tapirs.
CRANIUM (Gr. kranion, the skull). The bony or cartilaginous case in which the brain is contained.
CRETACEOUS (Lat. creta, chalk). The formation which in Europe contains white chalk as one of its most conspicuous members.
CRINOIDEA (Gr. krinon, a lily; eidos, form). An order of Echinodermata, comprising forms which are usually stalked, and sometimes resemble lilies in shape.
CRIOCERAS (Gr. krios, a ram; keras, a horn). A genus of Ammonitidœ.
CROCODILIA (Gr. krokodeilos, a crocodile). An order of Reptiles.
CROSSOPTERYGIDÆ. (Gr. krossotos, a fringe; pterux, a fin). A sub-order of Ganoids in which the paired fins possess a central lobe.
CRUSTACEA (Lat. crusta, a crust). A class of Articulate animals, comprising Crabs, Lobsters, &c., characterised by the possession of a hard shell or crust, which they cast periodically.
CRYPTOGAMS (Gr. kruptos, concealed; gamos, marriage). A division of plants in which the organs of reproduction are obscure and there are no true flowers.
CTENACANTHUS (Gr. kteis, a comb; akantha, a thorn). A genus of fossil fishes, named from its fin-spines.
CTENOID (Gr. kteis, a comb; eidos, form). Applied to those scales of fishes the hinder margins of which are fringed with spines or comb-like projections.
CURSORES (Lat. curro, I run). An order of Aves, comprising birds destitute of the power of flight, but formed for running vigorously (e.g., the Ostrich and Emeu).
CUSPIDATE. Furnished with small pointed eminences or "cusps."
CYATHOCRINUS (Gr. kuathos, a cup; krinon, a lily). A genus of Crinoids.
CYATHOPHYLLUM (Gr. kuathos, a cup; phullon, a leaf). A genus of Rugose Corals.
CYCLOID (Gr. kuklos, a circle; eidos, form). Applied to those scales of fishes which have a regularly circular or elliptical outline with an even margin.
CYCLOPHTHALMUS (Gr. kuklos, a circle; ophthalmos, eye). A genus of fossil Scorpions.
CYCLOSTOMI (Gr. kuklos, and stoma, mouth). Sometimes used to designate the Hag-fishes and Lampreys, forming the order Marsipobranchii.
CYPRÆA (a name of Venus). The genus of Univalve Molluscs comprising the Cowries.
CYRTOCERAS (Gr. kurtos. crooked; keras, horn). A genus of Tetrabranchiate Cephalopods.
CYSTIPHYLLUM (Gr. kustis, a bladder; phullon, a leaf). A genus of Rugose Corals.
CYSTOIDEA (Gr. kustis, a bladder; eidos, form). The "Globe-crinoids," an extinct order of Echinodermata.
DADOXYLON (Gr. dadion, a torch; xulon, wood). An extinct genus of Coniferous trees.
DECAPODA (Gr. deka, ten; podes, feet). The division of Crustacea which have ten feet; also the family of Cuttle-fishes, in which there are ten arms or cephalic processes.
DECIDUOUS (Lat. decido, I fall off). Applied to parts which fall off or are shed during the life of the animal.
DEINOSAURIA (Gr. deinos, terrible; saura, lizard). An extinct order of Reptiles.
DEINOTHERIUM (Gr. deinos, terrible; therion, beast). An extinct genus of Proboscidean Mammals.
DENDROGRAPTUS (Gr. dendron, tree; grapho, I write). A genus of Graptolites.
DESMIDIÆ. Minute fresh-water plants, of a green colour, without a siliceous epidermis.
DIATOMACEÆ (Gr. diatemno, I sever). An order of minute plants which are provided with siliceous envelopes.
DIBRANCHIATA (Gr. dis; twice; bragchia, gill). The order of Cephalopoda (comprising the Cuttle-fishes, &c.) in which only two gills are present.
DICERAS (Gr. dis, twice; keras, horn). An extinct genus of Bivalve Molluscs.
DICTYONEMA (Gr. diktuon, a net; nema, thread). An extinct genus of Polyzoa.
DICYNODONTIA (Gr. dis, twice; kuon, dog; odous, tooth). An extinct order of Reptiles.
DIDYMOGRAPTUS (Gr. didumos, twin; grapho, I write). A genus of Graptolites.
DIMORPHODON (Gr. dis, twice; morphé, shape; oduos, tooth). A genus of Pterosaurian reptiles.
DINICHTHYS (Gr. deinos, terrible; ichthus, fish). An extinct genus of Fishes.
DINOCERAS (Gr. deinos, terrible; keras, horn). An extinct genus of Mammals.
DINOPHIS (Gr. deinos, terrible; ophis, snake). An extinct genus of Snakes.
DINORNIS (Gr. deinos, terrible; ornis, bird). An extinct genus of Birds.
DIPLOGRAPTUS (Gr. diplos, double; grapho, I write). A genus of Graptolites.
DIPNOI (Gr. dis, twice; pnoé, breath). An order of Fishes, comprising the Mud-fishes, so called in allusion to their double mode of respiration.
DIPROTODON (Gr. dis, twice; protos, first; odous, tooth). A genus of extinct Marsupials.
DIPTERA (Gr. dis, twice; pteron, wing). An order of Insects characterised by the possession of two wings.
DISCOID (Gr. diskos, a quoit; eidos, form). Shaped like a round plate or quoit.
DOLOMITE (named after M. Dolomieu). Magnesian limestone.
DORSAL (Lat. dorsum, the back). Connected with or placed upon the back.
DROMATHERIUM (Gr. dromaios, nimble; therion, beast). A genus of Triassic Mammals.
DRYOPITHECUS (Gr. drus, an oak; pithekos, an ape). An extinct genus of Monkeys.
ECHINODERMATA (Gr. echinos; and derma, skin). A class of animals comprising the Sea-urchins, Star-fishes, and others, most of which have spiny skins.
ECHINOIDEA (Gr. echinos; and eidos, form). An order of Echinodermata, comprising the Sea-urchins.
EDENTATA (Lat. e, without; dens, tooth). An order of Mammalia often called Bruta.
EDENTULOUS. Toothless, without any dental apparatus. Applied to the mouth of any animal, or to the hinge of the Bivalve Molluscs.
ELASMOBRANCHII (Gr. elasma, a plate; bragchia, gill). An order of Fishes, including the Sharks and Rays.
ENALIOSAURIA (Gr. enalios, marine; saura, lizard), Sometimes employed as a common term to designate the extinct Reptilian orders of the Ichthyosauria and Plesiosauria.
EOCENE (Gr. eos, dawn; kainos, new or recent). The lowest division of the Tertiary rocks, in which species of existing shells are to a small extent represented.
EOPHYTON (Gr. eos, dawn; phuton, a plant). A genus of Cambrian fossils, supposed to be of a vegetable nature.
EOZOÖN (Gr. eos, dawn; zoön, animal). A genus of chambered calcareous organisms found in the Laurentian and Huronian formations.
EQUILATERAL (Lat. œquus, equal; latus, side). Having its sides equal. Usually applied to the shells of the Brachiopoda. When applied to the spiral shells of the Foraminifera, it means that all the convolutions of the shell lie in the same plane.
EQUISETACEÆ (Lat. equus, horse; seta, bristle). A group of Cryptogamous plants, commonly known as "Horse-tails."
EQUIVALVE (Lat. œquus, equal; valvœ, folding-doors). Applied to shells which are composed of two equal pieces or valves.
ERRANTIA (Lat. erro, I wander). An order of Annelida, often called Nereidea, distinguished by their great locomotive powers.
EUOMPHALUS (Gr. eu, well; omphalos, navel). An extinct genus of Univalve Molluscs.
EURYPTERIDA (Gr. eurus, broad; pteron, wing). An extinct sub-order of Crustacea.
EXOGYRA (Gr. exo, outside; guros, circle). An extinct genus of Oysters.
FAUNA (Lat. Fauni, the rural deities of the Romans). The general assemblage of the animals of any region or district.
FAVOSITES (Lat. favus, a honeycomb). A genus of Tabulate Corals.
FENESTELLIDÆ. (Lat. fenestella, a little window). The "Lace-corals," a group of Palæozoic Polyzoans.
FILICES (Lat. filix, a fern). The order of Cryptogamic plants comprising the Ferns.
FILIFORM (Lat. filum, a thread; forma, shape). Thread-shaped.
FLORA (Lat. Flora, the goddess of flowers). The general assemblage of the plants of any region or district.
FORAMINIFERA (Lat. foramen, an aperture; fero, I carry). An order of Protozoa, usually characterised by the possession of a shell perforated by numerous pseudopodial apertures.
FRUGIVOROUS (Lat. frux, fruit; voro, I devour). Living upon fruits.
FUCOIDS (Lat. fucus, sea-weed; Gr. eidos, likeness). Fossils, often of an obscure nature, believed to be the remains of sea-weeds.
FUSULINA (Lat. fusus, a spindle). An extinct genus of Foraminifera.
GANOID (Gr, ganos, splendour, brightness). Applied to those scales or plates which are composed of an inferior layer of true bone covered by a superior layer of polished enamel.
GANOIDEI. An order of Fishes.
GASTEROPODA (Gr. gaster, stomach; pous, foot). The class of the Mollusca comprising the ordinary Univalves, in which locomotion is usually effected by a muscular expansion of the under surface of the body (the "foot").
GLOBIGERINA (Lat. globus, a globe; gero, I carry). A genus of Foraminifera.
GLYPTODON (Gr. glupho, I engrave; odous, tooth). An extinct genus of Armadillos, so named in allusion to the fluted teeth.
GONIATITES (Gr. gonia, angle). A genus of Tetrabranchiate Cephalopods.
GRALLATORES (Lat. grallœ, stilts). The order of the long-legged Wading Birds.
GRAPTOLITIDÆ. (Gr. grapho, I write; lithos, stone). An extinct sub-class of the Hydrozoa.
GYMNOSPERMS (Gr. gumnos, naked; sperma, seed). The Conifers and Cycads, in which the seed is not protected within a seed-vessel.
HALITHERIUM (Gr. hals, sea; therion, beast). An extinct genus of Sea-cows (Sirenia).
HAMITES (Lat. hamus, a hook). A genus of the Ammonitidœ.
HELIOPHYLLUM (Gr. helios, the sun; phullon, leaf). A genus of Rugose Corals.
HELLADOTHERIUM (Gr. Hellas, Greece; therion, beast). An extinct genus of Ungulate Mammals.
HEMIPTERA (Gr. hemi, and pteron, wing). An order of Insects in which the anterior wings are sometimes "hemelytra."
HESPERORNIS (Gr. Hesperos, the evening star; ornis, bird). An extinct genus of Birds.
HETEROCERCAL (Gr. heteros, diverse; kerkos, tail). Applied to the tail of Fishes when it is unsymmetrical, or composed of two unequal lobes.
HETEROPODA (Gr. heteros, diverse; podes, feet). An aberrant group of the Gasteropods, in which the foot is modified so as to form a swimming organ.
HIPPARION (Gr. hipparion, a little horse). An extinct genus of Equidœ.
HIPPOPOTAMUS (Gr. hippos, horse; potamos, river). A genus of Hoofed Quadrupeds—the "River-horses."
HIPPURITIDÆ. (Gr. hippos, horse; oura, tail). An extinct family of Bivalve Molluscs.
HOLOPTYCHIUS (Gr. holos, whole; ptucé, wrinkle). An extinct genus of Ganoid Fishes.
HOLOSTOMATA (Gr. holos, whole; stoma, mouth). A division of Gasteropodous Molluscs, in which the aperture of the shell is rounded, or "entire."
HOLOTHUROIDEA (Gr. holothourion, and eidos, form). An order of Echinodermata comprising the Trepangs.
HOMOCERCAL (Gr. homos, same; kerkol, tail). Applied to the tail of Fishes when it is symmetrical, or composed of two equal lobes.
HYBODUNTS (Gr. hubos, curved; odous, tooth). A group of Fishes of which Hybodus is the type-genus.
HYDROIDA (Gr. hudra; and eidos, form). The sub-class of the Hydrozoa, which comprises the animals most nearly allied to the Hydra.
HYDROZOA (Gr. hudra; and zoön, animal). The class of the Cœlenterata which comprises animals constructed after the type of the Hydra.
HYMENOPTERA (Gr. humen, a membrane; pteron, a wing). An order of Insects (comprising Bees, Ants, &c.) characterised by the possession of four membranous wings.
ICHTHYODORULITE (Gr. ichthus, fish; dorus, spear; lithos, stone). The fossil fin-spine of Fishes.
ICHTHYOPTERYGIA (Gr. ichthus; pterux, wing). An extinct order of Reptiles.
ICHTHYORNIS (Gr. ichthus, fish; ornis, bird). An extinct genus of Birds.
ICHTHYOSAURIA (Gr. ichthus; saura, lizard). Synonymous with Ichthyopterygia.
IGUANODON (Iguana, a living lizard; Gr. odous, tooth). A genus of Deinosaurian Reptiles.
INCISOR (Lat. incido, I cut). The cutting teeth fixed in the intermaxillary bones of the Mammalia, and the corresponding teeth in the lower jaw.
INEQUILATERAL. Having the two sides unequal, as in the case of the shells of the ordinary bivalves (Lamellibranchiata). When applied to the shells of the Foraminifera, it implies that the convolutions of the shell do not lie in the same plane, but are obliquely wound round an axis.
INEQUIVALVE. Composed of two unequal pieces or valves.
INOCERAMUS (Gr. is, a fibre; keramos, an earthen vessel). An extinct genus of Bivalve Molluscs.
INSECTA (Lat. inseco, I cut into). The class of articulate animals commonly known as Insects.
INSECTIVORA (Lat. insectum, an insect; voro, I devour). An order of Mammals.
INSECTIVOROUS. Living upon Insects.
INSESSORES (Lat. insedeo, I sit upon). The order of the Perching Birds, often called Passeres.
INTERAMBULACRA. The rows of plates in an Echinoid which are not perforated for the emission of the "tube-feet."
INTERMMAXILLÆ or PRÆMAXILLÆ. The two bones which are situated between the two superior maxillæ in Vertebrata. In man, and some monkeys, the præmaxillæ anchylose with the maxillæ, so as to be irrecognisable in the adult.
INVERTEBRATA (Lat. in, without; vertebra, a bone of the back). Animals without a spinal column or backbone.
ISOPODA. (Gr. isos, equal; podes, feet). An order of Crustacea in which the feet are like one another and equal.
KAINOZOIC (Gr. kainos, recent; zoe, life). The Tertiary period in Geology comprising those formations in which the organic remains approximate more or less closely to the existing fauna and flora.
LABYRINTHODONTIA (Gr. laburinthos, a labyrinth; odous, tooth). An extinct order of Amphibia, so called from the complex microscopic structure of the teeth.
LACERTILIA (Lat. lacerta, a lizard). An order of Reptilia comprising the Lizards and Slow-worms.
LAMELLIBRANCHIATA (Lat. lamella, a plate; Gr. bragchia, gill). The class of Mollusca comprising the ordinary bivalves, characterised by the possession of lamellar gills.
LEPIDODENDRON (Gr. lepis, a scale; dendron, a tree). A genus of extinct plants, so named from the scale-like scars upon the stem left by the falling off of the leaves.
LEPIDOPTERA (Gr. lepis, a scale; pteron, a wing). An order of Insects, comprising Butterflies and Moths, characterised by possessing four wings which are usually covered with minute scales.
LEPIDOSIREN (Gr. lepis, a scale; seiren, a siren—the generic name of the Mud-eel or Siren lacertina). A genus of Dipnoous fishes, comprising the "Mud-fishes."
LEPIDOSTROBUS (Gr. lepis, a scale; strobilos, a fir-cone). A genus founded on the cones of Lepidodendron.
LEPTÆNA (Gr. leptos. slender). A genus of Brachiopods.
LINGULA (Lat. lingula, a little tongue). A genus of Brachiopods.
LYCOPODIACEÆ (Gr. lupos, a wolf; pous, foot). The group of Cryptogamic plants generally known as "Club-mosses."
MACHÆRACANTHUS (Gr. machaira, a sabre; acantha, thorn or spine). An extinct genus of Fishes.
MACHAIRODUS (Gr. machaira, a sabre; odous, tooth). An extinct genus of Carnivora.
MACROTHERIUM (Gr. makros, long; therion. beast). An extinct genus of Edentata.
MACRURA (Gr. makros, long; oura, tail). A tribe of Decapod Crustaceans with long tails (e.g., the Lobster, Shrimp, &c.)
MAMMALIA (Lat. mamma, the breast). The class of Vertebrate animals which suckle their young.
MANDIBLE (Lat. mandibulum, a jaw). The upper pair of jaws in Insects; also applied to one of the pairs of jaws in Crustacea and Spiders, to the beak of Cephalopods, the lower jaw of Vertebrates, &c.
MANTLE. The external integument of most of the Mollusca, which is largely developed, and forms a cloak in which the viscera are protected. Technically called the "pallium."
MANUS (Lat. the hand). The hand of the higher Vertebrates.
MARSIPOBRANCHII (Gr. marsipos, a pouch; bragchia, gill). The order of Fishes comprising the Hag-fishes and Lampreys, with pouch-like gills.
MARSUPIALIA (Lat. marsupium, a pouch). An order of Mammals in which the females mostly have an abdominal pouch in which the young are carried.
MASTODON (Gr. mastos, nipple; odous, tooth). An extinct genus of Elephantine Mammals.
MEGALONYX (Gr. megas, great; onux, nail). An extinct genus of Edentate Mammals.
MEGALOSAURUS (Gr. megas, great; saura, lizard). A genus of Deinosaurian Reptiles.
MEGATHERIUM (Gr. megas, great; therion, beast). An extinct genus of Edentata.
MESOZOIC (Gr. mesos, middle; and zoe, life). The Secondary period in Geology.
MICROLESTES (Gr. mikros, little; lestes, thief). An extinct genus of Triassic Mammals.
MILLEPORA (Lat. mille, one thousand; porus, a pore). A genus of "Tabulate Corals."
MIOCENE (Gr. meion, less; kainol, new). The Middle Tertiary period.
MOLARS (Lat. mola, a mill). The "grinders" in man, or the teeth in diphyodont Mammals which are not preceded by milk-teeth.
MOLLUSCA (Lat. mollis, soft). The sub-kingdom which includes the Shell-fish proper, the Polyzoa, the Tunicata, and the Lamp-shells; so called from the generally soft nature of their bodies.
MOLLUSCOIDA (Mollusca; Gr. eidos, form). The lower division of the Mollusca, comprising the Polyzoa, Tunicata, and Brachiopoda.
MONOGRAPTUS (Gr. monos, single; grapho, I write). A genus of Graptolites.
MYLODON (Gr. mulos, a mill; odous, tooth). An extinct genus of Edentate Mammals.
MYRIAPODA or MYRIOPODA (Gr. murios, ten thousand; podes, feet). A class of Arthropoda comprising the Centipedes and their allies, characterised by their numerous feet.
NATATORES (Lat. nare, to swim). The order of the Swimming Birds.
NATATORY (Lat. nare, to swim). Formed for swimming.
NAUTILOID. Resembling the shell of the Nautilus in shape.
NERVURES (Lat. nervus, a sinew). The ribs which support the membranous wings of insects.
NEUROPTERA (Gr. neuron, a nerve; pteron, a wing). An order of Insects characterised by four membranous wings with numerous reticulated nervures (e.g., Dragon-flies).
NEUROPTERIS (Gr. neuron, a nerve; pteris, a fern). An extinct genus of Ferns.
NOTHOSAURUS (Gr. nothos, spurious; saura, lizard). A genus of Plesiosaurian Reptiles.
NOTOCHORD (Gr. notos, back; chorde, string). A cellular rod which is developed in the embryo of Vertebrates immediately beneath the spinal cord, and which is usually replaced in the adult by the vertebral column. Often it is spoken of as the "chorda dorsalis."
NUDIBRANCHIATA (Lat. nudus, naked; and Gr. bragchia, gill). An order of the Gasteropoda in which the gills are naked.
NUMMULINA (Lat. nummus, a coin). A genus of Foraminifera, comprising the coin-shaped "Nummulites."
OBOLELLA (Lat. dim. of obolus, a small coin). An extinct genus of Brachiopods.
OCCIPITAL. Connected with the occiput, or the back part of the head.
OCEANIC. Applied to animals which inhabit the open ocean (= pelagic).
ODONTOPTERYX (Gr. oduos, tooth; pterux, wing). An extinct genus of Birds.
ODONTORNITHES (Gr. oduos, tooth; ornis, bird). The extinct order of Birds, comprising forms with distinct teeth in sockets.
OLIGOCENE (Gr. oligos, few; kainos, new). A name used by many Continental geologists as synonymous with the Lower Miocene.
OPHIDIA (Gr. ophis, a serpent). The order of Reptiles comprising the Snakes.
OPHIUROIDEA (Gr. ophis, snake; oura, tail; eidos, form). An order of Echinodermata, comprising the Brittle-stars and Sand-stars.
ORNITHOSCELIDA (Gr. ornis, bird; skelos, leg). Applied by Huxley to the Deinosaurian Reptiles, together with the genus Compsognathus, on account of the bird-like character of their hind-limbs.
ORTHIS (Gr. orthos, straight). A genus of Brachiopods, named in allusion to the straight hinge-line.
ORTHOCERATIDÆ (Gr. orthos, straight; keras, horn). A family of the Nautilidœ, in which the shell is straight, or nearly so.
ORTHOPTERA (Gr. orthos, straight; pteron, wing). An order of Insects.
OSTEOLEPIS (Gr. osteon, bone; lepis, scale). An extinct genus of Ganoid Fishes.
OSTRACODA (Gr. ostrakon, a shell). An order of small Crustaceans which are enclosed in bivalve shells.
OTODUS (Gr. ota, ears; odous, tooth). An extinct genus of Sharks.
OUDENODON (Gr. ouden, none; odous, tooth). A genus of Dicynodont Reptiles.
OVIBUS (Lat. ovis, sheep; bos, ox). The genus comprising the Musk-ox.
PACHYDERMATA (Gr. pachus, thick; derma, skin). An old Mammalian order constituted by Cuvier for the reception of the Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, Elephant, &c.
PALÆASTER (Gr. palaios, ancient; aster, star). An extinct genus of Star-fishes.
PALÆOCARIS (Gr. palaios, ancient; karis, shrimp). An extinct genus of Decapod Crustaceans.
PALÆOLITHIC (Gr. palaios, ancient; lithos, stone). Applied to the rude stone implements of the earliest known races of men, to the men who made these implements, or to the period at which they were made.
PALÆONTOLOGY (Gr. palaios, ancient; and logos, discourse). The science of fossil remains or of extinct organised beings.
PALÆOPHIS (Gr. palaios, ancient; ophis, serpent). An extinct genus of Snakes.
PALÆOSAURUS (Gr. palaios, ancient; saura, lizard). A genus of Thecodont Reptiles.
PALÆOTHERIDÆ. (Gr. palaios, ancient; ther, beast). A group of Tertiary Ungulates.
PALÆOZOIC (Gr. palaios, ancient; and zoe, life). Applied to the oldest of the great geological epochs.
PARADOXIDES (Lat. paradoxus, marvellous). A genus of Trilobites.
PATAGIUM (Lat. the border of a dress). Applied to the expansion of the integument by which Bats, Flying Squirrels, and other animals support themselves in the air.
PECOPTERIS (Gr. peko, I comb; pteris, a fern). An extinct genus of Ferns.
PECTEN (Lat. a comb). The genus of Bivalve Molluscs comprising the Scallops.
PECTORAL (Lat. pectus, chest). Connected with, or placed upon, the chest.
PENTACRINUS (Gr. penta, five; krinon, lily). A genus of Crinoids in which the column is five-sided.
PENTAMERUS (Gr. penta, five; meros, part). An extinct genus of Brachiopods.
PENTREMITES (Gr. penta, five; trema, aperture). A genus of Blastoidea, so named in allusion to the apertures at the summit of the calyx.
PERENNIBRANCHIATA (Lat. perennis, perpetual; Gr. bragchia, gill). Applied to those Amphibia in which the gills are permanently retained throughout life.
PERISSODACTYLA (Gr. perissos, uneven; daktulos, finger). Applied to those Hoofed Quadrupeds (Ungulata) in which the feet have an uneven number of toes.
PETALOID. Shaped like the petal of a flower.
PHACOPS (Gr. phaké, a lentil; ops, the eye). A genus of Trilobites.
PHALANGES (Gr. phalanx, a row). The small bones composing the digits of the higher Vertebrata. Normally each digit has three phalanges.
PHANEROGAMS (Gr. phaneros, visible; gamos, marriage). Plants which have the organs of reproduction conspicuous, and which bear true flowers.
PHARYNGOBRANCHII (Gr. pharugx, pharynx; bragchia, gill). The order of Fishes comprising only the Lancelet.
PHASCOLOTHERIUM (Gr. phaskolos, a pouch; therion, a beast). A genus of Oolitic Mammals.
PHRAGMACONE (Gr. phragma, a partition; and konos, a cone). The chambered portion of the internal shell of a Belemnite.
PHYLLOPODA (Gr. phullon, leaf; and pous, foot). An order of Crustacea.
PINNATE (Lat. pinna, a feather). Feather-shaped; or possessing lateral processes.
PINNIGRADA (Lat. pinna, a feather; gradior, I walk). The group of Carnivora, comprising the Seals and Walruses, adapted for an aquatic life. Often called Pinnipedia.
PINNULÆ. (Lat. dim. of pinna). The lateral processes of the arms of Crinoids.
PISCES (Lat. piscis, a fish). The class of Vertebrates comprising the Fishes.
PLACOID (Gr. plax, a plate; eidos, form). Applied to the irregular bony plates, grains, or spines which are found in the skin of various fishes (Elasmobranchii).
PLAGIOSTOMI (Gr. plagios, transverse; stoma, mouth). The Sharks and Rays, in which the mouth is transverse, and is placed on the under surface of the head.
PLATYCERAS (Gr. platus, broad; keras, horn). A genus of Univalve Molluscs.
PLATYCRINUS (Gr. platus, broad; krinom, lily). A genus of Crinoidea.
PLATYRHINA (Gr. platus, broad; rhines, nostrils). A group of the Quadrumana.
PLATYSOMUS (Gr. platus, wide; soma, body). A genus of Ganoid Fishes.
PLEISTOCENE (Gr. pleistos, most; kainos, new). Often used as synonymous with "Post-Pliocene."
PLEUROTOMARIA (Gr. pleura, the side; tomé, notch). A genus of Univalve shells.
PLIOCENE (Gr. pleion, more; kainos, new). The later Tertiary period.
PLIOPITHECUS (Gr. pleion, more; pithekos, ape). An extinct genus of monkeys.
PLIOSAURUS (Gr. pleion, more; saura, lizard). A genus of Plesiosaurian Reptiles.
POLYCYSTINA (Gr. polus, many; and kustis, a cyst). An order of Protozoa with foraminated siliceous shells.
POLYPARY. The hard chitinous covering secreted by many of the Hydrozoa.
POLYPE (Gr. polus, many; pous, foot). Restricted to the single individual of a simple Actinozoön, such as a Sea-anemone, or to the separate zooids of a compound Actinozoön. Often applied indiscriminately to any of the Cœlenterata, or even to the Polyzoa.
POLYPORA (Gr. polus, many; poros, a passage). A genus of Lace-corals (Fenestellidœ).
POLYTHALAMOUS (Gr. polus; and thalamos, chamber). Having many chambers; applied to the shells of Foraminifera and Cephalopoda.
POLYZOA (Gr. polus; and zoön, animal). A division of the Molluscoida comprising compound animals, such as the Sea-mat—sometimes called Bryozoa.
PORIFERA (Lat. porus, pore; and fero, I carry). Sometimes used to designate the Foraminifera, or the Sponges.
PRÆMOLARS (Lat. prœ, before; molares, the grinders). The molar teeth of Mammals which succeed the molars of the milk-set of teeth. In man, the bicuspid teeth.
PROBOSCIDEA (Lat. proboscis, the snout). The order of Mammals comprising the Elephants.
PROCŒLOUS (Gr. pro, before; koilos, hollow). Applied to vertebræ the bodies of which are hollow or concave in front.
PRODUCTA (Lat. productus, drawn out or extended). An extinct genus of Brachiopods, in which the shell is "eared," or has its lateral angles drawn out.
PROTICHNITES (Gr. protos, first; ichnos, footprint). Applied to certain impressions in the Potsdam sandstone of North America, believed to have been produced by large Crustaceans.
PROTOPHYTA (Gr. protos; and phuton, plant). The lowest division of plants.
PROTOPLASM (Gr. protos; and plasso I mould). The elementary basis of organised tissues. Sometimes used synonymously for the "sarcode" of the Protozoa.
PROTOROSAURUS or PROTEROSAURUS (Gr. protos, first; orao, I see or discover; saura, lizard: or proteros, earlier; saura, lizard). A genus of Permian lizards.
PROTOZOA (Gr. protos; and zoön, animal). The lowest division of the animal kingdom.
PSAMMODUS (Gr. psammos, sand; odous, tooth). An extinct genus of Cestraciont Sharks.
PSEUDOPODIA (Gr. pseudos, falsity; and pous, foot). The extensions of the body-substance which are put forth by the Rhizopoda at will, and which serve for locomotion and prehension.
PSILOPHYTON (Gr. psilos, bare; phuton, plant). An extinct genus of Lycopodiaceous plants.
PTERANODON (Gr. pteron, wing; a, without; odous, tooth). A genus of Pterosaurian Reptiles.
PTERASPIS (Gr. pteron, wing; aspis, shield). A genus of Ganoid Fishes.
PTERICHTHYS (Gr. pteron, wing; ichthus, fish). A genus of Ganoid Fishes.
PTERODACTYLUS (Gr. pteron, wing; daktulos, finger). A genus of Pterosaurian Reptiles.
PTEROPODA (Gr. pteron, wing; and pous, foot). A class of the Mollusca which swim by means of fins attached near the head.
PTEROSAURIA (Gr. pteron, wing; saura, lizard). An extinct order of Reptiles.
PTILODICTYA (Gr. ptilon, a feather; diktuon, a net). An extinct genus of Polyzoa.
PTYCHOCERAS (Gr. ptucé, a fold; keras, a horn). A genus of Ammonitidœ.
PULMONATE. Possessing lungs.
PYRIFORM (Lat. pyrus, a pear; and forma, form). Pear-shaped.
QUADRUMANA (Lat. quatuor, four; manus, hand). The order of Mammals comprising the Apes, Monkeys, Baboons, Lemurs, &c.
RADIATA (Lat. radius, a ray). Formerly applied to a large number of animals which are now placed in separate sub-kingdoms (e.g., the Cœlenterata, the Echinodermata, the Infusoria, &c.)
RADIOLARIA (Lat. radius, a ray). A division of Protozoa.
RAMUS (Lat. a branch). Applied to each half or branch of the lower jaw, or mandible, of Vertebrates.
RAPTORES (Lat. rapto, I plunder). The order of the Birds of Prey.
RASORES (Lat. rado, I scratch). The order of the Scratching Birds (Fowls. Pigeons, &c.)
RECEPTACULITES (Lat. receptaculum, a storehouse). An extinct genus of Protozoa.
REPTILIA (Lat. repto, I crawl). The class of the Vertebrata comprising the Tortoises, Snakes, Lizards, Crocodiles, &c.
RETEPORA (Lat. reté, a net; porus, a pore). A genus of Lace-corals (Polyzoa).
RHAMPHORHYNCHUS (Gr. rhamphos, beak; rhugchos, nose). A genus of Pterosaurian Reptiles.
RHINOCEROS (Gr. rhis, the nose; keras, horn). A genus of Hoofed Quadrupeds.
RHIZOPODA (Gr. rhiza, a root; and pous, foot). The division of Protozoa comprising all those which are capable of emitting pseudopodia.
RHYNCHOLITES (Gr. rhugchos, beak; and lithos, stone). Beak-shaped fossils consisting of the mandibles of Cephalopoda.
RHYNCHONELLA (Gr. rhugchos, nose or beak). A genus of Brachiopods.
RODENTIA (Lat. rodo, I gnaw). An order of the Mammals; often called Glires (Lat. glis, a dormouse).
ROTALIA (Lat. rota, a wheel). A genus of Foraminifera.
RUGOSA (Lat. rugosus, wrinkled). An order of Corals.
RUMINANTIA (Lat. ruminor, I chew the cud). The group of Hoofed Quadrupeds (Ungulata) which "ruminate" or chew the cud.
SARCODE (Gr. sarx, flesh; eidos, form). The jelly-like substance of which the bodies of the Protozoa are composed. It is an albuminous body containing oil-granules, and is sometimes called "animal protoplasm."
SAURIA (Gr. saura, a lizard). Any lizard-like Reptile is often spoken of as a "Saurian;" but the term is sometimes restricted to the Crocodiles alone, or to the Crocodiles and Lacertilians.
SAUROPTERYGIA (Gr. sauro; pterux, wing). An extinct order of Reptiles, called by Huxley Plesiosauria, from the typical genus Plesiosaurus.
SAURURÆ (Gr. saura; oura, tail). The extinct order of Birds comprising only the Archœopteryx.
SCANSORES (Lat. scando, I climb). The order of the Climbing Birds (Parrots, Woodpeckers, &c.)
SCAPHITES (Lat. scapha, a boat). A genus of the Ammonitidœ.
SCOLITHUS (Gr. skolex, a worm; lithos, a stone). The vertical burrows of sea-worms in rocks.
SCUTA (Lat. scutum, a shield). Applied to any shield-like plates; especially to those which are developed in the integument of many Reptiles.
SELACHIA or SELACHII (Gr. selachos, a cartilaginous fish, probably a shark). The sub-order of Elasmobranchii comprising the Sharks and Dog-fishes.
SEPIOSTAIRE. The internal shell of the Sepia, commonly known as the "cuttle-bone."
SEPTA. Partitions.
SERPENTIFORM. Resembling a serpent in shape.
SERTULARIDA (Lat. sertum, a wreath). An order of Hydrozoa.
SESSILE (Lat. sedo, I sit). Not supported upon a stalk or peduncle; attached by a base.
SETHÆ (Lat. bristles). Bristles or long stiff hairs.
SIGILLARIOIDS (Lat. sigilla, little images). A group of extinct plants of which Sigillaria is the type, so called from the seal-like markings on the bark.
SILICEOUS (Lat. silex, flint). Composed of flint.
SINISTRAL (Lat. sinistra, the left hand). Left-handed; applied to the direction of the spiral in certain shells, which are said to be "reversed."
SIPHON (Gr. a tube). Applied to the respiratory tubes in the Mollusca; also to other tubes of different functions.
SIPHONIA (Gr. siphon, a tube). A genus of fossil Sponges.
SIPHONOSTOMATA (Gr. siphon; and stoma, mouth). The division of Gasteropodous Molluscs in which the aperture of the shell is not "entire," but possesses a notch or tube for the emission of the respiratory siphon.
SIPHUNCLE (Lat. siphunculus, a little tube). The tube which connects together the various chambers of the shell of certain Cephalopoda (e.g., the Pearly Nautilus).
SIRENIA (Gr. seiren. a mermaid). The order of Mammalia comprising the Dugongs and Manatees.
SIVATHERIUM (Siva, a Hindoo deity; Gr. therion, beast). An extinct genus of Hoofed Quadrupeds.
SOLIDUNGULA (Lat. solidus, solid; ungula, a hoof). The group of Hoofed Quadrupeds comprising the Horse, Ass, and Zebra, in which each foot has only a single solid hoof. Often called Solipedia.
SPHENOPTERIS (Gr. sphen, a wedge; pteris, a fern). An extinct genus of ferns.
SPICULA (Lat. spicidum, a point). Pointed needle-shaped bodies.
SPIRIFERA (Lat. spira, a spire or coil; fero, I carry). An extinct genus of Brachiopods, with large spiral supports for the "arms."
SPIRORBIS (Lat. spira, a spire; orbis, a circle). A genus of tube-inhabiting Annelides, in which the shelly tube is coiled into a spiral disc.
SPONGIDA (Gr. spoggos, a sponge). The division of Protozoa commonly known as sponges.
STALACTITES (Gr. stalasso, I drop). Icicle-like encrustations and deposits of lime, which hang from the roof of caverns in limestone.
STALAGMITE (Gr. stalagma, a drop). Encrustations of lime formed on the floor of caverns which are hollowed out of limestone.
STIGMARIA (Gr. stigma, a mark made with a pointed instrument). A genus founded on the roots of various species of Sigillaria.
STRATUM (Lat. stratus, spread out; or stratum, a thing spread out). A layer of rock.
STROMATOPORA (Gr. stroma, a thing spread out; paras, a passage or pore). A Palæozoic genus of Protozoa.
STROPHOHENA (Gr. strophao, I twist; mené, moon). An extinct genus of Brachiopods.
SUB-CALCAREOUS. Somewhat calcareous.
SUB-CENTRAL. Nearly central, but not quite.
SUTURE (Lat. suo, I sew). The line of junction of two parts which are immovably connected together. Applied to the line where the whorls of a univalve shell join one another; also to the lines made upon the exterior of the shell of a chambered Cephalopod by the margins of the septa.
SYRINGOPORA (Gr. surigx, a pipe; poros, a pore). A genus of Tabulate Corals.
TABULÆ. (Lat. tabula, a tablet). Horizontal plates or floors found in some Corals, extending across the cavity of the "theca" from side to side.
TEGUMENTARY (Lat. tegumentum, a covering). Connected with the integument or skin.
TELEOSAURUS (Gr. teleios, perfect; saura, lizard). An extinct genus of Crocodilian Reptiles.
TELEOSTEI (Gr. teleios, perfect; osteon, bone). The order of the "Bony Fishes."
TELSON (Gr. a limit). The last joint in the abdomen of Crustacea; variously regarded as a segment without appendages, or as an azygous appendage.
TENTACULITES (Lat. tentaculum, a feeler). A genus of Pteropoda.
TEREBRATULA (Lat. terebratus, bored or pierced). A genus of Brachiopoda, so called in allusion to the perforated beak of the ventral valve.
TEST (Lat. testa, shell). The shell of Mollusca, which are for this reason sometimes called "Testacea;" also, the calcareous case of Echinoderms; also, the thick leathery outer tunic in the Tunicata.
TESTACEOUS. Provided with a shell or hard covering.
TESTUDINIDÆ (Lat. testudo, a tortoise). The family of the Tortoises.
TETRABRANCHIATA (Gr. tetra, four; bragchia, gill). The order of Cephalopoda characterised by the possession of four gills.
TEXTULARIA. (Lat. textilis, woven). A genus of Foraminifera.
THECA (Gr. theké, a sheath). A genus of Pteropods.
THECODONTOSAURUS (Gr. theké, a sheath; odous, tooth; saura, lizard). A genus of "Thecodont" Reptiles, so named in allusion to the fact that the teeth are sunk in distinct sockets.
THERIODONT (Gr. therion, a beast; odous, tooth). A group of Reptiles so named by Owen in allusion to the Mammalian character of their teeth.
THORAX (Gr. a breastplate). The region of the chest.
THYLACOLEO (Gr. thulakos, a pouch; leo, a lion). An extinct genus of Marsupials.
TRIGONIA (Gr. treis, three; gonia, angle). A genus of Bivalve Molluscs.
TRIGONOCARPON (Gr. treis, three; gonia. angle; karpos, fruit). A genus founded on fossil fruits of a three-angled form.
TRILOBITA (Gr. treis, three; lobos, a lobe). An extinct order of Crustaceans.
TRINUCLEUS (Lat. tris, three; nucleus, a kernel). A genus of Trilobites.
TROGONTHERIUM (Gr. trogo, I gnaw; therion, beast). An extinct genus of Beavers.
TUBICOLA (Lat. tuba, a tube; and colo, I inhabit). The order of Annelida which construct a tubular case in which they protect themselves.
TUBICOLOUS. Inhabiting a tube.
TUNICATA (Lat. tunica, a cloak). A class of Molluscoida which are enveloped in a tough leathery case or "test."
TURBINATED (Lat. turbo, a top). Top-shaped; conical with a round base.
TURRILITES (Lat, turris, a tower). A genus of the Ammonitidœ.
UMBO (Lat. the boss of a shield). The beak of a bivalve shell.
UNGUICULATE (Lat. unguis, nail). Furnished with claws.
UNGULATA (Lat. ungula, hoof). The order of Mammals comprising the Hoofed Quadrupeds.
UNGULATE. Furnished with expanded nails constituting hoofs.
UNILOCULAR (Lat. unus, one; and loculus. a little purse). Possessing a single cavity or chamber. Applied to the shells of Foraminifera and Mollusca.
UNIVALVE (Lat. unus, one; valvœ, folding-doors). A shell composed of a single piece or valve.
URODELA (Gr. oura, tail; delos, visible). The order of the Tailed Amphibians (Newts, &c.)
VENTRAL (Lat. venter, the stomach). Relating to the inferior surface of the body.
VENTRICULITES (Lat. ventriculum, a little stomach). A genus of siliceous Sponges.
VERMIFORM (Lat. vermis, worm; and forma, form). Worm-like.
VERTEBRA (Lat. verto, I turn). One of the bony segments of the vertebral column or backbone.
VERTEBRATA (Lat. vertebra, a bone of the back, from vertere, to turn). The division of the Animal Kingdom roughly characterised by the possession of a backbone.
VESICLE (Lat. vesica, a bladder). A little sac or cyst.
WHORL. The spiral turn of a univalve shell.
XIPHOSURA (Gr. xiphos, a sworn; and oura, tail). An order of Crustacea, comprising the Limuli or King-Crabs, characterised by their long sword-like tails.
XYLOBIUS (Gr. xulon, wood; bios, life). An extinct genus of Myriapods, named in allusion to the fact that the animal lived on decaying wood.
ZAPHRENTIS (proper name). A genus of Rugose Corals.
ZEUGLODONTIDÆ. (Gr. zeuglé, a yoke; odous, a tooth). An extinct family of Cetaceans, in which the molar teeth are two-fanged, and look as if composed of two parts united by a neck.
ZOOPHYTE (Gr. zoön, animal; phuton, plant). Loosely applied to many plant-like animals, such as Sponges, Corals, Sea-anemones, Sea-mats, &c.
INDEX.
Acadian Group, [79].
Acer, [308].
Acervularia, [119], [173].
Acidaspis, [123].
Acorn-shells, [267].
Acroculia, [128].
Acrodus, [214], [242], [275]; nobilis, [242].
Acrotreta, [110].
Acroura, [120].
Actinocrinus, [175].
Æglina, [108].
Æpiornis, [348].
Agnostus, [85-87], [108]; rex, [85].
Alces malchis, [354].
Alecto, [108].
Alethopteris, [136], [165], [196].
Algœ (see Sea-weeds).
Alligators, [218], [297].
Alnus, [262].
Amblypterus, [188]; macropterus, [188].
Ambonychia, [111].
Ammonites, [187], [212-214], [237-239], [272]; Humpresianus, [238]; bifrons, [238].
Ammonitidœ, [239], [272], [285], [294].
Amphibia, [189]; of the Carboniferous, [189-191]; of the Permian, [200]; of the Trias, [215-217]; of the Jurassic, [242]; of the Miocene, [313].
Amphicyon, [322].
Amphilestes, [253].
Amphispongia, [118].
Amphistegina, [311].
Amphitherium, [253], [255]; Prevostii, [254].
Amphitragulus, [317].
Amplexus, [173]; coralloides, [174].
Ampyx, [108].
Anachytes, [266].
Anchitherium, [301-302].
Ancyloceras, [272], [273]; Matheronianus, [273].
Ancylotherium Pentelici, [315].
Andrias Scheuchzeri, [313], [314].
Angiosperms, [261], [262].
Animal Kingdom, divisions of, [375-378].
Anisopus, [206].
Annelida, of the Cambrian period, [82], [83]; of the Lower Silurian, [107]; of the Upper Silurian, [122], [123]; of the Devonian, [143], [144]; of the Carboniferous, [178].
Annularia, [137], [196], [207].
Anomodontia, [220].
Anoplotheridœ, [302].
Anoplotherium, [302], [303]; commune, [303].
Ant-eaters, [299], [315], [349], [350], [353].
Antelopes, [317].
Anthracosaurus Russelli, [190].
Anthrapalœmon gracilis, [180].
Antilocapra, [318].
Antilope quadricornis, [318].
Antwerp Crag, [325].
Apes, [323].
Apiocrinus, [231].
Apteryx, [346], [348].
Aqueous rocks, [15].
Arachnida of the Coal-measures, [181].
Aralo-Caspian Beds, [326].
Araucaria, [262].
Araucarioxylon, [170].
Arca, [198]; antiqua, [199].
Archœocidaris, [178].
Archœocyathus, [82].
Archœopteryx, [252], [281]; macrura, [252], [253].
Archœospœrinœ, [75].
Archimedes, [184]; Wortheni, [183].
Archiulus, [182].
Arctic regions, Miocene flora of, [310].
Arctocyon, [304].
Arenaceous rocks, [20].
Arenicolites, [83]; didymus, [88].
Arenig rocks, [92], [94].
Argillaceous rocks, [20].
Armadillos, [299], [351], [353].
Artiodactyle Ungulates, [300].
Asaphus, [108]; tyrannus, [107], [108].
Ascoceras, [130].
Aspidella, [76].
Aspidura loricata, [210].
Astarte borealis, [338].
Asterophyllites, [137], [196].
Asterosteus, [152].
Astrœidœ, [231].
Astrœospongia, [118], [139].
Astylospongia, [98]; prœmorsa, [139].
Athyris, [110], [127], [147], [198]; subtilita, [185].
Atlantic Ooze, [22], [23].
Atrypa, [127]; congesta, [127]; hemispœrica, [127]; reticularis, [147], [148].
Auger-shells, [293].
Aurochs, [356].
Aves (see Birds).
Avicula, [235]; cantorta, [211], [212]; socialis, [211].
"Avicula contorta Beds", [204], [212].
Aviculidœ, [198], [269].
Aviculopecten, [186].
Axophyllum, [173].
Aymestry Limestone, [116], [117].
Azoic rocks, [67].
Baculites, [273]; anceps, [274].
Bagshot and Bracklesham Beds, [287].
Bakewellia, [198].
Balœna, [315].
Bala Group, [93], [94].
Bala Limestone, [93].
Balanidœ, [267].
Banksia, [262], [308].
Barbadoes Earth, [33].
Barnacles, [267].
Bath Oolite, [227].
Bats, [304], [322].
Bears, [330], [359].
Beaver, [322], [336].
Beetles, [182], [311].
Belemnitella mucronata, [275].
Beleminites, [214], [240], [274]; canaliculatus, [241].
Belemnitidœ, [240], [285].
Belemnoteuthis, [240].
Belinurus, [179].
Bellerophon, [111], [129], [148], [186]; Argo, [111].
Belodon, [218]; Carolinensis, [219].
Belosepia, [295].
Beloteuthis subcostata, [239], [240].
Bembridge Beds, [288].
Beryx, [276]; Lewesiensis, [276].
Beyrichia, [107]; complicata, [107].
Bird's-eye Limestone, [95], [96].
Birds, of the Trias, [222]; of the Jurassic, [251-253]; of the Cretaceous, [281], [282]; of the Eocene, [297]; of the Post-Pliocene, [345-348].
Bison priscus, [356].
Bituminous Schists of Caithness, [36].
Bivalves (see Lamellibranchiata).
Black-lead (see Graphite).
Black-River Limestone, [95], [96].
Blastoidea, [176]; of the Devonian, [143]; of the Carboniferous, [176].
Boidœ, [296].
Bolderberg Beds, [307].
Bone-bed, of the Upper Ludlow, [116]; of the Trias, [224].
Bony Fishes (see Teleostean Fishes).
Bos primigenius, [356]; taurus, [356].
Boulder-clay, [337].
Bourgueticrinus, [266].
Bovey-Tracy Beds, [305], [309].
Brachiopoda, [125]; of the Cambrian rocks, [87]; of the Lower Silurian, [108-110]; of the Upper Silurian, [125-128]; of the Devonian, [147], [148]; of the Carboniferous, [184-186]; of the Permian, [198]; of the Trias, [211]; of the Jurassic, [234]; of the Cretaceous, [268]; of the Eocene, [292].
Brachymetopus, [179].
Brachyurous Crustaceans, [180], [197].
Bradford Clay, [227].
Breaks in the Geological and Palæontological record, [44-52].
Breccia, [19].
Brick-earths, [339].
Bridlington Crag, [325], [326], [336].
Brittle-stars (see Ophiuroidea).
Bronteus, [145].
Brontotheridœ, [316].
Brontotherium ingens, [316].
Brontozoum, [206].
Buccinum, [237].
Bucklandia, [230].
Bulimus, [294].
Bunter Sandstein, [203], [204], [206].
Butterflies, [233], [311].
Byssoarca, [198].
Cainozoic (see Kainozoic).
Calamaries, [239].
Calamites, [165], [166], [196]; cannœformis, [166].
Calcaire Grossier, [287], [288].
Calcareous rocks, [20-32]; Tufa, [21].
Calciferous Sand-rock, [95], [96].
Calveria, [178].
Calymene, [108], [123]; Blumenbachii, [107].
Camarophoria globulina, [198].
Cambrian period, [77-90]; rocks of, in Britain, [77], [78]; in Bohemia, [79]; in North America, [79]; life of, [80-90].
Camelopardalidœ, [317].
Camels, [317], [354].
Canis lupus, [336]; Parisiensis, [304].
Caradoc rocks, [93], [94], [96].
Carbon, origin of, [36].
Carboniferous Limestone, [157], [158].
Carboniferous period, [157-192]; rocks of, [157-160]; life of, [160-191].
Carboniferous Slates of Ireland, [135], [158], [159].
Carcharias, [275].
Carcharodon, [295], [312]; productus, [313].
Cardinia, [235].
Cardiocarpon, [137].
Cardiola, [128]; fibrosa, [128]; interrupta, [128].
Cardita, [213], [292]; planicosta, [292], [293].
Cardium, [292]; Rhœticum, [211], [212].
Caribou, [355].
Carnivora, of the Eocene, [304]; of the Miocene, [322]; of the Pliocene, [330], [331]; of the Post-Pliocene, [359-361].
Caryocaris, [107], [108].
Caryocrinus ornatus, [106].
Castor fiber, [336].
Castoroides Ohioensis, [361].
Catastrophism, theory of, [3].
Catopterus, [214].
Cauda-Galli Grit, [135], [137].
Caulopteris, [136], [164].
Cave-bear, [360].
Cave-deposits, [337], [339], [341-344].
Cave-hyæna, [360].
Cave-lion, [361].
Caves, formation of, [341]; deposits in, [342].
Cavicornia, [317].
Cement-stones, [31].
Cephalaspis, [152].
Cephalopoda, of the Cambrian period, [88]; of the Lower Silurian, [111-114]; of the Upper Silurian, [130]; of the Devonian, [149]; of the Carboniferous, [186], [187]; of the Permian, [199]; of the Trias, [212]; of the Jurassic, [237-240]; of the Cretaceous, [272-275]; of the Eocene, [294]; of the Miocene, [312].
Ceratiocaris, [108].
Ceratites, [212-214]; nodosus, [212].
Ceratodus, [214]; altus, [214]; Fosteri, [214]; serratus, [214].
Ceriopora, [145]; Hamiltonensis, [146].
Cerithium, [213], [293]; hexagonum, [294].
Cervidœ, of the Miocene period, [314]; of the Pliocene, [329]; of the Post-Pliocene, [354], [355].
Cervus, [317]; capreolus, [336], [354]; elaphus, [336], [355]; megaceros, [354], [355]; tarandus, [354].
Cestracion Philippi, [188], [255].
Cestracionts, of the Devonian, [154]; of the Carboniferous, [188]; of the Permian, [199]; of the Trias, [214]; of the Jurassic, [242]; of the Cretaceous, [275].
Cetacea, [299]; of the Eocene, [299]; of the Miocene, [315].
Cetiosaurus, [249], [25].
Chœropotamus, [302].
Chœtetes, [105], [173]; tumidus, [174].
Chain-coral, [119].
Chalk, [259]; structure of, [21-23]; Foraminifera of, [22], [263]; origin of, [23]; with flints, [253]; without flints, [259].
Chama, [236].
Chamœrops, [308]; Helvetica, [309].
Chazy Limestone, [95], [96].
Cheiroptera, of the Eocene, [304], [305]; of the Miocene, [322].
Cheirotherium, [215], [216].
Cheirurus, [108], [123]; bimucronatus, [124].
Chelichnus Duncani, [202].
Chelone Benstedi, [280]; planiceps, [251].
Chelonia, of the Permian, [202]; of the Jurassic, [251]; of the Cretaceous, [280]; of the Eocene, [296]; of the Miocene, [213].
Chemnitzia, [213].
Chemung Group, [135], [136], [137].
Chert, [34].
Chillesford Beds, [325], [326], [336].
Chonetes, [127], [147], [184]; Hardrensis, [185].
Chonophyllum, [173].
Cidaris, [266].
Cincinnati Group, [95], [96].
Cinnamomum polymorphum, [309].
Cinnamon-trees, [262], [290], [306], [308], [309].
Cladodus, [188].
Claiborne Beds, [289].
Clathropora, [145]; intertexta, [146].
Clay, [20]; Red, origin of, [35].
Clay-ironstone, nodules of, [31].
Cleidophorus, [111].
Cleodora, [312].
Climacograptus, [101], [119].
Clinton Formation, [116], [117].
Clisiophyllum, [173].
Clupeidœ, [276].
Clymenia, [149]; Sedgwickii, [149].
Coal, [36]; structure of, [163]; mode of formation of, [162].
Coal-measures, [159], [160]; mineral characters of, [159]; mode of formation of, [160], [162]; plants of, [162-170].
Coccoliths, [261].
Coccosteus, [151], [152].
Cochliodus, [188]; cantortus, [189].
Coleoptera, [182], [311].
Colossochelys Atlas, [313].
Columnaria, [105]; alveolata, [105].
Comatula, [232], [266].
Conclusions to be drawn from Fossils, [52-56].
Concretions, calcareous, [29]; phosphatic, [31]; of clay-ironstone, [31]; of manganese, [31].
Conglomerate, [18].
Coniferœ, [262]; wood of, [13]; of Devonian period, [138]; of the Carboniferous, [170]; of the Permian, [196]; of the Trias, [208]; of the Jurassic period, [230].
Coniston Flags and Grits, [116].
Connecticut Sandstones, footprints of, [222], [346].
Conocoryphe Mathewi, [85]; Sultzeri, [85].
Conodonts, [114], [131].
Constellaria, [105].
Constricting serpents of the Eocene, [296].
Contemporaneity of strata, [44-46].
Continuity, theory of, [5-7].
Conularia, [111], [129], [148], [186], [199], [237]; ornata, [149].
Conulus, [186].
Conus, [293].
Coomhola Grits, [158], [159].
Coprolites, [31], [243].
Coralline Crag, [324].
Corallines, [25].
Corallium, [311].
Coral-rag, [227], [229], [230].
Coral-reefs, [24-26].
Coral-rock, [26].
Coral-sand, [19], [26].
Corals, [103]; of the Lower Silurian, [104]; of the Upper Silurian, [119]; of the Devonian, [140-143]; of the Carboniferous, [172-175]; of the Permian, [197]; of the Trias, [209]; of the Jurassic, [230], [231]; of the Cretaceous, [266]; of the Eocene, [292]; of the Miocene, [311].
Corbula, [235].
Cornbrash, [227], [229].
Corniferous Limestone, [135], [137].
Cornulites, [123].
Cornus, [262].
Coryphodon, [300].
Cowries, [259], [271], [293].
Crabs, [180], [197], [233], [267].
Crag, Red, [324]; White, [324]; Norwich, [324]; Antwerp, [325]; Bridlington, [325]; Coralline, [324].
Crania, [110], [127], [198], [269]; Ignabergensis, [269].
Crassatella, [292].
Crepidophyllum, [142]; Archiaci, [142].
Cretaceous period, [256-283]; rocks of, in Britain, [257-259]; in North America, [260], [261]; life of, [261-283].
Crinoidal Limestone, [24], [25].
Crinoidea, [120]; of the Cambrian, [82]; of the Lower Silurian, [105]; of the Upper Silurian, [120-122]; of the Devonian, [143]; of the Carboniferous, [175]; of the Permian, [197]; of the Triss, [209]; of the Jurassic, [231]; of the Cretaceous, [266]; of the Eocene, [292].
Crioceras, [273]; cristatum, [274].
Crocodilia, [218]; of the Trias, [218]; of the Jurassic, [251]; of the Cretaceous, [280]; of the Eocene, [296], [297].
Cromer Forest-bed, [336].
Crossozamites, [230].
Crotalocrinus, [122].
Crustacea, of the Cambrian, [83-87]; of the Lower Silurian, [107], [108]; of the Upper Silurian, [123-125]; of the Devonian, [144]; of the Carboniferous, [178-181]; of the Permian, [197]; of the Trias, [210]; of the Jurassic, [233]; of the Cretaceous, [267].
Cryptogams, [164], [262].
Ctenacanthus, [188].
Ctenodonta, [111].
Cupressus, [262].
Cursores, [297], [346].
Cuttle-fishes (see Dibranchiate Cephalopods).
Cyathocrinus, [175].
Cyathophyllum, [119], [142], [173].
Cycadopteris, [262].
Cycads, [208]; of the Carboniferous, [170]; of the Permian, [197]; of the Trias, [208]; of the Jurassic, [230]; of the Cretaceous, [261].
Cyclas, [268].
Cyclonema, [129].
Cyclophthalmus senior, [181].
Cyclostoma, [294]; Arnoudii, [294].
Cynodraco, [220].
Cyprœa, [271], [293]; elegans, [393].
Cypress, [262], [308], [311].
Cypridina, [145].
Cypridina Slates, [145].
Cyrena, [235], [268], [292].
Cyrtina, [213], [214].
Cyrtoceras, [114].
Cystiphyllum, [119], [142], [173]; vesiculosum, [141].
Cystoidea, [105-107]; of the Cambrian, [82]; of the Lower Silurian, [106]; of the Upper Silurian, [120].
Dachstein Beds, [205], [206].
Dadoxylon, [138], [170].
Daonella, [211]; Lommelli, [211].
Dasornis Londinensis, [297].
Decapod Crustaceans, [180].
Deer, [317], [329], [354].
Deinosauria, [248]; of the Trias, [221]; of the Jurassic, [248-251]; of the Cretaceous, [277-279].
Deinotherium, [319], [320]; giganteum, [320].
Denbighshire Flags and Grits, [115].
Dendrocrinus, [82].
Dendrograptus, [100].
Desmids, [138], [262].
Devonian Formation, [133-136]; origin of name, [133]; relation to Old Red Sandstone, [133], [134]; of Devonshire, [134]; of North America, [135], [136]; life of, [136-156].
Diadema, [266].
Diatoms, [33]; of the Devonian, [138]; of the Carboniferous, [164]; of flints, [261]; of Richmond Earth, [33], [307].
Dibranchiate Cephalopods, [112]; of the Trias, [212]; of the Jurassic, [239-241]; of the Cretaceous, [274], [275]; of the Eocene, [294]; of the Miocene, [312].
Diceras, [236]; arietina, [236].
Diceras Limestone, [227], [236].
Dichobune, [303].
Dichograptus, [101]; octobrachiatus, [101].
Dicotyledonous plants, [262].
Dicotyles antiquus, [317].
Dicranograptus, [101], [119].
Dictyonema, [89], [100], [119]; sociale, [89].
Dicynodon, [220]; lacerticeps, [221].
Didelphys, [254], [315]; gypsorum, [299].
Didus ineptus, [348].
Didymograptus, [101]; divaricatus, [102].
Dikellocephalus Celticus, [84]; Minnesotensis, [84].
Dimorphodon, [247].
Dinichthys, [153]; Hertzeri, [151].
Ditoceras, [303]; mirabilis, [304].
Dinocerata, [303], [304].
Dinophis, [296].
Dinornis, [346], [348]; elephantopus, [346]; giganteus, [346].
Dinosauria (see Deinosauria).
Dinotherium (see Deinotherium).
Diphyphyllum, [142].
Diplograptus, [101], [119]; pristis, [102].
Dipnoi, [153], [187], [215].
Diprotodon, [348], [349]; australis, [348].
Diptera, [311].
Discina, [87], [110], [127], [198].
Discoidea, [266]; cylindrica, [267].
Dithyrocaris, [179]; Scouleri, [180].
Dodo, [348].
Dog whelks.
Dolomite, [293].
Dolomitic Couglomerate of Bristol, [201], [219].
Dolphins, [299], [315].
Dorcatherium, [317].
Downton Sandstone, [116].
Draco volans, [245].
Dragon-flies, [311].
Drift, Glacial, [337].
Dremotherium, [317].
Dromatherium sylvestre, [223], [224].
Dryandra, [262].
Dryopithecus, [323].
Dugougs, [299].
Echinodermata, of the Cambrian, [82]; of the Lower Silurian, [105]; of the Upper Silurian, [120]; of the Devonian, [143]; of the Carboniferous, [175]; of the Permian, [197]; of the Trias, [209]; of the Jurassic, [231]; of the Cretaceous, [266]; of the Eocene, [292].
Echinoidea, [177]; of the Upper Silurian, [120]; or the Devonian, [143]; of the Carboniferous, [177]; of the Permian, [197]; of the Jurassic, [233]; of the Cretaceous, [266].
Edentata, [349]; of the Eocene, [299]; of the Miocene, [315]; of the Post-Pliocene, [349-353].
Edriocrinus, [122].
Eifel Limostone, [135].
Elasmobranchii (See Placoid Fishes).
Elasmosaurus, [276].
Elephants, [319], [320], [330].
Elphas, [320]; Americanus, [357]; antiquus, [329], [330], [336], [341], [357]; Falconeri, [359]; Melitensis, [359]; meridionalis, [329], [330], [336], [357]; planifrons, [321]; primigenius, [339], [341], [357], [358].
Elk, [354]; Irish, [354], [355].
Ellipsocephalus Hoffi, [84].
Elotherium, [317].
Emydidœ, [296].
Emys, [280].
Enaliosaurians, [219], [242], [276].
Encrinital warble, [24].
Encrinurus, [123].
Encrinus liliiformis, [209], [210].
Endogenous plants, [261].
Endophyllum, [173].
Endothyra, [171]; Bailyi, [172].
Engis skull, [364].
Entomis, [145].
Entomoconchus Scouleri, [179], [180].
Eocene period, [284]; rocks of, in Britain, [287], [288]; in France, [288]; in North America, [288], [289]; life of, [289, 305].
Eocidaris, [197].
Eophyton, [80]; Linneanum, [81].
Eophyton Sandstone, [79].
Eosaurus Acadianus, [191].
Eozoic rocks, [67].
Eozoön Bavaricum, [76].
Eozoön Canadense, [68], [76]; appearance of, in mass, [69]; minute structure of, [70], [71]; affinities of, with Foraminifera, [71-74].
Ephemeridœ, [145], [183].
Equisetaceœ, [166].
Equisetites, [196].
Equidœ, [301], [302], [316], [328].
Equus, [302]; caballus, [354]; excelsus, [328]; fossilis, [336], [354].
Eridophyllum, [142].
Eryon arctiformis, [233], [234].
Eschara, [267].
Escharidœ, [267].
Escharina, [267]; Oceani, [268].
Estheria, [145], [179], [210]; tenella, [180].
Eucalyptocrinus, [122]; polydactylus, [122].
Eucladia, [120].
Euomphalus, [128], [148], [186], [199], [213]; discors, [129].
Euplectella, [265].
Euproöps, [179].
European Bison, [356].
Eurypterida, [124], [179]; of the Upper Silurian, [124]; of the Devonian, [144].
Even-toed Ungulates, [300], [317], [354].
Exogenous plants, [266].
Exogyra, [236]; virgula, [236].
Extinction of species, [57], [58].
Fagus, [262].
Faluns, [306].
Fan-palms, [308].
Favistella, [105].
Favostites, [119], [142]; Gothlandica, [143]; hemisphœrica, [143].
Faxöe Limestone, [259], [286].
Felis angustus, [330]; leo, [361]; spelœa, [361].
Fenestella, [108], [125], [145], [184], [198], [210]; cribrosa, [146]; magnifica, [146]; retiformis, [198].
Fenestellidœ, [183].
Ferns, of the Devonian, [136]; of the Carboniferous, [164]; of the Permian, [196]; of the Trias, [207]; of the Jurassic, [229]; of the Cretaceous, [261].
Fig-shells, [293].
Fishes, [150]; of the Upper Silurian, [130], [131]; of the Devonian, [150-155]; of the Carboniferous, [187], [188]; of the Permian, [199], [200]; of the Trias, [214], [215]; of the Jurassic, [240-242]; of the Cretaceous, [275], [276]; of the Eocene, [295], [296]; of the Miocene, [312], [313].
Flint, [33]; structure of, [34]; origin of, [34]; organisms of, [34], [138], [263]; of Chalk, [34], [259], [261]. Human implements associated with bones of extinct Mammals, [363], [364].
Flora (see Plants).
Footprints of Cheirotherium, [215], [216]; of the Triassic sandstones of Connecticut, [222].
Foraminifera, [22-24], [71-74]; of the Cambrian, [82]; of the Lower Silurian, [98]; of the Carboniferous, [171], [172]; of the Permian, [197]; of the Trias, [209]; of the Jurassic, [230]; of the Cretaceous, [21], [22], [263]; of the Eocene, [290]; of the Miocene, [311]; of the Post-Pliocene, [338]; of Atlantic ooze, [22], [23]; as builders of limestone, [24], [25], [28]; as forming green sands, [34].
Forbesiocrinus, [175].
Forest-bed of Cromer, [336].
Forest-bugs, [311].
Forest-marble, [227].
Formation, definition of, [18]; succession of, [42].
Fossiliferous rocks, [14-37]; chronological succession of, [37-44].
Fossilisation, processes of, [11-14].
Fossils, definition of, [11]; distinctive, of rock-groups, [38]; conclusions to be drawn from, [52-56]; biological relations of, [57-61].
Foxes, [304].
Fringe-finned Ganoids, [153].
Fucoidal Sandstone, [79], [80].
Fucoids, [80], [97].
Fuller's Earth, [227], [229].
Fusulina, [172]; cylindrica, [172].
Fusus, [237], [293].
Galeocerdo, [312].
Galerites, [266]; albo-galerus, [267].
Galestes, [254].
Ganoid Fishes, [150]; of the Upper Silurian, [130]; of the Devonian, [150-153]; of the Carboniferous, [187], [188]; of the Permian, [199]; of the Trias, [214]; of the Jurassic, [241]; of the Cretaceous, [275]; of the Eocene, [292], [293].
Gaspé Beds, [134].
Gasteropoda, of the Cambrian, [88]; of the Lower Silurian, [111]; of the Upper Silurian, [128], [129]; of the Devonian, [148]; of the Carboniferous, [186]; of the Permian, [199]; of the Trias, [213]; of the Jurassic, [236], [237]; of the Cretaceous, [271]; of the Eocene, [292], [293].
Gastornis Parisiensis, [297].
Gault, [257], [258].
Gavial, [251], [297].
Genesee Slates, [135].
Geological record, breaks in the, [47-52].
Giraffes, [317].
Glacial period, [335]; deposits of, [337], [338].
Glandulina, [311].
Glauconite, [34], [74], [98], [263].
Glauconome, [126], [184]; pulcherrima, [183].
Globe Crinoids (see Cystoidea).
Globigerina, [22], [23], [264].
Glutton, [360].
Glyptaster, [120].
Glyptocrinus, [122].
Glyptodon, [351], [352]; clavipes, [352].
Glyptolœmus, [153].
Goats, [318].
Goniatites, [130], [149], [187], [214]; Jossœ, [187].
Gorgonidœ, [292].
Grallatores, [297].
Graphite, [36]; mode of occurrence of, [36], [68]; origin of, [36].
Graptolites, [89], [100]; structure of, [100]; of the Lower Silurian, [100-103]; of the Upper Silurian, [118], [119].
Great Oolite, [227], [229]; Upper, [257], [258], [260].
Greenland. Miocene plants of, [311].
Greensand, Lower, [257].
Green sands, origin of, [44], [263].
Grevillea, [262], [308].
Griffithides, [197].
Grizzly Bear, [359].
Groond Sloths, [351].
Gryphœa, [236]; incurva, [236].
Guelph Limestone, [117].
Gulo luscus, [360]; spelœus, [360].
Guttenstein Beds, [205], [206].
Gymnospermous Exogens, [262].
Gypsum, [32], [193], [204].
Gyracanthus, [188].
Gyroceras, [130].
Hadrosaurus, [278].
Halitherium, [299].
Hallstadt Beds, [205], [206].
Halobia, [211].
Halysites, [119]; agglomerata, [120]; catenularia, [120].
Hamilton formation, [135], [137].
Hamites, [273]; rotundus, [274].
Haplophlebium Barnesi, [182].
Harlech Grits, [78], [79].
Harpes, [108], [123]; ungula, [124].
Hastings Sands, [257].
Headon and Osborne series, [287], [288].
Heart-urchins, [311].
Heliolites, [105], [119], [266].
Heliophyllum, [142], [173]; exiguum, [141].
Helix, [294].
Helladotherium, [317].
Helopora fragilis, [126].
Hemicidaris crenularis, [233].
Hemiptera, [311].
Hemitrochiscus paradoxus, [197].
Hempstead Beds, [306].
Hesperornis, [281], [282]; regalis, [282].
Heteropoda, [111]; of the Lower Silurian, [111]; of the Upper Silurian, [129]; of the Devonian, [148]; of the Carboniferous, [186].
Hinnites, [213].
Hipparion, [301], [302], [316], [317], [328].
Hippopodium, [235].
Hippopotamus, [302]; amphibus, [317], [329]; major, [329], [336], [354]; Sivalensis, [318].
Hippothoa, [108].
Hippurite Marble, [270].
Hippurites, [270]; Toucasiana, [271].
Hippuritidœ, [270], [285].
Histioderma, [82].
Hollow-horned Ruminants, [317].
Holocystis elegan, [266].
Holopea, [129]; Subconica, [129].
Holopella, [129], [213]; obsoleta, [129].
Holoptychius, [153]; nobilissimus, [154].
Holostomatous Univalves, [236], [293].
Holothurians, [120].
Holtenia, [264].
Homacanthus, [188].
Homalonotus, [123], [145]; armatus, [144].
Homo diluvii testis, [313].
Honeycomb Corals, [142].
Hoofed Quadrupeds, [300].
Hudson River Group, [95].
Huronian Period, [75], [76]; rocks of, [75].
Hyœna crocuta, [360]; spelœa, [360]; Hipparionum, [330].
Hyœnictis, [322].
Hyœnodon, [304].
Hyalea D'Orbignyana, [312].
Hybodus, [214], [242], [275].
Hydractinia, [265].
Hydroid Zoophytes, [103], [265].
Hymenocaris vermicauda, [84], [88].
Hymenophyllites, [165].
Hymenoptera, [311].
Hyopotamus, [302].
Hyperodapedon, [218].
Hypsiprymnopsis, [224].
Hystrix primigenius, [322].
Ichthyocrinus lœvis, [122].
Ichthyornis, [281], [282]; dispar, [281], [282].
Ichthyosaurus, [242], [243], [276]; communis, [242].
Ictitherium, [322].
Iguana, [277].
Iguanodon, [277], [278]; Mantelli, [278].
Ilfracombe Group, [134].
Illœnus, [108], [123].
Imperfection of the palæontological record, [50], [51].
Inferior Oolite, [227], [229].
Infusorial Earth, [33].
Inoceramus, [269]; sulcatus, [270].
Insectivora, of the Eocene, [305]; of the Miocene, [322].
Insects, of the Devonian, [145]; of the Carboniferous, [182]; of the Jurassic, [233]; of the Miocene, [311], [312].
Irish Elk, [354], [355].
Ischadites, [99], [118].
Isopod Crustaceans, [84].
Jackson Beds, [289].
Jurassic period, [226]; rocks of, [226-229]; life of, [229-255].
Kaidacarpum, [230].
Kainozoic period, [44], [284-287].
Kangaroo, [348].
Kelloway Rock, [227].
Kent's Cavern, deposits in, [343].
Keuper, [204], [206].
Kimmeridge Clay, [227], [229].
King-crabs, [84], [124], [125], [179].
Koninckia, [213], [214].
Kössen Beds, [205], [206].
Labyrinthodon Jœgeri, [217].
Labyrinthodontia, [290]; of the Carboniferous, [189-191]; of the Permian, [200]; of the Trias, [215-217].
Lace-corals, [108], [125], [145], [183], [198], [210].
Lacertilia, [202]; of the Permian, [201], [202]; of the Trias, [217], [218]; of the Jurassic, [251]; of the Cretaceous, [280].
Lœlaps, [278].
Lamellibranchiata, of the Cambrian, [88]; of the Lower Silurian, [110]; of the Upper Silurian, [128]; of the Devonian, [148]; of the Carboniferous, [186]; of the Permian, [198]; of the Trias, [211]; of the Jurassic, [234-236]; of the Cretaceous, [268-270]; of the Eocene, [292].
Lamna, [275], [312].
Lamp-shells (see Brachiopoda).
Land-tortoises, [313].
Lauraceœ, [308].
Laurentian period, [65]; rocks of, [65], [66]; Lower Laurentian, [66]; Upper Laurentian, [66]; areas occupied by Laurentian rocks, [66]; limestones of, [66]; iron-ores of, [68]; phosphate of lime of, [68]; graphite of, [68]; life of, [67-75].
Leaf-beds of the Isle of Mull, [306].
Leda, [292]; truncata, [338].
Leguminosites Marcouanus, [263].
Lemming, [344], [345].
Lepadidœ, [267].
Lepadocrinus Gebhardi, [106].
Leperditia, [108]; canadensis, [107].
Lepidaster, [120].
Lepidechinus, [178].
Lepidesthes, [178].
Lepidodendroids, [166], [167], [207].
Lepidodendron, [118], [136], [166], [196]; Sternberg, [167].
Lepidoptera, [311].
Lepidosiren, [153].
Lepidosteus, [188].
Lepidostrobus, [166].
Lepidotus, [275].
Leptœna, [109], [110], [125], [234]; Liassica, [235]; sericea, [110].
Leptocœlia, [127]; plano-convexa, [127].
Lias, [226], [227], [229].
Lichas, [108].
Licrophycus Ottawaensis, [97].
Lignitic Formation of North America, [288], [297].
Lily-encrinite, [209], [210].
Lima, [235].
Lime, phosphate of, [30], [31].
Limestone, [23-27]; varieties of, [27-30]; origin of, [21]; microscopical structure of, [26]; Crinoidal, [24]; Foraminiferal, [24], [26]; coralline, [24]; magnesian, [27]; metamorphic, [27]; oolitic, [28-30]; pisolitic, [29]; bituminous, [36]; Laurentian, [67].
Limnœa, [294]; pyramidalis, [294].
Limulus, [84], [124], [125], [179].
Lingula, [87], [88], [110], [127], [147], [198]; Credneri, [198].
Lingula Flags, [77], [78], [79], [88].
Lingulella, [87], [88]; Davisii, [88]; ferruginea, [88].
Liriodendron, [262], [308]; Meeki, [263].
Lithostrotion, [173]; irregulare, [174].
Lituites, [130].
Lizards (see Lacertilia).
Llama, [354].
Llanberis Slates, [79].
Llandeilo rocks, [92], [94], [96].
Llandovery rocks, [93]; Lower, [93]; Upper, [115].
Lobsters, [180], [210], [233], [267].
Loess, [339].
London Clay, [287], [288].
Longmynd rocks, [77-80], [83].
Lonsdaleia, [173].
Lophiodon, [316].
Lophophyllum, [173].
Lower Cambrian, [77-79]; Chalk, [259]; Cretaceous, [257], [258]; Devonian, [134]; Eocene, [287], [288]; Greensand, [257], [258]; Helderberg, [117], [118]; Laurentian rocks, [66]; Ludlow rock, [116]; Miocene, [305]; Old Red Sandstone, [134]; Oolites, [229]; Silurian period, [90-114]; rocks of, in Britain, [92-94]; in North America, [94-96]; life of, [97-114].
Loxonema, [186], [199], [213].
Ludlow rock, [116], [117].
Lycopodiaceœ, [118], [136], [167].
Lynton Group, [134].
Lyrodesma, [111].
Macaques, [323], [331].
Machœracanthus major, [151], [155].
Machairodus, [221], [249], [322], [331], [360]; cultridens, [331].
Maclurea, [111]; crenulata, [112].
Macrocheilus, [186], [199], [213].
Macropetalichthys, [152]; Sullivanti, [151].
Macrotherium giganteum, [315].
Macrurous Crustaceans, [180].
Mactra, [292].
Maestricht Chalk, [259], [279], [286].
Magnesian Limestone, [27]; nature and structure of, [28]; of the Permian series, [194], [196].
Magnolia, [262], [290], [310].
Mammalia, of the Trias, [223], [224]; of the Jurassic, [253], [254]; of the Eocene, [299-305]; of the Miocene, [313-323]; of the Pliocene, [327-331]; of the Post-Pliocene, [348-362].
Mammoth, [339], [341], [344], [357-359].
Man, remains of, in Post-Pliocene deposits, [341], [344].
Manatee, [299].
Mantellia, [230]; megalophylla, [230].
Maple, [290], [308], [310].
Marble, [28]; encrinital, [24]; statuary, [27].
Marcellus Shales, [135].
Mariacrinus, [122].
Marmots, [322].
Marsupials, [299]; of the Trias, [223]; of the Jurassic, [253], [254]; of the Eocene, [299]; of the Miocene, [315]; of the Post-Pliocene, [348], [319].
Marsupiocrinus, [122].
Marsupites, [266].
Mastodon, [319], [321], [322]; Americanus, angustidens, [322]; Arvenensis, [329]; longirostris, [322]; Ohioticus, [357]; Sivalensis, [321].
Medina Sandstone, [116].
Megalichthys, [188].
Megalodon, [148].
Megalomus, [128].
Megalonyx, [351].
Megalosaurus, [249], [278].
Megatherium, [350], [351]; Cuvieri, [350].
Melania, [294].
Melonites, [178].
Menevian Group, [77-79].
Menobranchus, [189].
Meristella, [127]; cylindrica, [127]; intermedia, [127]; naviformis, [127].
Mesopithecus, [323].
Mesozoic Period, [44].
Michelinia, [142].
Micraster, [266].
Microlestes, [224]; antiquus, [223].
Middle Devonian, [134]; Eocene, [287], [288], [289]; Oolites, [227]; Silurian, [91].
Miliolite Limestone, [290].
Millepora, [230].
Millstone Grit, [159], [161].
Miocene period, [305]; rocks of, in Britain, [305], [306]; in France, [306]; in Belgium, [307]; in Switzerland, [306]; in Austria, [307]; in Germany, [307]; in Italy, [307]; in India, [307]; in North America, [307]; life of, [308-323].
Mitre-shells, [371], [293].
Mitra, [271], [293].
Moas of New Zealand, [346-348].
Modiolopsis, [111]; Solvensis, [88].
Molasse, [306].
Mole, [322], [336].
Monkeys, [305], [331].
Monocotyledonous plant, [262].
Monograptus, [100], [119]; priodon, [119].
Monotis, [211].
Monte Bolca, fishes of, [295].
Montlivaltia, [209].
Mosasauroids, [279], [280].
Mosasaurus, [279]; Camperi, [279]; princeps, [279].
Mountain Limestone, [158], [161].
Mud-fishes, [153], [215].
Mud-turtles, [280].
Mull, Miocene strata of, [306].
Murchisonia, [111], [129], [199], [213]; gracilis, [11].
Murex, [237], [293].
Muschelkalk, [203], [204], [206].
Musk-deer, [317].
Musk-ox, [344], [345], [356].
Musk-sheep, [356].
Myliobatis Edwardsii, [296].
Mylodon, [351]; robustus, [352].
Myophoria, [211]; lineata, [211].
Myriapoda of the Coal, [181], [182].
Nassa, [293].
Natatores, [297].
Natica, [271], [293].
Nautilus, [112-114], [130], [149], [186], [199], [237], [272], [294]; Danicus, [272]; pompilius, [237].
Neanderthal skull, [364].
Neocomian series, [257], [260].
Neolimulus, [125].
Nerinœa, [237], [271]; Goodhallii, [237].
Nerita, [393].
Neuroptera, [311].
Neuropteris, [136].
Newer Pliocene, [323], [324].
New Red Sandstone, [193], [203].
Newts, [189], [200], [217].
Niagara Limestone, [117].
Nipadites, [290]; ellipticus, [290].
Nœggerathia, [197].
Norwich Crag, [324].
Nothosaurus, [219]; mirabilis, [219].
Notidanus, [241].
Numenius gypsorum, [297].
Nummulina, [172], [290]; lœvigata, [290]; pristina, [172].
Nummulitic Limestone, [24], [287], [291].
Oak, [262], [310].
Obolella, [87]; sagittalis, [88].
Odd-toed Ungulates, [300], [315], [327], [353].
Odontaspis, [275].
Odontopteris, [165]; Schlotheimi, [164].
Odontopteryx, [297]; toliapicus, [297], [298].
Odontornithes, [282].
Ogygia, [108]; Buchii, [107].
Older Pliocene, [323], [324].
Oldhamia, [81]; antiqua, [82]; slates of Ireland, [79], [80].
Old Red Sandstone, [133]; origin of name, [133]; of Scotland, [134]; relations of, to Devonian, [133], [134], [155].
Olenus, [108]; micrurus, [88].
Oligocene, [305].
Oligoporus, [178].
Olive-shells, [293].
Omphyma, [119].
Onchus, [130]; tenuistriatus, [131].
Oneida Conglomerate, [116].
Onychodus, [153]; sigmoides, [151].
Oolitic limestone, structure of, [28]; mode of formation of, [30].
Oolitic rocks (see Jurassic).
Ooze, Atlantic, [22], [33].
Ophidia, [251]; of the Eocene, [296].
Ophiuroidea, of the Lower Silurian, [105]; of the Upper Silurian, [120]; of the Carboniferous, [177]; of the Trias, [210]; of the Jurassic, [233].
Opossum, [299], [315].
Orbitoides, [291].
Oriskany Sandstone, [135].
Ormoxylon, [138].
Orohippus, [302].
Orthis, [38], [109], [125], [147], [184], [199]; biforata, [109]; Davidsoni, [127]; elegantula, [127]; flabellulum, [109]; Hicksii, [38]; lenticularis, [38]; plicatella, [110]; resupinata, [185]; subquadrala, [109]; testudinaria, [110].
Orthoceras, [89], [112], [113], [130], [149], [186], [213]; crebriseptum, [113].
Orthonota, [111].
Orthoptera, [182], [311].
Osmeroides, [276]; Mantelli, [276].
Osmerus, [276].
Ostealepis, [153].
Ostracode Crustaceans of the Cambrian, [83]; of the Lower Silurian, [107]; of the Upper Silurian, [123]; of the Devonian, [145]; of the Carboniferous, [179]; of the Permian, [197]; of the Trias, [210]; of the Jurassic, [233]; of the Cretaceous, [267].
Ostrea acuminata, [235]; Couloni, [269]; deltoidea, [235]; distorta, [235]; expansa, gregarea, [235]; Marshii, [235], [236].
Otodus, [295]; obtiquus, [296].
Otozamites, [230].
Otozoum, [206].
Oudenodon, [220]; Bainii, [221].
Ovibos moschatus, [356].
Oxford Clay, [227], [229].
Oxyrhina, [312]; xiphodon, [313].
Oysters, [235], [236], [269].
Pachyphyllum, [173].
Palœarca, [111].
Palœaster, [120]; Ruthveni, [121].
Palasterina, [120]; primœva, [121].
Palœchinus, [120], [178]; ellipticus, [177].
Palœocaris, [180]; typus, [180].
Palœocoma, [120]; Colvini, [121].
Palœocoryne, [172].
Palæolithic man, remains of, [363-365].
Palœomanon, [118].
Palœoniscus, [188], [200].
Palœontina Oolitica, [233].
Palæontological evidence as to Evolution, [60], [372-374].
Palæontological record, imperfection of the, [50], [51].
Palæontology, definition of, [10].
Palœonyctis, [304].
Palœophis, [296]; toliapictus, [296]; typhœus, [296].
Palœoreas, [318].
Palœosaurus, [200], [218], [219]; platyodon, [219].
Palœosiren Beinerti, [200].
Palœotherium, [300]; magnum, [301].
Palœoxylon, [170].
Palæozoic period, [44].
Palms, [230], [263], [290], [308], [309].
Paludina, [257], [294].
Pandaneœ, [230].
Pandanus, [262].
Paradoxides, [86], [87], [108]; Bohemicus, [85].
Parasmilia, [266].
Parkeria, [264].
Pear Encrinite, [231].
Pearly Nautilus, [58], [111], [112], [237].
Peccaries, [317].
Pecopteris, [136], [165], [196].
Pecten Grœnlandicus, [338]; Islandicus, [338]; Valoniensis, [211], [212], [204].
Penarth Beds, [204].
Pennatulidœ, [292].
Pentacrinus, [231]; caput-medusœ, [231]; fasciculosus, [232].
Pentamerus, [125], [126]; galeatus, [126]; Knightii, [128].
Pentremites (see Blastoidea).
Pentremites conoideus, [176]; pyriformis, [176].
Perching Birds, [297].
Percidœ, [276].
Periechocrinus, [122].
Perissodactyle Ungulates, [300], [315], [327].
Permian period, [192-202]; rocks of, in Britain, [194]; in North America, [194]; life of, [195-302].
Persistent types of life, [58], [371].
Petalodus, [188].
Petraster, [120].
Petroleum, origin of, [36].
Pezophaps, [348].
Phacops, [108], [123], [145]; Downingiœ, [124]; granulatus, [144]; lœvis, [144]; latifrons, [144], [145]; longicaudatus, [124]; rana, [145].
Phœnopora ensiformis, [126].
Phalangers, [348].
Phanerogams, [164].
Phaneropleuron, [153].
Phascolotherium, [253], [254].
Pheronema, [164].
Phillipsastrœa, [142].
Phillipsia, [179]; seminifera, [180].
Pholadomya, [235].
Phormosoma, [178].
Phorus, [271].
Phosphate of lime, concretions of, [30]; disseminated in rocks, [30]; origin of, [31].
Phyllograptus, [102]; typus, [102].
Phyllopoda, of the Cambrian, [83]; of the Lower Silurian, [108]; of the Upper Silurian, [123]; of the Devonian, [145]; of the Carboniferous, [179]; of the Permian, [197]; of the Trias, [210].
Phyllopora, [210].
Physa, [294]; columnaris, [294].
Pigs, [302], [317], [329], [354].
Pilton Group, [135].
Pinites, [170].
Pisces (see Fishes).
Pisolite, [29].
Pisolitic Limestone of France, [259], [286].
Placodus, [220]; gigas, [220].
Placoid Fishes, [150]; of the Upper Silurian, [130], [131]; of the Devonian, [153-155]; of the Carboniferous, [188]; of the Permian, [199]; of the Trias, [214]; of the Jurassic, [241]; of the Cretaceous, [275]; of the Eocene, [295]; of the Miocene, [312].
Plagiaulax, [254].
Planolites, [122]; vulgaris, [123].
Planorbis, [294].
Plants, of the Cambrian, [80], [81]; of the Lower Silurian, [97], [98]; of the Upper Silurian, [118]; of the Devonian, [136-139]; of the Carboniferous, [163-170]; of the Permian, [196]; of the Trias, [207], [208]; of the Jurassic, [229], [230]; of the Cretaceous, [261-263]; of the Eocene, [289], [290]; of the Miocene, [308-311].
Plasmopora, [119].
Platanus, [262], [308]; aceroides, [309].
Platephemera antiqua, [145].
Platyceras, [128], [148]; dumosum, [148]; multisinuatum, [129]; ventricosum, [129].
Platycrinus, [122], [175]; tricontadactylus, [175].
Platyostoma, [129]; Niagarense, [129].
Platyrhine Monkeys, [362].
Platyschisma helicites, [129].
Platysomus, [200]; gibbosus, [199].
Platystoma, [213].
Pleistocene period; climate of.
Plesiosaurus, [334]; dolichodeirus, [244].
Pleurocystites squamosus, [106].
Pleurotoma, [293].
Pleurotomaria, [111], [129], [186], [199], [236], [271].
Plicatula, [213].
Pliocene period, [323]; rocks of, in Britain, [324]; in Belgium, [325]; in Italy, [325]; in North America, [326]; life of, [326-331].
Pliopithecus, [322]; antiquus, [323].
Pliosaurus, [245].
Podocarya, [230].
Podozamites, [208]; lanceolatus, [209].
Polir-schiefer, [33].
Polycystina, [32]; of Barbadoes-earth, [33].
Polypora, [145], [184]; dendroides, [183].
Polypterus, [153], [188].
Polystomella, [311].
Polytremacis, [266].
Polyzoa, of the Cambrian, [81], [89]; of the Lower Silurian, [108]; of the Upper Silurian, [125]; of the Devonian, [145], [146]; of the Carboniferous, [183], [184]; of the Permian, [198]; of the Trias, [210]; of the Cretaceous, [267]; of the Miocene, [312].
Populus, [262].
Porcellia, [186].
Porcupines, [322].
Portage Group, [135].
Port-Jackson Shark, [154].
Portland beds, [227], [229].
Post-Glacial deposits, [336], [338].
Post-Pliocene period, [334].
Post-Tertiary period, [286].
Poteriocrinus, [175].
Potsdam Sandstone, [79].
Pre-Glacial deposits, [336].
Prestwichia, [179]; rotundata, [179].
Primitia, [107]; strangulata, [107].
Primordial Trilobites, [85].
Primordial zone, [79].
Proboscidea, of the Miocene, [319], [322]; of the Pliocene, [329], [330]; of the Post-Pliocene, [357-359].
Producta, [147], [184], [198]; horrida, [198]; longispina, [185]; semireticulata, [185].
Productella, [147], [184].
Productidœ, [147], [211].
Proëtus, [123].
Prong-buck, [318].
Protaster, [120]; Sedgwickii, [121].
Proteaceœ, [262], [308], [309].
Proteus, [189].
Protichnites, [87].
Protocystites, [82].
Protornis Glarisiensis, [279].
Protorosaurus, [201], [202]; Speneri, [201].
Protospongia, [81]; fenestrata, [88].
Prototaxites, [118], [138]; Logani, [139].
Psammobia, [292].
Psammodus, [188].
Psaronius, [136], [164].
Pseudocrinus bifasciatus, [106].
Psilophyton, [118], [137], [138]; princeps, [138].
Pteranodon, [247], [277]; longiceps, [277].
Pteraspis, [130], [152]; Banksii, [130].
Pterichthys, [152]; cornutus, [153].
Pterinœa, [128]; subfalcata, [128].
Pteroceras, [237], [271].
Pterodactylus, [245], [277]; crassirostris, [246].
Pterophyllum, [208], [230]; Jœgeri, [209].
Pteropoda, of the Cambrian, [88]; of the Lower Silurian, [111]; of the Upper Silurian, [129]; of the Devonian, [148]; of the Carboniferous, [186]; of the Permian, [199]; of the Jurassic, [237].
Pterosauria, [245]; of the Jurassic, [245-248]; of the Cretaceous, [277].
Pterygotus Anglicus, [124], [125].
Ptilodictya, [108], [125]; acuta, [109]; falciformis, [109]; raripora, [126]; Schafferi, [109].
Ptychoceras, [273]; Emericianum, [274].
Ptychodus, [275].
Pupa vetusta, [186].
Purbeck Beds, [228]; Mammals of, [254].
Puryuroidea, [237].
Pycnodus, [275].
Pyrula, [293].
Quadrumana, of the Eocene, [305]; of the Miocene, [322], [323]; of the Pliocene, [331]; of the Post-Pliocene, [361].
Quadrupeds (see Mammalia).
Quaternary period, [334].
Quebec Group, [95], [96].
Quercus, [262].
Rabbits, [322].
Rana, [313].
Raptores, [297].
Rasores, [297].
Recent period, [286], [334].
Reptaculites, [99].
Red clays, origin of, [35].
Red Coral, [311].
Red Crag, [324].
Red Deer, [336], [354].
Reindeer, [344], [345], [354], [355].
Remopleurides, [188].
Reptiles, [200]; of the Permian, [200-202]; of the Trias, [217-221]; of the Jurassic, [242-251]; of the Cretaceous, [276-281]; of the Eocene, [296], [297].
Retepora, [108], [125], [145], [184], [198], [210]; Ehrenbergi, [198]; Phillipsi, [146].
Retiolites, [119].
Retzia, [127].
Rhætic Beds, [204-206].
Rhamphorhynchus, [247]; Bucklandi, [248].
Rhinoceridœ, [315].
Rhinoceros Etruscus, [327], [328], [336], [353]; leptorhinus, [328]; megarhinus, [327-329], [336], [335]; tichorhinus, [353], [354].
Rhinopora verrucosa, [126].
Rhizodus, [188].
Rhombus minimus, [295].
Rhyncholites, [239].
Rhynchonella, [110], [127], [147], [184], [234], [268], [292]; cuneata, [127]; neglecta, [127]; pleurodon, [185]; varians, [235].
Rhynchosaurus, [218]; articeps, [218].
Rice-shells, [293].
Richmond Earth, [33], [307].
Ringed Worms (see Annelida).
River-gravels, high-level and low-level, [340], [341].
Robulina, [311].
Rocks, definition of, [14]; divisions of, [14], [15]; igneous, [14]; aqueous, [15-18]; mechanically-formed, [18-20]; chemically-formed, [20]; organically-formed, [20-37]; arenaceous, [20]; argillaceous, [20]; calcareous, [20-32]; siliceous, [20], [32-34].
Rodentia, of the Eocene, [305]; of the Miocene, [322]; of the Post-Pliocene, [361].
Roebuck, [336], [354].
Rostellaria, [237], [293].
Rotalia, [22], [98], [171], [264]; Boueana, [264].
Rugose Corals, [104]; of the Lower Silurian, [104], [105]; of the Upper Silurian, [119]; of the Devonian, [141]; of the Carboniferous, [172-174]; of the Permian, [197]; of the Upper Greensand, [266].
Rupelian Clay, [307].
Sabal major, [309].
Sabre-toothed Tiger, [322], [331].
Saccammina, [172].
Saccosoma, [232].
Salamanders, [189], [313].
Salina Group, [117].
Salix, [262]; Meeki, [263].
Salmonidœ, [276].
Sao hirsuta, [85].
Sassafras cretacea, [263].
Sauropterygia, [219].
Scalaria, [271], [293]; Grœnlandica, [338].
Scaphites, [272], [273]; œqualis, [274].
Schizodus, [198], [211].
Schoharie Grit, [135], [137].
Scolecoderma, [82].
Scoliostoma, [213].
Scolithus, [82]; Canadensis, [83].
Scorpions of the Coal-measures, [181].
Scorpion-shells, [271].
Screw-pines, [230].
Scutella, [311]; subrotunda, [312].
Sea-cows (see Sirenia).
Sea-lilies (see Crinoidea).
Sea-lizards (see Enaliosaurians).
Seals, [322].
Sea-mats and Sea-mosses (see Polyzoa).
Sea-shrubs (see Gorgonidæ).
Sea-urchins (see Echinoidea).
Sea-weeds, [80], [81], [83], [97], [136], [164], [261].
Secondary period, [44].
Sedimentary rocks, [15].
Semnopithecus, [322], [331].
Septaria, [31].
Sequoia, [306], [309], [310]; Couttsiœ, [309]; gigantea, [309]; Langsdorffii, [309].
Serolis, [84].
Serpents (see Ophidia).
Serpulites, [123].
Sewâlik Hills (see Siwâlik Hills).
Sheep, [355].
Shell-sands, [19].
Sigillaria, [168]; Grœseri, [168].
Sigillarioids, [136], [168], [170], [196].
Silicates, infiltration of the shells of Foraminifera by, [34], [74].
Siliceous rocks, [20], [32].
Siliceous Sponges, [265].
Silicification, [13], [14].
Silurian period (see Lower Silurian and Upper Silurian), [90-114], [115-132].
Simosaurus, [219]; Gaillardoti, [219].
Siphonia, [264]; ficus, [265].
Siphonostomatous Univalves, [237], [271], [293].
Siphonotreta, [110].
Sirenia, [299], [320]; of the Eocene, [299]; of the Miocene, [315].
Siren lacertina, [200].
Sivatherium, [318]; giganteum, [319].
Siwâlik Hills, Miocene strata of, [307].
Skiddaw Slates, [101].
Sloths, [315], [349-351].
Smilax, [308].
Smithia, [173].
Snakes (see Ophidia).
Soft Tortoises, [296].
Solarium, [271].
Solenhofen Slates, [228].
Solitaire, [346], [348].
Spalacotherium, [254].
Spatangus, [311].
Sphœrospongia, [139].
Sphagodus, [130].
Sphenodon, [218].
Sphenopteris, [136], [165], [196].
Spiders of the Coal-measures, [181].
Spider-shells, [237].
Spindle-shells, [237].
Spirifera, [125], [147], [184], [198], [234]; crispa, [127]; disjuncta, [147]; hysterica, [126]; mucronata, [147]; Niagarensis, [127]; rostrata, [235]; sculptilis, [147]; trigonalis, [185].
Spiriferidœ, [147].
Spirophyton cauda-Galli, [135], [164].
Spirorbis, [123], [143], [178]; Arkonensis, [144]; Carbonarus, [178]; laxus, [144]; Lewisii, [123]; omphalodes, [144]; spinulifera, [144].
Spirulirostra, [312].
Spondylus, [269]; spinosus, [270].
Sponges, of the Cambrian, [81]; of the Lower Silurian, [98]; of the Upper Silurian, [119]; of the Devonian, [139]; of the Carboniferous, [171]; of the Permian, [197]; of the Trias, [209]; of the Jurassic, [230]; of the Cretaceous, [264], [265].
Spongilla, [197].
Spongillopsis, [197].
Spongophyllum, [173].
Spore-eases, of Cryptogams in the Ludlow rocks, [118]; in the Coal, [163].
Squirrels, [322].
Stagonolepis, [218].
Staircase-shell, [271].
Stalactite, [21].
Stalagmite, [21].
Star-corals, [231].
Star-fishes, [105], [120], [210].
St Cassian Beds, [205], [206].
Stephanophyllia, [266].
Stereognathus, [253], [254].
Stigmaria, [169]; ficoides, [169].
Stonesfield Slate, [227]; Mammals of, [253].
Strata, contemporaneity of, [44].
Stratified rock, [15-18].
Streptelasma, [105].
Streptorhynchus, [198].
Stromatopora, [98], [99], [118], [139]; rugosa, [99]; tuberculata, [140].
Strombodes, [119]; pentagonus, [104].
Strombus, [271].
Strophalosia, [198].
Strophodus, [255].
Strophomena, [109], [110]; alternata, [110]; deltoidea, [109]; filitexta, [110]; rhomboidalis, [147], [148]; Subplana, [127].
Sub-Apennine Beds, [325].
Sub-Carboniferous rocks, [158], [161].
Succession of life upon the globe, [367-374].
Suida, [302], [317], [329].
Sulphate of lime, [22].
Sus Erymanthius, [317]; scrofa, [354].
Synastrœa, [209].
Synhelia Sharpeana, [266].
Synocladia, [198]; virgulacea, [198].
Syringopora, [119], [173]; ramulosa, [174].
Tabulate Corals, [104]; of the Lower Silurian, [105]; of the Upper Silurian, [142]; of the Devonian, [142]; of the Carboniferous, [172]; of the Permian, [197].
Talpa Europœa, [336].
Tapiridœ, [300].
Tapirs, [300].
Tapirus Arvernensis, [327].
Taxocrinus tuberculatus, [122].
Taxodium, [262], [308], [310].
Teleosaurus, [251].
Teleostean Fishes, [150]; of the Cretaceous, [276].
Telerpeton Elginense, [218].
Tellina proxima, [338].
Tentaculites, [129], [148]; ornatus, [129].
Terebra, [293].
Terebratella, [268], Astleriana, [268].
Terebratula, [184], [234]; digona, [235]; elongata, [168]; hastata, [185]; quadrifida, [235]; sphœroidalis, [235].
Terebratulina, [268]; caput-serpentis, [268]; striata, [268].
Termites, [311].
Terrapins, [280], [296].
Tertiary period, [44], [284-287].
Tertiary rocks, classification of, [284-287].
Testudinidœ, [313].
Tetrabranchiate Cephalopods, [112]; of the Cambrian, [89]; of the Lower Silurian, [112-114]; of the Upper Silurian, [130]; of the Devonian, [149]; of the Carboniferous, [186], [187]; of the Permian, [199]; of the Trias, [212]; of the Jurassic, [237-239]; of the Cretaceous, [272-274]; of the Eocene, [294]; of the Miocene, [312].
Textularia, [22], [264], [311]; Meyeriana, [311].
Thanet Sands, [287], [288].
Theca, [88], [111], [129].
Theca Davidii, [88].
Thecidium, [213].
Thecodont Reptiles, [218].
Thecodontosaurus, [200], [218]; antiquus, [219].
Thecosmilia annularis, [231].
Thelodus, [131].
Theriodont Reptiles, [202], [220].
Thylacoleo, [349].
Tile-stones, [116].
Titanotherium, [316].
Toothed Birds, [281-283].
Tortoises, [202], [296].
Tragoceras, [318].
Travertine, [21].
Tree-Ferns, of the Devonian, [136]; of the Coal-measures, [164].
Tremadoc Slates, [77-79].
Trematis, [110].
Trenton Limestone, [95], [96].
Trianthrus Beckii, [107].
Triassic period, [203]; rocks of, in Britain, [204]; in Germany, [204]; in the Austrian Alps, [205]; in North America, [205]; life of, [206-224].
Triconodon, [254].
Trigonia, [235], [255], [269].
Trigoniadœ, [198], [211].
Trigonocarpum, [170]; ovatum, [170].
Trilobites, [84-87]; of the Cambrian, [85], [87]; of the Lower Silurian, [107], [108]; of the Upper Silurian, [123], [124]; of the Devonian, [144], [145]; of the Carboniferous, [179].
Trimerellidœ, [127].
Trinucleus, [108]; concentricus, [107].
Trionycidœ, [296].
Triton, [293].
Trochocyathus, [266].
Trochonema, [129].
Trogontherium, [361]; Cuvieri, [336], [361].
Trumpet-shells, [293].
Tulip-tree, [262], [308].
Turbinolia sulcata, [292].
Turbinolidœ, [292].
Turrilites, [272], [273]; catenulatus, [274].
Turritella, [271], [293].
Turtles, [202], [251], [280], [296].
Typhis tubifer, [293].
Ullmania selaginoides, [197].
Unconformability of strata, [48].
Under-clay of coal, [162].
Ungulata, of the Eocene, [300-303]; of the Miocene, [315-319]; of the Pliocene, [327-329]; of the Post-Pliocene, [353-357].
Uniformity, doctrine of, [5-7].
Unio, [250].
Univalves (see Gasteropoda).
Upper Cambrian, [77-79]; Chalk, [259]; Cretaceous, [257], [259]; Devonian, [135]; Eocene, [287], [288]; Greensand, [258]; Helderberg, [135]; Laurentian, [66]; Llandovery, [115]; Ludlow rock, [116]; Miocene, [305]; Oolites, [227]; Silurian period, [115]; rocks of, in Britain, [115], [116]; in North America, [116-118]; life of, [118-131].
Ursus arctos, [359]; Arvernensis, [339]; ferox, [359]; spelœa, [360].
Ursus, [336], [356].
Valley-gravels, high-level and low-level, [339-341].
Vanessa Pluto, [312].
Varanidœ, [202].
Vegetation (see Plants).
Ventriculites, [264], [265]; simplex, [265].
Venus's Flower-basket, [265].
Vermilia, [197].
Vespertilio Parisiensis, [304], [305].
Vicksburg Beds, [289].
Vines, [306], [309], [310].
Vitreous Sponges, [264].
Voltzia, [208]; heterophylla, [209].
Voluta, [271], [293]; elongata, [271].
Volutes, [271], [293], [312].
Walchia, [196], [197]; piniformis, [196].
Walrus, [322].
Wealden Beds, [257].
Wellingtonia, [309], [310].
Wenlock Beds, [115], [117]; Limestone, [115]; Shale, [115].
Wentle-traps, [271].
Werfen Beds, [205], [206].
Whalebone Whales, [299], [315].
Whales, [299], [315].
Whelks, [237].
White Chalk, [259]; structure of, [21], [22]; origin of, [23], [263].
White Crag, [324].
White River Beds, [307].
Wild Boar, [354].
Williamsonia, [230].
Winged Lizards (see Pterosauria).
Winged Snails (see Pteropods).
Wing-shells, [271].
Wolf, [336], [360].
Wolverine, [360].
Wombats, [348].
Woolhope Limestone, [115].
Woolly Rhinoceros, [339], [341], [344], [353].
Woolwich and Reading Beds, [287].
Worm-burrows, [82], [83], [123].
Xanthidia, [138], [161].
Xenoneura antiquorum, [145].
Xiphodon, [303].
Xylobius, [182]; Sigillariœ, [182].
Zamia spiralis, [208].
Zamites, [208], [230], [310].
Zaphrentis, [105], [119], [142], [173]; cornicula, [141]; Stokesi, [104]; vermicularis, [174].
Zeacrinus, [175].
Zechstein, [194].
Zeuglodon, [299], [315]; cetoides, [200], [300].