On the Construction of a Silvered Glass Telescope / Fifteen and a half inches in aperture, and its use in celestial photography

by Henry Draper

§1. GRINDING AND POLISHING THE MIRRORS.

(1.) Experiments on a Metal Speculum.

My first 15 inch speculum was an alloy of copper and tin, in the proportions given by Lord Rosse. His general directions were closely followed, and the casting was very fine, free from pores, and of silvery whiteness. It was 2 inches thick, weighed 110 pounds, and was intended to be of 12 feet focal length. The grinding and polishing were conducted with the Rosse machine. Although a great amount of time was spent in various trials, extending over more than a year, a fine figure was never obtained—the principal obstacle to success being a tendency to polish in rings of different focal length. It must, however, be borne in mind that Lord Rosse had so thoroughly mastered the peculiarities of his machine as to produce with it the largest specula ever made and of very fine figure.

During these experiments there was occasion to grind out some imperfections,  8/100 of an inch deep, from the face of the metal. This operation was greatly assisted by stopping up the defects with a thick alcoholic solution of Canada balsam, and having made a rim of wax around the edge of the mirror, pouring on nitro-hydrochloric acid, which quickly corroded away the uncovered spaces. Subsequently an increase in focal length of 15 inches was accomplished, by attacking the edge zones of the surface with the acid in graduated depths.

An attempt also was made to assist the tedious grinding operation by including the grinder and mirror in a Voltaic circuit, making the speculum the positive pole. By decomposing acidulated water between it and the grinder, and thereby oxidizing the tin and copper of the speculum, the operation was much facilitated, but the battery surface required was too great for common use. If a sufficient intensity was given to the current, speculum metal was transferred without oxidation to the grinder, and deposited in thin layers upon it. It was proposed at one time to make use of this fact, and coat a mirror of brass with a layer of speculum metal by electrotyping. The gain in lightness would be considerable.

During the winter of 1860 the speculum was split into two pieces, by the expansion in freezing of a few drops of water that had found their way into the supporting case.

(2.) Silvering Glass.

At Sir John Herschel’s suggestion (given on the occasion of a visit that my father paid him in 1860), experiments were next commenced with silvered glass specula. These were described as possessing great capabilities for astronomical purposes. They reflect more than 90 per cent. of the light that fulls upon them, and only weigh one-eighth as much as specula of metal of equal aperture.

As no details of Steinheil’s or Foucault’s processes for silvering in the cold way were accessible at the time, trials extending at intervals over four months were made. A variety of reducing agents were used, and eventually good results obtained with milk sugar.

Soon after a description of the process resorted to by M. Foucault in his excellent experiments was procured. It consists in decomposing an alcoholic solution of ammonia and nitrate of silver by oil of cloves. The preparation of the solutions and putting them in a proper state of instability are very difficult, and the results by no means certain. The silver is apt to be soft and easily rubbed off, or of a leaden appearance. It is liable to become spotted from adherent particles of the solutions used in its preparation, and often when dissolved off a piece of glass with nitric acid leaves a reddish powder. Occasionally, however, the process gives excellent results.

In the winter of 1861, M. Cimeg published his method of silvering looking-glasses by tartrate of potash and soda (Rochelle salt). Since I have made modifications in it fitting the silver for being polished on the reverse side, I have never on any occasion failed to secure bright, hard, and in every respect, perfect films.

The operation, which in many details resembles that of M. Foucault, is divided into: 1st, cleaning the glass; 2d, preparing the solutions; 3d, warming the glass; 4th, immersion in the silver solution and stay there; 5th, polishing. It should be carried on in a room warmed to 70° F. at least. The description is for a 15 1/2 inch mirror.

1st. Clean the glass like a plate for collodion photography. Rub it thoroughly with nitric acid, and then wash it well in plenty of water, and set it on edge on filtering paper to dry. Then cover it with a mixture of alcohol and prepared chalk, and allow evaporation to take place. Rub it in succession with many pieces of cotton flannel. This leaves the surface almost chemically clean. Lately, instead of chalk I have used plain uniodized collodion, and polished with a freshly-washed piece of cotton flannel, as soon as the film had become semi-solid.

2d. Dissolve 560 grains of Rochelle salt in two or three ounces of water and filter. Dissolve 800 grains of nitrate of silver in four ounces of water. Take an ounce of strong ammonia of commerce, and add nitrate solution to it until a brown precipitate remains undissolved. Then add more ammonia and again nitrate of silver solution. This alternate addition is to be carefully continued until the silver solution is exhausted, when some of the brown precipitate should remain in suspension. The mixture then contains an undissolved excess of oxide of silver. Filter. Just before using, mix with the Rochelle salt solution, and add water enough to make 22 ounces.

Fig. 1.

The Silvering Vessel.

The vessel in which the silvering is to be performed may be a circular dish (Fig. 1) of ordinary tinplate, 16 1/2 inches in diameter, with a flat bottom and perpendicular sides one inch high, and coated inside with a mixture of beeswax and rosin (equal parts), At opposite ends of one diameter two narrow pieces of wood, a a′,  1/8 of an inch thick, are cemented. They are to keep the face of the mirror from the bottom of the vessel, and permit of a rocking motion being given to the glass. Before using such a vessel, it is necessary to touch any cracks that may have formed in the wax with a hot poker. A spirit lamp causes bubbles and holes through to the tin. The vessel too must always, especially if partly silvered, be cleaned with nitric acid and water, and left filled with cold water till needed. Instead of the above, India-rubber baths have been occasionally used.

3d. In order to secure fine and hard deposits in the shortest time and with weak solutions, it is desirable, though not necessary, to warm the glass slightly. This is best done by putting it in a tub or other suitably sized vessel, and pouring in water enough to cover the glass. Then hot water is gradually stirred in, till the mixture reaches 100° F. It is also advantageous to place the vessels containing the ingredients for the silvering solution in the same bath for a short time.

4th. On taking the glass out of the warm water, carry it to the silvering vessel—into which an assistant has just previously poured the mixed silvering solution—and immediately immerse it face downwards, dipping in first one edge and then quickly letting down the other till the face is horizontal. The back of course is not covered with the fluid. The same precautions are necessary to avoid streaks in silvering as in the case of putting a collodion plate in the bath. Place the whole apparatus before a window. Keep up a slow rocking motion of the glass, and watch for the appearance of the bright silver film. The solution quickly turns brown, and the silver soon after appears, usually in from three to five minutes. Leave the mirror in the liquid about six times as long. At the expiration of the twenty minutes or half hour lift it out, and look through it at some very bright object. If the object is scarcely visible, the silver surface must then be washed with plenty of water, and set on edge on bibulous paper to dry. If, on the contrary, it is too thin, put it quickly back, and leave it until thick enough. When polished the silver ought, if held between the eye and the sun, to show his disk of a light blue tint. On coming out of the bath the metallic surface should have a rosy golden color by reflected light.

5th. When the mirror is thoroughly dry, and no drops of water remain about the edges, lay it upon its back on a thoroughly dusted table. Take a piece of the softest thin buckskin, and stuff it loosely with cotton to make a rubber. Avoid using the edge pieces of a skin, as they are always hard and contain nodules of lime.

Go gently over the whole silver surface with this rubber in circular strokes, in order to commence the removal of the rosy golden film, and to condense the silver. Then having put some very fine rouge on a piece of buckskin laid flat on the table, impregnate the rubber with it. The best stroke for polishing is a motion in small circles, at times going gradually round on the mirror, at times across on the various chords (Fig. 2). At the end of an hour of continuous gentle rubbing, with occasional touches on the flat rouged skin, the surface will be polished so as to be perfectly black in oblique positions, and, with even moderate care, scratchless. The process is like a burnishing. Put the rubber carefully away for another occasion.

Fig. 2.

Polishing Strokes.

The thickness of the silver thus deposited is about  1/200,000 of an inch. Gold leaf, when equally transparent, is estimated at the same fraction. The actual value of the amount on a 15 1/2 inch mirror is not quite a cent—the weight being less than 4 grains (239 milligrammes on one occasion when the silver was unusually thick), if the directions above given are followed.

Variations in thickness of this film of silver on various parts of the face of the mirror are consequently only small fractions of  1/200,000 of an inch, and are therefore of no optical moment whatever. If a glass has been properly silvered, and shows the sun of the same color and intensity through all parts of its surface, the most delicate optical tests will certainly fail to indicate any difference in figure between the silver and the glass underneath. The faintest peculiarities of local surface seen on the glass by the method of M. Foucault, will be reproduced on the silver.

The durability of these silver films varies, depending on the circumstances under which they are placed, and the method of preparation. Sulphuretted hydrogen tarnishes them quickly. Drops of water may split the silver off. Under certain circumstances, too, minute fissures will spread all over the surface of the silver, and it will apparently lose its adhesion to the glass. This phenomenon seems to be connected with a continued exposure to dampness, and is avoided by grinding the edge of the concave mirror flat, and keeping it covered when not in use with a sheet of flat plate glass. Heat seems to have no prejudicial effect, though it might have been supposed that the difference in expansibility would have overcome the mutual adhesion.

Generally silvered mirrors are very enduring, and will bear polishing repeatedly, if previously dried by heat. I have some which have been used as diagonal reflectors in the Newtonian, and have been exposed during a large part of the day to the heat of the sun concentrated by the 15 1/2 inch mirror. These small mirrors are never covered, and yet the one now in the telescope has been there a year, and has had the dusty film—like that which accumulates on glass—polished off it a dozen times.

In order to guard against tarnishing, experiments were at first made in gilding silver films, but were abandoned when found to be unnecessary. A partial conversion of the silver film into a golden one, when it will resist sulphuretted hydrogen, can be accomplished as follows: Take three grains of hyposulphite of soda, and dissolve it in an ounce of water. Add to it slowly a solution in water of one grain of chloride of gold. A lemon yellow liquid results, which eventually becomes clear. Immerse the silvered glass in it for twenty-four hours. An exchange will take place, and the film become yellowish. I have a piece of glass prepared in this way which remains unhurt in a box, where other pieces of plain silvered glass have changed some to yellow, some to blue, from exposure to coal gas.

I have also used silvered glass plates for daguerreotyping. They iodize beautifully if freshly polished, and owing probably to the absence of the usual copper alloy of silver plating, take impressions with very short exposures. The resulting picture has a rosy warmth, rarely seen in ordinary daguerreotypes. The only precaution necessary is in fixing to use an alcoholic solution of cyanide of potassium, instead of hyposulphite of soda dissolved in water. The latter has a tendency to split up the silver. The subsequent washing must be with diluted common alcohol.

Pictures obtained by this method will bear high magnifying powers without showing granulation. Unfortunately the exposure required for them in the telescope is six times as great as for a sensitive wet collodion, though the iodizing be carried to a lemon yellow, the bromizing to a rose red, and the plate be returned to the iodine.

(3.) Grinding and Polishing Glass.

Some of the facts stated in the following paragraphs, the result of numerous experiments, may not be new to practical opticians. I have had, however, to polish with my own hands more than a hundred mirrors of various sizes, from 19 inches to  1/4 of an inch in diameter, and to experience very frequent failures for three years, before succeeding in producing large surfaces with certainty and quickly. It is well nigh impossible to obtain from opticians the practical minutiæ which are essential, and which they conceal even from each other. The long continued researches of Lord Rosse, Mr. Lassell, and M. Foucault are full of the most valuable facts, and have been of continual use.

The subject is divided into: a. The Peculiarities of Glass; b. Emery and Rouge; c. Tools of Iron, Lead and Pitch; d. Methods of Examining Surfaces; e. Machines.

a. Peculiarities of Glass.

Effects of Pressure.—It is generally supposed that glass is possessed of the power of resistance to compression and rigidity in a very marked manner. In the course of these experiments it has appeared that a sheet of it, even when very thick, can with difficulty be set on edge without bending so much as to be optically worthless. Fortunately in every disk of glass that I have tried, there is one diameter on either end of which it may stand without harm.

In examining lately various works on astronomy and optics, it appears that the same difficulty has been found not only in glass but also in speculum metal. Short used always to mark on the edge of the large mirrors of his Gregorian telescopes the point which should be placed uppermost, in case they were removed from their cells. In achromatics the image is very sensibly changed in sharpness if the flint and crown are not in the best positions; and Mr. Airy, in mounting the Northumberland telescope, had to arrange the means for turning the lenses on their common axis, until the finest image was attained. In no account, however, have I found a critical statement of the exact nature of the deformation, the observers merely remarking that in some positions of the object glass there was a sharper image than in others.

Before I appreciated the facts now to be mentioned, many fine mirrors were condemned to be re-polished, which, had they been properly set in their mountings, would have operated excellently.

Fig. 3.

Effect of Pressure on a Re­flect­ing Surface.

In attempting to ascertain the nature of deformations by pressure, many changes were made in the position of the disk of glass, and in the kind of support. Some square mirrors, too, were ground and polished. As an example of the final results, the following case is presented: A 15 1/2 inch unsilvered mirror 1 1/4 inch thick was set with its best diameter perpendicular, the axis of the mirror being horizontal (Fig. [8]). The image of a pin-hole illuminated by a lamp was then observed to be single, sharply defined, and with interference rings surrounding it as at a, Fig. [3]. On turning the glass 90 degrees, that is one quarter way round, its axis still pointing in the same direction, it could hardly be realized that the same concave surface was converging the rays. The image was separated into two of about equal intensity, as at b, with a wing of light going out above and below from the junction. Inside and outside of the focal plane the cone of rays had an elliptical section, the major axis being horizontal inside, and perpendicular outside. Turning the mirror still more round the image gradually improved, until the original diameter was perpendicular again—the end that had been the uppermost now being the lowest. A similar series of changes occurred in supporting the glass on various parts of the other semicircle. It might be supposed that irregularities on the edge of the glass disk, or in the supporting arc would account for the phenomena. But two facts dispose of the former of these hypotheses: in the first place if the glass be turned exactly half way round, the character of the image is unchanged, and it is not to be believed that in many different mirrors this could occur by chance coincidence. In the second place, one of these mirrors has been carefully examined after being ground and polished three times in succession, and on each occasion required the same diameter to be perpendicular. As to the second hypothesis no material difference is observed whether the supporting arc below be large or small, nor when it is replaced by a thin semicircle of tinplate lined with cotton wool.

I am led to believe that this peculiarity results from the structural arrangement of the glass. The specimens that have served for these experiments have probably been subjected to a rolling operation when in a plastic state, in order to be reduced to a uniform thickness. Optical glass, which may be made by softening down irregular fragments into moulds at a temperature below that of fusion, may have the same difficulty, but whether it has a diameter of minimum compression can only be determined by experiment. Why speculum metal should have the same property might be ascertained by a critical examination of the process of casting, and the effect of the position of the openings in the mould for the entrance of the molten metal.

Effects of Heat.—The preceding changes in glass when isolated appear very simple, and their remedy, to keep the proper diameter perpendicular, is so obvious that it may seem surprising that they should have given origin to any embarrassment. In fact it is now desirable to have a disk in which they are well marked. But in practice they are complicated in the most trying manner with variations produced by heat pervading the various parts of the glass unequally. The following case illustrates the effects of heat:—

Fig. 4.

Effects of Heat on a Reflecting Surface.

A 15 1/2 inch mirror, which was giving at its centre of curvature a very fine image (a, Fig. 4) of an illuminated pin-hole, was heated at the edge by placing the right hand on the back of the mirror, at one end of the horizontal diameter. In a few seconds an arc of light came out from the image as at b′, and on putting the left hand on the other extremity of the same diameter the appearance c′ was that of two arcs of light crossing each other, and having an image at each intersection. The mirror did not recover its original condition in ten minutes. Another person on a subsequent occasion touching the ends of the perpendicular diameter at the same time that the horizontal were warmed, caused the image d′ to become somewhat like two of c′, put at right angles to each other. A little distance outside the focus the complementary appearances, b, c, d, were found.

By unsymmetrical warming still more remarkable forms emerged in succession, some of which were more like certain nebulæ with their milky light, than any regular geometrical figure.

If the glass had, after one of these experiments, been immediately put on the polishing machine and re-polished, the changes in surface would to a certain extent have become permanent, as in Chinese specula, and the mirror would have required either re-grinding or prolonged polishing to get rid of them. This occurred unfortunately very frequently in the earlier stages of this series of experiments, and gave origin on one occasion to a surface which could only show the image of a pin-hole as a lozenge (b, Fig. 5), with an image at each angle inside the focus, and as an image a with four wings outside.

Fig. 5.

Effects of Heat rendered permanent.

But it must not be supposed that such apparent causes as these are required to disturb a surface injuriously. Frequently mirrors in the process for correction of spherical aberration will change the quality of their images without any perceptible reason for the alteration. A current of cold or warm air, a gleam of sunlight, the close approach of some person, an unguarded touch, the application of cold water injudiciously will ruin the labor of days. The avoidance of these and similar causes requires personal experience, and the amateur can only be advised to use too much caution rather than too little.

Such accidents, too, teach a useful lesson in the management of a large telescope, never, for instance, to leave one-half the mirror or lens exposed to radiate into cold space, while the other half is covered by a comparatively warm dome. Under the head of the Sun-Camera, some further facts of this kind may be found.

Oblique Mirrors.—Still another propensity of glass and speculum metal must be noted. A truly spherical concave can only give an image free from distortion when it is so set that its optical axis points to the object and returns the image directly back towards it. But I have polished a large number of mirrors in which an image free from distortion was produced only when oblique pencils fell on the mirror, and the image was returned along a line forming an angle of from 2 to 3 degrees with the direction of the object. Such mirrors, though exactly suited for the Herschelian construction, will not officiate in a Newtonian unless the diagonal mirror be put enough out of centre in the tube, to compensate for the figure of the mirror. Some of the best photographs of the moon that have been produced in the observatory, were made when the diagonal mirror was 6 inches out of centre in the 16 inch tube. Of course the large mirror below was not perpendicular to the axis of the tube, but was inclined 2° 32′. The figure of such a concave might be explained by the supposition that it was as if cut out of a parabolic surface of twice the diameter, so that the vertex should be on the edge. But if the mirror was turned 180° it apparently did just as well as in the first position, the image of a round object being neither oval nor elliptical, and without wings. The image, however, is never quite as fine as in the usual kind of mirrors. The true explanation seems rather to be that the radius of curvature is greater along one of the diameters than along that at right angles. How it is possible for such a figure to arise during grinding and polishing is not easy to understand, unless it be granted that glass yields more to heat and compression in one direction than another.

After these facts had been laboriously ascertained, and the method of using such otherwise valueless mirrors put in practice as above stated, chance brought a letter of Maskelyne to my notice. He says, “I hit upon an extraordinary experiment which greatly improved the performance of the six-feet reflector”.... It was one made by Short. “As a like management may improve many other telescopes, I shall here relate it: I removed the great speculum from the position it ought to hold perpendicular to the axis of the tube when the telescope is said to be rightly adjusted, to one a little inclined to the same and found a certain inclination of about 2 1/2° (as I found by the alteration of objects in the finer one of Dollond’s best night glasses with a field of 6°), which caused the telescope to show the object (a printed paper) incomparably better than before; insomuch that I could read many of the words which before I could make nothing at all of. It is plain, therefore, that this telescope shows best with a certain oblique pencil of rays. Probably it will be found that this circumstance is by no means peculiar to this telescope.” This very valuable observation has lain buried for eighty-two years, and ignorance of it has led to the destruction of many a valuable surface.

As regards the method of combating this tendency, it is as a general rule best to re-grind or rather re-fine the surface, for though pitch polishing has occasionally corrected it in a few minutes, it will not always do so. I have polished a surface for thirteen and a half hours, examining it frequently, without changing the obliquity in the slightest degree.

Glass, then, is a substance prone to change by heat and compression, and requiring to be handled with the utmost caution.

b. Emery and Rouge.

In order to excavate the concave depression in a piece of glass, emery as coarse as the head of a pin has been commonly used. This cuts rapidly, and is succeeded by finer grained varieties, till flour emery is reached. After that only washed emeries should be permitted. They are made by an elutriating process invented by Dr. Green.

Five pounds of the finest sifted flour emery are mixed with an ounce of pulverized gum arabic. Enough water to make the mass like treacle is then added, and the ingredients are thoroughly incorporated by the hand. They are put into a deep jar containing a gallon of water. After being stirred the fluid is allowed to come to rest, and the surface be skimmed. At the end of an hour the liquid containing extremely fine emery in suspension is decanted or drawn off with a siphon, nearly down to the level of the precipitated emery at the bottom, and set aside to subside in a tall vessel. When this has occurred, which will be in the lapse of a few hours, the fluid is to be carefully poured back into the first vessel, and the fine deposit in the second put into a stoppered bottle. In the same way by stirring up the precipitate again, emery that has been suspended 30, 10, 3, 1 minutes, and 20, 3, seconds is to be secured and preserved in wide-mouthed vessels.

The quantity of the finer emeries consumed in smoothing a 15 1/2 inch surface is very trifling—a mass of each as large as two peas sufficing.

Rouge, or peroxide of iron, is better bought than prepared by the amateur. It is made by calcining sulphate of iron and washing the product in water. Three kinds are usually found in commerce: a very coarse variety containing the largest percentage of the cutting black oxide of iron, which will scratch glass like quartz; a very fine variety which can hardly polish glass, but is suitable for silver films; and one intermediate. Trial of several boxes is the best method of procuring that which is desired.

c. Tools of Iron, Lead, and Pitch.

In making a mirror, one of the first steps is to describe upon two stout sheets of brass or iron, arcs of a circle with a radius equal to twice the desired focal length, and to secure, by filing and grinding them together, a concave and convex gauge. When the radius bar is very long, it may be hung against the side of a house. By the assistance of these templets, the convex tools of lead and iron and the concave surface of the mirror are made parts of a sphere of proper diameter.

The excavation of a large flat disc of glass to a concave is best accomplished by means of a thick plate of lead, cast considerably more convex than the gauge. The central parts wear away very quickly, and when they become too flat must be made convex again by striking the lead on the back with a hammer. The glass is thus caused gradually to approach the right concavity. Ten or twelve hours usually suffice to complete this stage. The progress of the excavating is tested sufficiently well by setting the convex gauge on a diameter of the mirror, and observing how many slips of paper of a definite thickness will pass under the centre or edge, as the case may be. This avoids the necessity of a spherometer. The thickness of paper is found correctly enough by measuring a half ream, and dividing by the number of sheets. In this manner differences in the versed sine of a thousandth of an inch may be appreciated, and a close enough approximation to the desired focal length reached—the precision required in achromatics not being needed. The preparation of the iron tools on which the grinding is to be finished is very laborious where personal exertion is used. They require to be cast thin in order that they may be easily handled, and hence cannot be turned with very great exactness.

The pair for my large mirrors are 15 1/2 inches in diameter, and were cast  3/8 of an inch thick, being strengthened however on the back by eight ribs  3/4 of an inch high, radiating from a solid centre two inches in diameter (a, Fig. 6). They weighed 25 pounds apiece. Four ears, with a tapped hole in each, project at equal distances round the edge, and serve either as a means of attachment for a counterpoise lever, or as handles.

Fig. 6.

The Iron Grinder.

After these were turned and taken off the lathe chuck, they were found to be somewhat sprung, and had to be scraped and ground in the machine for a week before fitting properly. The slowness in grinding results from the emery becoming imbedded in the iron, and forming a surface as hard as adamant.

Once acquired, such grinders are very valuable, as they keep their focal length and figure apparently without change if carefully used, and only worked on glass of nearly similar curvature. At first no grooves were cut upon the face, for in the lead previously employed for fining they were found to be a fruitful source of scratches, on account of grains of emery imbedding in them, and gradually breaking loose as the lead wore away. Subsequently it appeared, that unless there was some means of spreading water and the grinding powders evenly, rings were likely to be produced on the mirror, and the iron was consequently treated as follows:—

A number of pieces of wax, such as is used in making artificial flowers, were procured. The convex iron was laid out in squares of  3/4 of an inch on the side, and each alternate one being touched with a thick alcoholic solution of Canada balsam, a piece of wax of that size was put over it. This was found after many trials to be the best method of protecting some squares, and yet leaving others in the most suitable condition to be attacked. A rim of wax, melted with Canada balsam, was raised around the edge of the iron, and a pint of aqua regia poured in. In a short time this corroded out the uncovered parts to a sufficient depth, leaving an appearance like a chess-board, except that the projecting squares did not touch at the adjoining angles (b, Fig. [6]). I should have chipped the cavities out, instead of dissolving them away, but for fear of changing the radius of curvature and breaking the thin plate. However as soon as the iron was cleaned, it proved to have become flatter, the radius of curvature having increased 7 3/4 inches. This shows what a state of tension and compression there must be in such a mass, when the removal of a film of metal  1/50 of an inch thick, here and there, from one surface, causes so great a change.

When the glass has been brought to the finest possible grain on such a grinder, a polishing tool has to be prepared by covering the convex iron with either pitch or rosin. These substances have very similar properties, but the rosin by being clear affords an opportunity of seeing whether there are impurities, and therefore has been frequently used, straining being unnecessary. It is, however, too hard as it occurs in commerce, and requires to be softened with turpentine.

A mass sufficiently large to cover the iron  1/8 of an inch thick is melted in a porcelain or metal capsule by a spirit lamp. When thoroughly liquid the lamp is blown out, and spirits of turpentine added, a drachm or two at a time. After each addition a chisel or some similar piece of metal is dipped into the fluid rosin, and then immersed in water at the temperature of the room. After a minute or two it is taken out, and tried with the thumb-nail. When the proper degree of softness is obtained, an indentation can be made by a moderate pressure.

Fig. 7.

The Polishing Tool.

The iron having been heated in hot water is then painted in stripes  1/8 of an inch deep with this resinous composition. The glass concave to be polished being smeared with rouge, is pressed upon it to secure a fit, and the iron is then put in cold water. With a narrow chisel straight grooves are made, dividing the surface into squares of one inch, separated by intervals of one-quarter of an inch (Fig. 7). Under certain circumstances it is also desirable to take off every other square, or perhaps reduce the polishing surface irregularly here and there, to get an excess of action on some particular portion of the mirror.

It is well, on commencing to polish with a tool made in this way, to warm the glass as well as the tool in water (page [4]) before bringing the two in contact. If this is not done the polishing will not go on kindly, a good adaptation not being secured for a length of time, and the glass surface being injured at the outset. The rosin on a polisher put away for a day or two suffers an internal change, a species of irregular swelling, and does not retain its original form. Heating, too, has a good effect in preventing disturbance by local variations of temperature in the glass.

The description of “Local Polishers” will be given under [Machines].

d. Methods of Examining Surfaces.

I have been in the habit of testing mirrors exclusively at the centre of curvature, not putting them in the telescope tube until nearly parabolic or finished. The means of trial are so excellent, the indications obtained so precise, and the freedom from atmospheric disturbances so complete, that the greatest facilities are offered for ascertaining the nature of a surface. In addition the observer is entirely independent of day or night, and of the weather. I do not think that anything more is learned of the telescope, even under favorable circumstances, than in the workshop. For the improvement of these methods of observation, Science is largely indebted to M. Foucault, whose third test—the second in the next paragraph—is sufficient to afford by itself a large part of the information required in correcting a concave surface.

There are two distinct modes of examination: 1st, observing with an eye-piece the image of an illuminated pin-hole at the focus, and the cone of rays inside and outside that plane; 2d, receiving the entire pencil of light coming from the mirror through the pupil on the retina, and noticing the distribution of light and shade, and the appearances in relief on the face of the mirror.

Fig. 8.

Testing a Concave at the Centre of Curvature.

The arrangements for these tests are as follows: Around the flame of a lamp (a, Fig. 8) a sheet of tin is bent so as to form a cylindrical screen. Through it at the height of the brightest part of the flame, as at b, two holes are bored, a quarter of an inch apart, one  1/32 of an inch in diameter, the other as small as the point of the finest needle will make—perhaps  1/200 of an inch. This apparatus is to be set at the centre of curvature of the mirror c—the optical axis of the latter being horizontal—and so adjusted that the light which diverges from the illuminated hole in use, may, after impinging on the concave surface of the glass, return to form an image close by the side of the tin screen. In the case of the first test, the returning rays are received into an eye-piece or microscope, d, magnifying 20 times, and moving upon a divided scale to and from the mirror. In the second test the eye-piece is removed away from before the eye, and a straight-edged opaque screen, e, is put in its place. The mirror is supported in these trials by an arc of wood f, lined with thick woollen stuff, and above two wooden latches, g, g, prevent it from falling forward, but do not compress it. It is, of course, unsilvered. In the figure the table is represented very much closer to the mirror than it should be. In trials on the 15 1/2 inch it has to be 25 feet distant.

Fig. 9.

Action of the Opaque Screen.

The appearance that a truly spherical concave surface presents with the first test is: the image of the hole is sharply defined without any areola of aberration around it, and is surrounded by interference rings. Inside and outside the focus the cone of rays is exactly similar, and circular in section. It presents no trace of irregular illumination, nor any bright or dark circles. With the second test, when the eye is brought into such a position that it receives the whole pencil of reflected rays, and the opaque screen is gradually drawn across in front of the pupil, the brightness of the surface slowly diminishes, until just as the screen is cutting off the last relic of the cone of rays (Fig. 9), the mirror presents an uniform grayish tint, followed by total darkness, and gives to the eye the sensation of a plane.

Fig. 10.

Caustic of Oblate Spheroidal Mirror.

If, however, the mirror is not spherical, but instead gradually decreases in focal length toward the edge, the following changes result: The image at the best focus is surrounded by a nebulosity, stronger as the deviation from the sphere is greater, and neither can a sharp focus be obtained nor interference fringes seen. In order to include this nebulosity in the image, it will be necessary to push the eye-piece toward the mirror. Before the cone of rays has completed its convergence, the mass of light will be seen to have accumulated at the periphery, and after the focus is past and divergence has commenced, the accumulation will be around the axis. That is, a caustic (Fig. 10) is formed with its summit from the mirror. By the second test, in gradually eclipsing the light coming from the mirror, just before all the rays are obstructed, a part of those which have constituted the nebulosity will escape past the screen (Fig. 11) into the eye, and cause there an extremely exaggerated appearance in relief of the solid superposed upon the true surface beneath. The glass will no longer seem to be a plane, but to have a section as in Fig. [12]. Let us examine by the aid of M. Foucault’s diagrams why it is that the surface seems thus curved. If the dotted line, Fig. [13], represents the section of the mirror, and the solid line a section of a spherical mirror of the same mean focal length, it will be seen that the curves touch at two points, but are separated by an interval elsewhere. If this interval be projected by means of the differences of the ordinates, the resulting curve will be found to be the same as that which the mirror apparently has.

Fig. 11.

Action of the Opaque Screen.

Fig. 12.

Apparent Section of Oblate Spher­oid­al Mirror.

If the opaque screen be drawn a short distance from the mirror, the appearance of the section curve will seem to change, the bottom of the groove (Fig. 12) between the centre and edge advancing inwards, and the mound in the middle growing smaller. If the screen be pushed toward the mirror the reverse takes place, the central mound becoming larger, but the edge decreasing. The reason for these variations becomes apparent by considering the three diagrams, Fig. [14]. The dotted curve in each instance represents the real curve of the mirror described in the last paragraph, while the solid lines are circles drawn with radii progressionally shorter in a, b and c, and represent sections of three spherical mirrors whose focal lengths also progressively shorten.

Fig. 13.

Section of Spherical and Spheroidal Mirrors.

Fig. 14.

Relation of Spheres to Oblate Spheroid.

Fig. 15.

Caustic of Hyperbolic Mirror.

Fig. 16.

Apparent Section of Hyper­bolic Mirror.

When the opaque screen is at a given distance from the mirror under examination, the only parts of the mirror which can officiate well are those which have a curvature corresponding to a radius equal to the same distance. All the other parts seem as if they were covered by projecting circular masses. In looking at Fig. 14, it is plain, then, if the opaque screen is at a maximum distance from the mirror, that the central parts alone will seem to operate, because the two curves (a) only touch there. If the screen is moved toward the mirror the curves (b) will coincide at some point between the centre and edge, while if carried still farther in only the edges touch and the appearance will be as if a large mound were fixed upon the centre. I have been careful in explaining how a surface may thus seem to present entirely different characteristics if examined from points of view which vary slightly in distance, because a knowledge of these facts is of the utmost importance in correcting such an erroneous figure. It is now obvious that the correction will be equally effectual if the mirror be polished with a small rubber on the edge, or on the centre, or partly on each. The only difference in the result will be, that the mean focal length will be increased in the first instance, and decreased in the second, while it will remain unchanged in the third.

If the mirror, instead of having a section like that of an oblate spheroid, should have either an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola, as its section curve, the appearances seen above are reversed. Whilst by the first test there is still an aberration round the image at the best focus, the eye-piece must now be drawn from the mirror to include it. The cone of rays is most dense round the axis inside, and at the periphery outside the focus, and the summit of the caustic (Fig. 15) is turned towards the mirror. The second test shows a section as in Fig. 16, a depression at the centre, and the edges turned backwards. The nature of the movement necessary to reduce the surface to a sphere is very plainly indicated, action on a zone a between the centre and edge. If, however, a parabolic section is required, the zone a must not be entirely removed, and the surface rendered apparently flat, but as much of it must be left as experience shows to be desirable.

Fig. 17.

Action of the Opaque Screen.

Fig. 18.

Apparent Section of Mirror with Rings.

If, in still a fourth instance, the mirror is not formed by the revolution of any regular curve upon its axis, but has upon its surface zones of longer and shorter radius intermixed irregularly, a very common case, the two tests still indicate with precision the parts in fault, and the correction demanded. Thus the mirror seen in section in Fig. 17, when the principal mass of light was obstructed by the opaque screen, would still permit that coming from certain parts to find its way into the eye.

Figure 18 represents an irregular mirror, that was produced in the process of correction of a hyperbolic surface, which had an apparent section like Fig. [16] previously. The zone a had been acted upon with a small local polisher, and the mirror was finished by subsequently softening down b and c with a larger tool.

After having gained from the preceding paragraphs a general idea of the value and nature of these tests at the centre of curvature, a more particular description of their use is desirable. M. Foucault in his methods first brings the mirror to a spherical surface, and then by moving the luminous pin-hole toward the mirror, and correspondingly retracting the eye-piece or opaque screen, carries it, avoiding aberration continually by polishing, through a series of ellipsoidal curvatures, advancing step by step toward the paraboloid of revolution. The length of the apartment, however, soon puts a termination to this gradual system of correction, and he is forced to perform the last steps of the conversion by an empirical process, and eventually to resort to trial in the telescope.

With my mirrors of 150 inches focal length, demanding from the outset a room more than 25 feet long, this successive system had to be abandoned. It was not found feasible to place the lamp in the distant focus of the ellipse—the workshop being less than 30 feet long—and putting the luminous source on stands outside, introduced several injurious complications, not the least of which was currents in the layers of variously refracting air in the apartment. In a still room the density and hygrometric variations in its various parts only give rise to slight embarrassment. The moment, however, that currents are produced, satisfactory examination of a mirror becomes difficult. The air is seen only too easily to move in great spiral convolutions between the mirror and the eye, areolæ of aberration appear around a previously excellent image, and were it not for the second test, any determination of surface would be impossible. By that test the real deviations from truth of figure can be distinguished from the atmospheric, and to a practised eye sufficient indications of necessary changes given. Such a movement as that caused by placing the hand in or under the line of the converging rays, will completely destroy the beauty of an image, and by the second test give origin in the first case to the appearance Fig. 19. In order to be completely exempt at all times from aërial difficulties, it is desirable to have control of a long underground apartment, the openings of which can be tightly closed. As no artificial warmth is needed, there is the minimum of movement in the inclosed air, and conclusions respecting a surface may be arrived at in a very short time. The mirror may also be supported from the ground, so that tremulous vibrations which weary the eye, and interfere with the accuracy of criticism, may be avoided.

Fig. 19.

Atmospheric Motions.

Driven then from observing an image kept continually free from aberration, through advancing ellipsoidal changes, it became necessary to study the gradual increase of deformation, produced by the greater and greater departures from a spherical surface, as the parabola was approached. It was found that a sufficient guide is still provided in these tests, by modifying them properly. The longitudinal aberration of a mirror of small angular opening is easily calculated—being equal to the square of half the aperture, divided by eight times the principal focal length. That is, if a 15 1/2 inch mirror of 150 inches focal length were spherical, and were used to converge parallel rays, those from its edge would reach a focus  5/100 of an inch nearer the mirror than those from its central parts. If now the converse experiment be tried, and a mirror of the same size and focal length which can converge parallel rays, falling on all its parts, to one focus, be examined at the centre of curvature, it gives there an amount of longitudinal aberration  10/100 of an inch, equal to twice the preceding. This latter, then, is the condition at the centre of curvature, to which such mirror must be brought in order to converge parallel rays with exactness. In addition, strict watch must be kept upon the zones intermediate between the centre and edge, both by measurement with diaphragms of their aberration, and better yet, by observation of the regularity of the curve of that apparent solid, Fig. [16], seen by the second test.

This modification of the first test is literally a method of parabolizing by measure, and is capable of great precision when the eye learns to estimate where the exact focus of a zone is. The little irregularities found round the edges of the holes through the tin screen, Fig. [8], are in this respect of material assistance. They show, too, the increased optical or penetrating power that is gained by increase of aperture. Minute peculiarities, not visible under very high powers with a 10 inch diaphragm, become immediately perceptible even with less magnifying when the whole aperture is used, provided the mirror is spherical.

Fig. 20.

Adjusting the Opaque Screen.

In the use of the second test precautions have to be taken, as may be inferred from page [15], to set the opaque screen exactly in the proper position. The best method for ascertaining its location is, having received the image into the eye, placed purposely too near the mirror, to cause the screen to move across the cone of rays from the right towards the left side. A jet black shadow begins to advance at the same time, and in the same direction across the mirror. If the eye is then moved from the mirror sufficiently, this black shadow can be made to originate by the same motion of the screen as before, from the left or opposite side of the mirror. Midway between these extremes there is a point where the advance is from neither side. This is the true position for the screen when it is desired to see the imperfections of the surface in highly exaggerated relief, as in Fig. 20, which represents the appearance of Fig. [12].[2]

The interpretation of the lights and shadows upon the face of a mirror in this test is always easy, and the observer is not likely to mistake an elevation for a depression, if he bears in mind the fact that the surface under examination must always be regarded as illuminated by an oblique light coming from a source on the side opposite to that from which the screen advances, coming for instance from the left hand side, in the above description.

In practice, the diaphragms commonly used for a 15 1/2 inch mirror have been as small as the light from the unsilvered surface would allow. A six inch aperture at the centre, a ring an inch wide round the edge, and a two inch zone midway between the two.

e. Machines.

In the beginning of this section the difficulties into which I fell with Lord Rosse’s machine were stated. These caused it at the time to be abandoned. A machine based on the same idea as Mr. Lassell’s beautiful apparatus was next constructed. It varied, however, in this, that the hypocycloidal curve was described partly by the rotation of the mirror, and partly by the motions of the polisher—the axes of the spindles carrying the two being capable either of coincidence or lateral separation to a moderate extent. A great deal of time and labor was expended in grinding and polishing numerous mirrors with it, but still the difficulty that had been so annoying in the former machine persisted. Frequently, in fact generally, from six to eight zones of unequal focal length were visible, although on some occasions when the mirror was hyperbolic, the number was reduced to two. At first it was supposed that the fault lay with the polishing, the pitch accumulating irregularly from being of improper softness, for it was found to be particularly prone to heap up at the centre. But after I had introduced a method of fine grinding with elutriated hone powder, which enabled the glass to reject light before the pitch polishing, it became evident that the zones were connected with the mode of motion of the mechanism. Many changes were made in the speed of its various elements, and a contrivance to control the irregular motion of the polisher introduced, but a really fine and uniform parabolic surface was never obtained, the very best showing when finished zones of different focal lengths. Although it cannot be said that I have tried this machine thoroughly, for Mr. Lassell has produced specula of exquisite defining power with it, and must have avoided these imperfections to a great extent, yet the evident necessity of complicating the movement[3] considerably, to avoid the polishing in rings, led me to adopt an entirely different construction, which was used until quite recently. Although it has now been replaced by another machine, which is still better in principle, and gives fine results much more quickly, yet as it produced one parabolic surface that bore a power of more than 1000, and as it serves to introduce the process of grinding, it is worthy of description. The action of machines for grinding and polishing has been thoroughly examined in my workshop, no less than seven different ones having been made at various times.

The machine, which is a simplification of Lord Rosse’s, was intended to give spiral strokes. It differed from the original, however, in demanding a changeable stroke, and in the absence of the lateral motion. In another most essential feature it varied from both that and Mr. Lassell’s, the mirror was always uppermost while polishing, and being uncounterpoised escaped to as great an extent as possible from the effects of irregular pressure. To any one who has studied the deformations of a reflecting surface, and knows how troublesome it is to support a mirror properly, the advantage is apparent.

Fig. 21.

Polishing Machine.

The construction is as follows: A stout vertical shaft, a, Fig. 21, carries at its top a circular table b, upon which the polisher c is screwed. Below a band-wheel d is fixed. Above the table, at a distance of four inches, a horizontal bar e is arranged, so as to move back and forward in the direction of its length, and to carry with it by means of a screw l, the mirror m, and its iron back or chuck n. The bar is moved by a connecting rod f, attached to it at one end, and at the other to a pin g moving a slot. This slot is in a crank h, carried by a vertical shaft i, near the former one a. The band-wheel k is connected with the foot power, Fig. 22. The machine, except those parts liable to wear by friction, is made of wood. The ends o o′ of the horizontal bar e, are defended by brass tubes working in mahogany, and have even now but little shake, though many hundred thousands of reciprocations have been made.

Fig. 22.

The Foot Power.

The foot power consists of an endless band with wooden treads a a′, passing at one end of the apparatus over iron wheels b b′, which carry the band-wheel c upon their axle. At the other end it goes over the rollers d d′. Two pairs of intermediate wheels e e′, serve to sustain the weight of the man or animal working in it. The treads are so arranged that they interlock, and form a platform, which will not yield downwards. Owing to its inclination when a weight is put on the platform a′, it immediately moves from b toward d and the band-wheel turns. By a moderate exertion, equivalent to walking up a slight incline at a slow rate, a power more than sufficient to polish a 15 1/2 inch mirror is obtained. This machine, in which very little force is lost in overcoming friction, is frequently employed for dairy use, and is moved commonly in the State of New York by a sheep. I have generally myself walked in the one used by me, and have travelled some days, during five hours, more than ten miles.

In order to give an idea of the method of using a grinding and polishing machine, the following extract from the workshop note-book is introduced:—

“A disk of plate glass 15 1/2 inches in diameter, and 1 1/4 inch thick was procured. It had been polished flat on both sides, so that its internal constitution might be seen.[4] It was fastened upon the table b of the machine, by four blocks of wood as at c, Fig. [21]. Underneath the glass were three thick folds of blanket, 15 inches in diameter, to prevent scratching of the lower face, and avoid risk of fracture. A convex disk of lead weighing 40 pounds having been cast, was laid upon the upper surface of the glass, and then the screw l was depressed so as to catch in a perforated iron plate n, at the back of the lead m, and press downward strongly.

“Emery as coarse as the head of a pin having been introduced, through a hole in the lead, motion was commenced and continued for half an hour, an occasional supply of emery being given. The machine made 150 eight-inch cross strokes, and the mirror 50 revolutions per minute. The grinder m was occasionally restrained from turning by the hand. At the end of the time the detritus was washed away, and an examination with the gauge made. A spot 11 inches in diameter, and  1/60 of an inch deep, was found to have been ground out. The same process was continued at intervals for ten hours, measurements with the gauge being frequently made. The concave was then sufficiently deep. The leaden grinder was kept of the right convexity by beating it on the back when necessary. A finer variety of coarse emery, and after that flour emery were next put on, each for an hour. These left the surface moderately smooth, and nearly of the right focal length. The leaden grinder was then dismissed, and the iron one, Fig. [6], put in its stead. The mirror was removed from its place, and ground upon a large piece of flat glass for ten minutes, to produce a circular outline to the concavity. It was cemented with soft pitch to the concave iron disk, the counterpart of Fig. [6], and again recentred on the blanketed table b. Emeries of 3 and 20 seconds, and 1, 3, 10, 30, 60 minutes’ elutriation were worked on it, an hour each. The rate of cross motion was reduced to 25 per minute to avoid heating, the mirror still revolving once for every three cross strokes. The screw pressure of l was stopped. This produced a surface exquisitely fine, semi-transparent, and appearing as if covered with a thin film of dried milk. It could reflect the light from objects outside the window until an incidence of 45 degrees was reached, and at night was found to be bright enough for a preliminary examination at the centre of curvature.

“The polisher was constructed in the usual way (page [12]), and being smeared with rouge was fastened to the table b, where the mirror had been. The latter warmed in water to 120° F., was then put face downwards upon the former, and the screw l so lowered as to cause no pressure. The machine was allowed to make 20 four-inch cross strokes per minute, and the polisher to revolve once for every three strokes. The mirror being unconstrainedly supported on the polisher, was irregularly rotated by hand, or rather prevented from rotating with the polisher. The tendency of this method is to produce an almost spherical surface. To change it to a paraboloid, it was only necessary when the glass was polished all over to increase the length of the stroke to 8 inches, and continue working fifteen minutes at a time, examining in the intervals by the tests at the centre of curvature. The production of a polish all over occupied about two hours, but the correction of figure took more time, on account of the frequent examinations, and the absolute necessity of allowing the mirror to come back to a state of equilibrium from which it had been disturbed when worked on the machine.” I have seen a mirror which was parabolic when just off the machine, by cooling over night become spherical. And these heat changes are often succeeded by other slower molecular movements, which continue to modify a surface for many days after.

This correction, where time and not length of stroke is the governing agent, has once or twice been accomplished in fifteen minutes, but sometimes has cost several hours. If the figure should have become a hyperboloid of revolution, that is, have its edge zones too long in comparison with the centre, it is only necessary to shorten the stroke to bring it back to the sphere, or even to overpass that and produce a surface in which at the centre of curvature the edge zones have too short a focal length (Fig. [12]).

Very much less trouble from zones of unequal focal length was experienced after this machine and system of working were adopted. This was owing probably partly to the element of irregularity in the rotation of the mirror, and partly to the fact that the surface is kept spherical until polished, and is then rapidly changed to the paraboloid. Where the adjustments of an apparatus are made so as to attempt to keep a surface parabolic for some hours, there is a strong tendency for zones to appear, and of a width bearing a fixed relation to the stroke.

The method of producing reflecting surfaces next to be spoken of, is however that which has finally been adopted as the best of all, being capable of forming mirrors which are as perfect as can be, and yet only requiring a short time. It is the correction of a surface by local retouches. In the account published by M. Foucault, it appears that he is in France the inventor of this improvement.

Fig. 23.

Local Polisher.

Fig. 24.

Section of Optician’s Post.

The mode of practising the retouches is as follows: Several disks of wood, as a, Fig. 23, varying from 8 inches to  1/2 an inch in diameter, are to be provided, and covered with pitch or rosin of the usual hardness, in squares as at c, on one side.[5] On the other a low cylindrical handle b, is to be fixed. The mirror a, Fig. 24, having been fined with the succession of emeries before described, is laid face upward on several folds of blanket, arranged upon a circular table, screwed to an isolated post in the centre of the apartment, which permits the operator to move completely round it. An ordinary barrel has generally supplied the place of the post, the head c, Fig. 24, serving for the circular table, and the rim b preventing the mirror sliding off. The other end is fastened to the floor by four cleets d d´.

The large polisher is first moved over the surface in straight strokes upon every chord, and a moderate pressure is exerted. As soon as the mirror is at all brightened, perhaps in five minutes, the operation is to be suspended, and an examination at the centre of curvature made. By carefully turning round, the best diameter for support is to be found, and marked with a rat-tail file on the edge, and then the curve of the mirror ascertained. If it is nearly spherical, as will be the case if the grinding has been conducted with care and irregular heating avoided, it is to be replaced on the blanketed support, and the previous action kept up until a fine polish, free from dots like stippling, is attained. This stage should occupy three or four hours. Another examination should reveal the same appearances as the preceding. It is next necessary to lengthen the radius of curvature of the edge zones, or what is much better shorten that of the centre, so as to convert the section curve into a parabola. This is accomplished by straight strokes across every diameter of the face, at first with a 4 inch, then with a 6 inch, and finally with the 8 inch polisher. Examinations must, however, be made every five or ten minutes, to determine how much lateral departure from a direct diametrical stroke is necessary, to render the curve uniform out to the edge. Care must be taken always to warm the polisher, either in front of a fire or over a spirit lamp, before using it.

Perhaps the most striking feature in this operation is that the mirror presents continually a curve of revolution, and is not diversified with undulations like a ruffle. By walking steadily round the support, on the top of which the mirror is placed, there seems to be no tendency for such irregularities to arise.

If the correction for spherical aberration should have proceeded too far, and the mirror become hyperbolic, the sphere can be recovered by working a succession of polishers of increasing size on the zone a, Fig. [16], intermediate between the centre and edge, causing their centres to pass along every chord that can be described tangent to the zone.

A most perfect and rapid control can thus be exercised over a surface, and an uniform result very quickly attained. It becomes a pleasant and interesting occupation to produce a mirror. But two effects have presented themselves in this operation, which unfortunately bar the way to the very best results. In the first place the edge parts of such mirrors, for more than half an inch all around, bend backwards and become of too great focal length, and the rays from these parts cannot be united with the rest forming the image. In the second place, the surface, when critically examined by the second test, is found to have a delicate wavy or fleecy appearance, not seen in machine polishing.[6] Although the variations from the true curve implied by these latter greatly exaggerated imperfections are exceedingly small, and do not prevent a thermometer bulb in the sunshine appearing like a disk surrounded by rings of interference, yet they must divert some undulations from their proper direction, or else they would not be visible. All kinds of strokes have been tried, straight, sweeping circular, hypocycloidal, &c. without effecting their removal. M. Foucault, who used a paper polisher, also encountered them. Eventually they were imputed to the unequal pressure of the hand, and in consequence a machine to overcome the two above mentioned faults of manual correction was constructed.

Fig. 25.

Machine for Local Corrections.

The mirror a, is carried by an iron chuck or table b, covered with a triple fold of blanket, and is prevented from slipping off by four cleets c c′. The vertical shaft d passes through a worm-wheel e, the endless screw of which f, is driven by a band g, from the primary shaft h. At i is the band-wheel for connection to the foot-power. At one end of the primary shaft is firmly fixed the cogwheel k, which drives the crank-shaft l. Attached to the horizontal part of l, is the crank-pin m. The two bolts n n′ move in a slot, so that the crank-pin may be set at any distance from 0 to 2 inches, out of line with l. Above, the crank-pin carries one end of the bar o, the other end passing through an elliptical hole in the oak-block p. Down the middle of the bar runs a long slot, through which the screw-pin q passes, and which permits q to be brought over any zone from the centre to the edge of the mirror a. It is retained by the bolts r r′, which are tapped into s. The local polisher is seen at t. The curve which the centre of the local polisher describes upon the face of the mirror, varies with the adjustments. Fig. 26 is a reduction from one traced by the machine, the overlapping being seen on the left side. The mirror is not tightly confined by the cleets c c′, for that would certainly injure the figure, but performs a slow motion of rotation, so that in no two successive strokes are the same parts of the edge pressed against them.

Fig. 26.

Hypocycloidal Curve.

The local polishers are made of lead, alloyed with a small proportion of antimony, and are 8, 6, and 4 inches in diameter, respectively. The largest and smallest are most used, the former on account of its size polishing most quickly, but the latter giving the truest surface. The rosin that covers them is just indentable by the thumb nail, and is arranged in a novel manner. The leaden basis, as seen at t, Fig. [25], is perforated in many places with holes, which permit evaporation, serve for the introduction of water where needed, and allow the rosin to spread freely. Grooves are made from one aperture to another, and the rosin thus divided into irregular portions. The effects of the production of heat are in this way avoided.

The mirror may be ground and fined on this machine, in the same manner as on that described at page [21], or it may be ground with a small tool 8 inches in diameter, as recently suggested by M. Foucault, the results in the latter case being just as good a surface of revolution as in the former. It is best polished with the 8 inch, and a moderate pressure may be given by the screw q, if the pitch is not too soft. This, however, tends to leave an excavated place at the centre of the mirror, the size depending on the stroke of the crank m, which should be about 2 inches. The pin q ought to be half way from the centre to the edge of the mirror, but must be occasionally moved right or left an inch along the slot. When the surface is approaching a perfect polish, the warmed 4 inch polisher must be put in the place of the 8 inch. The pin q must be set exactly half-way between the centre and edge of the mirror, and the crank must have a stroke of two inches radius. The polisher then just goes up to the centre of the glass surface with one edge, and to the periphery with the other, while the outer excursion of the inner edge and inner excursion of the outer edge meet, and neutralize one another at a midway point. Wherever the edge of a polisher changes direction many times in succession, on a surface, a zone is sure to form, unless avoided in this manner. All the foregoing description is for a 15 1/2 inch mirror.

By this system of local polishing the difficulties of heat, distribution of polishing powders, irregular contact of the rosin, &c. that render the attainment of a fine figure so uncertain usually, entirely disappear. A spherical surface is produced as above described, and afterwards by moving q towards the edge, and at the same time increasing the stroke, it is converted into a paraboloid. The fleecy appearance spoken of on a former page is not perceived, and the surface is good almost up to the extreme edge.

(4.) Eye-Pieces, Plane Mirrors and Test Objects.

The telescope is furnished with several eye-pieces of various construction, giving magnifying powers from 75 to 1200, or if it were desired even higher. For the medium powers 300 and 600 Ramsden, or rather positive eye-pieces have been adopted. They differ, however, from the usual form in being achromatic, that is, each plano-convex is composed of a flint and crown, arranged according to formulas calculated by Littrow. In this way a large flat field and absence of color are secured, and the fine images yielded by the mirror are not injured. For the higher powers, single achromatic lenses are used, and for the highest of all a Ross microscope.

With these means it has been found that the parabolic surfaces yielded by the processes before described, will define test objects excellently. Of close double stars they will separate such as γ² Andromedæ, and show the colors of the components. In the case of unequal stars which seem to be more severe tests, they can show the close companion of Sirius—discovered by Mr. Alvan Clark’s magnificent refractor—the sixth component of θ¹ Orionis, and a multitude of other difficult objects.

As an example of light collecting power, Debillisima between ε and 5 Lyræ is found to be quintuple, as first noticed by Mr. Lassell. In the 18 1/2 inch specula of Herschel, it was only recorded as double, and, according to Admiral Smyth, Lord Rosse did not notice the fourth and fifth components. Jupiter’s moons show with beautiful disks, and their difference in diameter is very marked. As for the body of that planet, it is literally covered with belts up to the poles. The bright and dark spots on Venus, and the fading illumination of her inner edge, and its irregularities are perceived even when the air is far from tranquil. Stars are often seen as disks, and without any wings or tails, unless indeed the mirror should be wrongly placed, so that the best diameter for support is not in the perpendicular plane, passing through the axis of the tube.

It has been found that no advantage other than the decrease of atmospheric influence on the image, results from cutting down the aperture of these mirrors by diaphragms, while the disadvantage of reducing the separating power, is perceived at the same time. Faint objects can be better seen with the whole surface than with a reduced aperture, and this though apparently a property common to all reflectors and object glasses is not so in reality. A defective edge will often cause the whole field to be filled with a pale milky light, which will extinguish the fainter stars. Good definition is just as important for faint as for close objects.

The properties of these mirrors have been best shown by the excellence of the photographs taken with them. Although these are not as sharp as the image seen in the telescope, yet it must not be supposed that an imperfect mirror will give just as good pictures. A photograph which is magnified to 3 feet, represents a power of 380. As the original negative taken at the focus of the mirror is not quite 1 1/2 inch in diameter when the moon is at its mean distance, it has to be enlarged about 25 times, and has therefore to be very sharp to bear it.

The light collecting power of an unsilvered mirror is quite surprising. With a 15 1/2 inch, the companion of α Lyræ can be perceived, though it is only of the eleventh magnitude. The moon and other bright objects are seen with a purity highly pleasing to the eye, some parts being even more visible than after silvering.

In order to finish this description, one part more of the optical apparatus requires to be noticed—the plane mirrors. In the Newtonian reflector the image is rejected out at the side of the tube by a flat surface placed at 45° with the optical axis of the large concave.[7] If this secondary mirror is either convex or concave, it modifies the image injuriously, causing a star to look like a cross, and this though the curvature be so slight as hardly to be perceptible by ordinary means. For a long time I used a piece 3 × 5 inches, which was cut from the centre of a large looking-glass accidentally broken, but eventually found that by grinding three pieces of 6 inches in diameter against one another, and polishing them on very hard pitch, a nearer approach to a true plane could be made. They were tested by being put in the telescope, and observing whether the focus was lengthened or shortened, and also by trial on a star. When sufficiently good to bear these tests, a piece of the right size was cut out with a diamond, from the central parts.