EARLY ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE.
The Transition.—At the close of the Norman period, the quality of the masonry was very good, and the workmen had learnt how to economise their materials. The improvement continued until the work reached a high degree of perfection. The mouldings, the ornament, the sculpture, and all other details are of a lighter style, and more highly finished. The architecture that remains of this period is aptly termed “Transitional.” The transition, from the round-arched Norman style, with its heavy and massive appearance, and its strongly-marked horizontal lines, to the graceful Early English style, with its prominent vertical lines, is very gradual, and the first step in this direction was the introduction to general use of the pointed arch. This is considered the most characteristic element of Gothic architecture—its ever-increasing use permitting the slenderness of proportion, lightness, and loftiness of effect to be carried out to a marvellous extent.
Professor Freeman has traced the adoption of the pointed arch in Western Europe to influence of Saracenic architecture, which was extended in the West through the Crusades.
In the early examples, the features and general characteristics of the buildings are, in the main, the same as in the Norman style, but with the pointed arch employed in place of the round-headed one.
Gothic Architecture.—This term was originally applied to the mediæval styles at the time of the Renaissance. It was given as a term of contempt when it was the fashion to write Latin and to expect it to become the universal language.
English Gothic is usually divided into three periods or styles, viz.: Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular, prevailing (approximately) during the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries respectively, although there was no strict division between them.
Early English Reigns of Richard I., John and Henry III. (A.D. 1189-1272).—The characteristics of this style as compared with the Norman are, “the comparative lightness of the structures, the long, narrow, lancet-shaped, pointed windows, the boldly projecting buttresses and pinnacles, the acute pitch of the roof, and generally the variety, the beauty of proportion, and the singular grace and vigour of the ornaments.”
Internally, we have pointed arches, supported on slender and lofty pillars. When the style had become fully established, the builders appear to have revelled in it even to exuberance and excess.
Church building had received a severe check in the reign of John, during the interdict of 16 years that rested upon the kingdom, but soon after the accession of Henry III., who was himself an enthusiast, architecture revived and developed very rapidly.
One of the chief characteristics of the Early English styles consists in the mouldings, in which a new principle was embodied. This was the idea of obtaining effective combinations of light and shade by means of “undercutting.” Such a combination of projecting rounds and deep hollows would present to the eye the appearance of alternate bands of light and shade, the depths of the hollows causing them to appear almost black.
The most characteristic ornament of this style is the “dog-tooth” or “tooth” ornament. (Pl. [34], Figs. 9 and 11.) It consists of a series of flowers, each of the four petals, bent backwards, the division between the petals being placed in the middle of the sides of the pyramid thus formed.
A very striking peculiarity is the foliage used in sculpture, which is technically known as “stiff-leaf foliage,” though the stiffness is in the stems rather than in the leaves. The latter take the form of a conventional three-lobed foliage. (Pl. [35], Fig. 1.) It copied no individual leaf, “though it has all the essential qualities of Nature.” Its use gives great richness of effect to the building, and is supposed to have been developed by gradual change from the Classical Orders, chiefly from the Ionic Volute.
The Crocket was also introduced as a new feature in this style. It is an ornament used to decorate the edges of the architectural units, and is supposed to be derived from the crook of a bishop’s pastoral staff. In fine Early English work the Abacus (Pl. [35], Fig. 1A) is circular, and is deeply undercut.
The Pillars are usually round or octagonal. They are built of large blocks of dressed stone, and so differ from the Norman pillars, which consisted of rubble with a facing of stone. In the more important buildings they are formed of four or more slender shafts of Purbeck marble, which are placed around a large circular column of stone, and their dark colour causes them to “stand out” against the paler central stone pier.
The Arches vary in form from a very blunt to a very sharp point, but they are generally acutely pointed, and are often richly moulded, as in Westminster Abbey. The mouldings, however, are the safest guide to the style, as the form of the pointed arch largely depends on convenience. As a rule, they are generally more acutely pointed in the cathedrals and large churches, whilst they are broader in small churches.
The Windows in earlier examples are plain, long, and narrow, with acutely pointed heads. They are frequently spoken of as “lancet-shaped.”
The earliest form is that of a single light, with arched head and without moulding of any kind, external or internal. (Pl. [34], Fig. 1.) Windows of four lights are occasionally met with, but generally they consist of three, five, or seven lights, rising in height to the central one. They are often included under an arched moulding called a “dripstone.” (Pl. [34], Figs. 2, 3, 4A.)
Square-headed windows are not uncommon, but sometimes in these cases there is an arch or a dripstone in the form of an arch over the window.
When two lights were combined under one arch, a blank space called a “tympanum” was left between the heads of the lights and the arch; but in time this space began to be pierced with another small light, generally in the form of a circle, a trefoil, or a quatrefoil, which both relieved the blank space and admitted more light. (Pl. [34], Fig. 3.) When this is done in the stone work, it is called plate tracery, and from this is developed the window tracery of later times.
The Normans were doubtful about their skill in making ceilings of stone to cover large spaces, and consequently they generally built timber roofs. Over small spaces, however, they erected stone ceilings or “vaults,” which were quite plain. In this period the vaults are distinguished by having ribs in the angles of the groins, with carved masses of foliage in stone, called bosses, at the intersection of the ribs. (Pl. [34], Fig. 5.)
The Buttresses (Pl. [35], Figs. 4, 5, and 6), instead of being merely flat strips of masonry, slightly projecting from the wall, as in the Norman Period, have now a bold projection, generally diminished upwards by stages, and terminate in a plain slope or a gable. By the use of this form of buttress it was possible to reduce the thickness of the wall. The corner of the building had a pair of buttresses at right angles to the wall, as if each wall had been continued beyond the point of junction—never one buttress placed diagonally, as in subsequent periods.
Flying Buttresses at this period became prominent features in large buildings. They are arches springing from the wall buttresses to the walls, and they carry off the weight and consequent “thrust” of the roof, over the central space, obliquely down to the external buttress, and so down to the ground.
The Roof was formed of timber, and was covered with the material most easily procurable in the district. A thatch of straw or reeds was probably the most common; shingles were procured where oak was plentiful, and slabs of stone and slate or tiles where they were obtainable. Lead was generally used only on very important buildings.
Spires were also often constructed of timber, and where the framework has become warped and twisted by the weather, we have a grotesque appearance, as in the twisted spire of Chesterfield.
PLATE 34.
(Fig. 1): Simple lancet window. (Fig. 2): A triple-lancet window from Warmington, in Northants (about A.D. 1230). The lights are placed under an arch or dripstone with the “eye” solid. (Fig. 3): A window of 103two lights, with a quatrefoil of plate tracery in the head, and a dripstone, terminated by the characteristic ornament called a “mask” or a “buckle,” from Charlton-on-Otmoor, Oxfordshire (about A.D. 1240). (Fig. 4): Five lancet windows under one arch, with the spandrils pierced, forming what are called the “eyes” of the window, from Irthlingborough, Northants (about A.D. 1280). (Fig. 5): Early English vault, groined, with moulded ribs on the groins only, from Salisbury Cathedral (about A.D. 1240). (Fig. 6): Pointed arch in the porch, from Barnack, Northants (about A.D. 1250). (Fig. 7): A trefoil-arched doorway. (Fig. 8): Characteristic Early English moulding (in section). (Fig. 9): “Dog-tooth” ornament in profile, showing how the name probably arose. (Fig. 10): A transitional tower and spire, from St. Denis, Sleaford, Lincolnshire. It shows a band of interlaced, round-headed arches, while in the belfry light it exhibits the pointed arch. The four corners are filled up with half-pyramids inclining from the angles. This angle-pyramid, which marks the transition from the square form of the tower to the pointed form of the spire, is known as the broach, and the “broach-spire” is quite the characteristic form assumed by the early stone spires in England. (Fig. 11): “Dog-tooth” ornament, front view. (Fig. 12): Door with “shouldered” arch, from Lutton, Huntingdonshire (about A.D. 1200).
PLATE. 35.
(Fig. 1): Capitals in Lincoln Cathedral (A.D. 1220), showing the moulded abacus (A) with undercutting, “stiff-leaf” foliage, and the “dog-tooth” ornament used between the shafts. (Fig. 2): Transitional Norman capital, at Oakham Castle, Rutland (built between A.D. 1165 and 1191). An excellent specimen of transitional work, retaining a good deal of the Norman character, but late and rich. (Fig. 3): Moulded capital in the form of a plain bell reversed, from Westminster Abbey (A.D. 1250). (Figs. 4, 5, 6): Buttresses. (Fig. 7): Flying buttresses, from Westminster Abbey. (Figs. 8 and 9): Plans of Early English columns.
[MIXED MAIL AND PLATE ARMOUR.]
Arms and armour, with all the accompaniments of chivalry, during the fourteenth century reached a pitch of great splendour. The French Wars and the extravagance of costume at the Courts of Edward III. and Richard II. encouraged this. From the constant use of armour in the wars and in the tournament, many modifications were found necessary to render it more comfortable and also more thoroughly protective. Towards the end of the thirteenth century additions had been made to the mail for the latter purpose, and this practice was continued in the fourteenth century by the addition of pieces of “plate” or sheet steel, until in the early part of the fifteenth century, knights were clothed in complete suits of plate armour.
The change was, however, very gradual, and the evolution may be best traced by considering it as taking place in certain fairly definite stages. The following is the usual division adopted:
1st Period: c. 1300 A.D.—c. 1325 A.D. 2nd Period: c. 1325 A.D.—c. 1335 A.D. 3rd Period: c. 1335 A.D.—c. 1360 A.D. 4th Period: c. 1360 A.D.—c. 1405 A.D. 5th or Transition Period: c. 1405 A.D.—c. 1410 A.D.
1st Period: c. 1300 A.D.—c. 1325 A.D. During this period the mail armour remained practically the same, but steel plates were fastened by straps (1) over the back of the upper arm and the front of the fore-arm (the parts most exposed to a blow); (2) over the shins (jambarts) and continued over the front of the feet as a series of metal plates riveted to one another, called sollerets; (3) in front of the shoulders and to protect the armpits (roundles.)
Gauntlets or armoured gloves (with separate fingers) were introduced about this time.
The surcoat was worn shorter and with less fulness about the body.
2nd Period: c. 1325 A.D.—c. 1335 A.D. The surcoat was superseded by a garment called a cyclas, which was slit open and laced up at the sides, and was much shorter in front than behind. (See Fig. 1, Pl. [36].) It thus shows the escalloped and fringed border of a padded garment or gambeson worn between the cyclas and the mail hauberk, while below the mail was worn another padded garment—the haketon.
The whole must have formed a very cumbersome combination. The plates on the arms were enlarged so as to form cylinders, encasing the limbs, opening with a hinge at one side and fastening with buckle and strap or rivets at the other side. Those covering the fore-arm were worn under the sleeve of the hauberk, which was often cut off below the elbow.
Plates were still worn on the knees, legs, and feet.
The Basinet, a comparatively light and close-fitting helmet, was worn without a mail coif beneath it; but to protect the neck a kind of tippet of mail called the camail was fastened by laces to the basinet, and hung down over the breast, back, and shoulders. The basinet was open at the face or had a movable face-piece (visor or ventaille). In battle it was worn with the face-piece, but for the tournament the visor was removed and the heaume or great helmet, with its crest and mantling, placed over it.
The shield was small and of the “heater” shape, and “pryck” spurs gave place to spurs with rowels.
3rd Period: c. 1335 A.D.—c. 1360 A.D. Splinted armour, i.e., armour consisting of small overlapping plates (like the shell of a lobster), was introduced, and a garment called the pourpoint (like a haketon, but made of finer material, faced with silk or ornamented with needlework) was worn over the hauberk.
The surcoat was again worn, shortened to the knee and shaped to fit the body closely above the waist. The armorial bearings of the wearer were embroidered in silks upon it.
It must be remembered that there was no uniform—in the modern sense—for knights and men-at-arms, but each dressed as he liked; and there was consequently a great variety of arms and armour in a single troop.
4th or Camail Period: c. 1360 A.D.—c. 1405 A.D. This is called the camail period because by this time the custom of wearing the camail had become universal. The legs and arms were now entirely encased in plates of armour, with sollerets on the feet, which were acutely pointed at the toes in imitation of the prevailing civil fashion. The hauberk was shortened to the middle of the thigh, was sleeveless, and was worn over a globular breastplate. Roundles disappeared from the shoulders and elbows, and laminated plates took their place, giving freer movement to the limbs.
The sleeveless surcoat was now called the jupon. It fitted tightly over the hauberk, and was slightly shorter than it, so that the lower edge of the hauberk showed behind it. The jupon was made of a rich material, blazoned with the arms of the wearer, and was escalloped along the bottom edge.
The long, straight sword, with decorated hilt and scabbard, was hung on the left side from a richly ornamented belt, and on the right side was suspended a small, pointed dagger called the misericorde.
After 1380 the basinet was made shorter, but the great heaume still continued to be worn, often being strengthened by an additional plate on the left side, where the wearer was likely to receive blows.
The sculptured effigy of the Black Prince on his tomb at Canterbury is a typical representation of a knight of the camail period.
5th or Transition Period: c. 1405 A.D.—c. 1410 A.D. There are a few examples of knights clothed entirely in plate armour, with the exception of the basinet and camail, and this is therefore called the Transition Period leading to the time of the complete adoption of plate armour.
PLATE 36.
(Fig. 1): Brass of Sir John Creke, in Westley Waterless Church, Cambridgeshire, 1325. It shows a pointed and fluted basinet with the camail of “banded mail” fastened to it. The hauberk, also of banded mail, is seen just above the knees, and the legs and arms are covered with the same kind of armour. The roundles, taking the form of lions’ faces, are seen at the shoulders and elbow. The upper arms are covered with plates over the mail, and the fore-arm covered in the same way with plates, which pass under the 107 short sleeves of the hauberk. The cyclas is seen to be loose, girded at the waist, and shorter in front than behind. Under it is shown the escalloped edge of the gambeson; beneath that the pointed ending of the hauberk, and under that again the folds of the haketon may be seen reaching to the knee-caps. Jamberts or shin pieces cover the shins, and are continued to cover the feet as sollerets. (Fig. 2): A heaume or great helmet, worn in the tournament over the basinet and resting upon the shoulders (1375). (Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6): Shafted weapons of the period. (Fig. 3): A bill, also called a fauchard or guisarme, of the time of Richard II. (From a MS.) (Figs. 4 and 5): Pikes. (Fig. 6): A pole-axe (the voulge). (Fig. 7): A knight wearing a gambeson, from the monumental effigy of Sir Robert Shurland, c. 1300 (after Ashdown). (Fig. 8): A heaume, from the brass of Sir Hugh Hastings, 1347 A.D. It shows the mantling, or little mantle, hanging over the back of the helmet, the crest, and the torse, or wreath, hiding the junction of the crest with the helmet. (Fig. 9): A piece of armour, showing the “splints” or small overlapping plates in the elbow joint. (Fig. 10): A basinet, showing the loops by which the camail is fastened to it. (Fig. 11): Heaume and crest of Sir Geoffrey Luterell, from the Luterell Psalter, 1345 A.D. It has a round top, a movable visor, and a crest on which are displayed the wearer’s “arms.” (Fig. 12): A “snout-nosed” basinet with movable visor or ventaille of the time of Richard II., with the visor raised. (Fig. 13): The same with the visor lowered, as on the battlefield. (Fig. 14): The brass of Sir Robert Symborne, in Little Horkesley Church, Essex, 1391 A.D., showing the arms and armour of a knight of the camail period. The head is covered with a conical basinet (without a face-piece), to which the camail of chain mail is fastened. The lower edge of the hauberk is shown below the close-fitting, sleeveless jupon which covers the body. The arms, legs, and feet are covered with plate armour, and the laminated plates which superseded roundles are seen at the shoulders and elbows. The hands are protected by gauntlets, and the knight is armed with long, straight sword and misericorde. (Fig. 15): A mace, from a MS., c. 1350.