PREHISTORIC POTTERY AND FUNERAL CUSTOMS.
Neolithic men (of the Later Stone Age) buried their dead in the caves which they had used for dwellings, or in stone chambers, probably representing the huts in which they lived. Each of these was used as a vault, common to the family or tribe, for they are found containing skeletons of all ages. The dead were buried in the tomb as they died, in a contracted or crouching position, laid upon their sides, probably due to their sleeping in that position, and not at full length on a bed. Implements of various kinds, arrow heads, celts and pottery, were frequently placed in the tombs, and were probably intended for the use of the dead. The tombs were then covered with stones and earth, forming mounds (also known as barrows and tumuli), which were usually long and oval in plan.
Domestic animals were slaughtered, and a feast was made after the interment in honour of the dead.
In the Bronze Age, there was a striking change in the custom of burial, probably the sign of the introduction of a new faith. The dead were burned on a funeral pile, and with them were burned their belongings—the various articles and implements of daily use—and the burnt remains were gathered up with the calcined bones and ashes and placed in an urn. Sometimes this urn was placed upright, and at other times it was inverted over the ashes.
As in former times, a mound was carefully raised, covering the urn and its contents, and the memory of the dead was preserved by periodic feasts, after each of which earth or stone was added to the top of the mound, each feast being represented by a layer of the broken and burnt bones of the animals consumed. These barrows of the Bronze Age were generally circular in plan.
Cremation did not, however, altogether abolish the older practice of burying. It is evident that both customs were carried on simultaneously. Hundreds of these mounds have been carefully opened at various times and the contents investigated, and, in almost every case, earthen-ware vessels of various forms and sizes have been found. It is entirely to these grave mounds that we are indebted for the examples of prehistoric pottery that are preserved in our museums.
There are four classes of pottery of these early times:—
1. Sepulchral or Cinerary Urns, which have been made for, and have contained or been inverted over, calcined human bones.
2. Drinking Cups, which are supposed to have contained some liquid to be placed in the grave.
3. Food vessels (so called), which are supposed to have contained an offering of food, and which are more usually found with unburnt bodies than along with interments by cremation.
4. Immolation Urns (or Incense Cups), very small vessels found only with burnt bones, and usually containing bones and ashes also, placed in the mouths of, or close by, the larger cinerary urns. It has been suggested that these were simply small urns, intended to receive the ashes of the infant, perhaps sacrificed at the death of its mother. They are also known as incense cups, and are supposed by some to have been used to carry the sacred fire with which to light the funeral pile, or as censers in the funeral ceremonies.
These vessels differ much in size and ornamentation, and in the quality of the clay from which they are formed.
In the examination of barrows, the spot where the funeral pyre has been made can often be detected by the burnt soil there. It is considered probable that, while the body was burning, the clay urn was placed on the funeral fire and then baked.
“Drinking Cups” are usually burnt much harder than the other vessels.
Most of the vessels are decorated in a rude fashion with lines or figures, probably drawn by a pointed instrument or comb whilst the clay was soft.
They were made by hand, and are often very uneven and crudely formed.
PLATE 3.
(Fig. 1): Food vessel of the prevailing type, ornamented with dots and lines, forming saw-like patterns around it. (From Greenwell’s British Barrows.) (Fig. 2): Immolation urn or incense cup, covered with a pattern. (British Museum.) (Fig. 3): Food vessel of a rather uncommon type, of good form and elaborately ornamented. (From Greenwell’s British Barrows.) (Fig. 4): A large drinking cup, the outer surface being almost covered with ornament, formed by the point of a sharp instrument (found in a barrow at East Kennet). (Fig. 5): Drinking cup, found in a barrow near Goodmanham, ornamented with patterns formed with lines. (From Greenwell’s British Barrows.)
THE ROMAN WALL.
Much difference of opinion has been expressed between archæologists as to who built the Roman Wall, it being severally attributed to both Hadrian and Severus. A recent writer of authority says: “No one really knows who built the Roman Wall, and the evidence now available is, in the present writer’s opinion, wholly insufficient to enable us to decide the difficult problem.... A commonsense and probable view is that Hadrian caused the vallum (earthen rampart), which may have been there before his time, to be supplemented by walls and forts, built of stone, in such extremely exposed and commanding positions as we find at or near Borcovicus (Homesteads), and that, about 86 years after the Emperor left Britain, Severus ordered these to be repaired, and the whole of the Roman fortifications to be built of stone, and the wall to be carried across from sea to sea.” It stretches from Wallsend, near Newcastle, to Carlisle. A section of its general structure is shown in Pl. [7], Fig. 11. It was very strong, and consisted of a ditch on the north side, about 15 ft. deep, and then a broad stone wall about 18 ft. high and 8 ft. thick. South of the ditch was a broad road, and next to that a rampart or earthen wall. In some parts, however, there were two roads made, parallel to one another.
At fairly regular intervals along the wall were fortified military “stations,” variously computed at from 18 to 23 in number.
Between them, at intervals of about a mile, were rectangular towers, called “mile castles,” and smaller towers or “turrets” were placed about four to the mile between these.
The Stations were small, rectangular towns, the inhabitants of which lived probably under martial law. They varied in extent from one to six acres, were always strongly fortified with walls six to nine feet thick, surrounded by a ditch. Each Station had, at least, four gateways, one on each side, and its area was crossed by two main streets, which bisected each other at right angles.
The larger Stations were provided with a Forum, serving as a marketplace and a place for public assembly; a Pretorium, or residence for the Commandant; baths, barracks, and numerous smaller dwellings for the minor officials and others.
The Mile Castles were rectangular in form, and measured about sixty feet by fifty feet. The Wall formed the northern wall of the Castle, and each had two gates, north and south.
The Turrets were also rectangular, but much smaller than the Mile Castles, measuring about twelve feet by ten feet, and had walls nearly three feet thick. They served the purpose of look-out towers.
The Wall required a garrison of from 10,000 to 12,000 soldiers to man it, and these were of many nationalities, being drawn from different parts of the Roman Empire. Borcovicus, one of the Stations, was garrisoned for about 200 years by a cohort of 1,000 Tungrian (German) Infantry. Other cohorts consisted of Astures (Spaniards), Batavians (Dutch), Gauls, Dalmatians, Moors, and Thracians.
It must be remembered that the soldiers themselves built the Wall and the various structures on it, and kept the masonry in repair, as the numerous inscribed wall tablets testify (Figs. 1 and 2).
After the Romans left Britain, the Wall was used for many centuries as a convenient quarry, with ready-prepared stones, by neighbouring landowners and farmers, and many farmhouses, walls and outhouses in the vicinity of the Wall are built entirely of stones from it.
During excavations on the sites of the Stations, many Roman remains—altars, ornaments, coins, utensils, etc.—have been found, particularly through the public-spirited work carried on by Mr. Clayton, of Chesters.
PLATE 4.
(Fig. 1): A wall tablet, sculptured in relief, with the figure of a boar, the badge of the 20th Legion. The tablet is 20 in. in length, and was found at Vindolana (Chesterholm). (Fig. 2): Another tablet, inscribed with a record of the building of a portion of the Wall, 24 paces long, by the Thruponian Centuria; from the Wall at Procolitia. (Fig. 3): An altar, dedicated to the god Mihr, or Mithras, by Litorius Pacatianus, a consular beneficiary, on behalf of himself and his family; found in the temple of Mithras, at Borcovicus. (Mihr was a form of the Sun-god, who was worshipped in Persia in very early times, and about 100 B.C. the worship of this deity was adopted by the Romans.) (Fig. 4): Small plan of Procolitia (Carranburgh), probably the seventh Station on the Wall, from east to west. The northern rampart is formed by the Roman Wall. Procolitia was about 143 yards long and 118 yards wide, measuring about 3½ acres, and was garrisoned by the 1st Batavian Cohort (Dutch). (Fig. 5): Plan of Cilurnum (Chesters), the sixth Station on the Wall from the east. It was 186 yards by 137 yards, and measured about 5½ acres. The Roman Wall does not, in this instance, coincide with the northern wall of the Station. The walls, surrounded by a ditch, are about five feet thick, and the corners are rounded off. It was garrisoned by the 2nd Ala of the Asturians (Spanish), a famous cavalry regiment. The Stations had usually four gates, but Cilurnum has six.
ROMAN POTTERY, Etc.
(In the Guildhall Museum, London.)
“After the Roman occupation of Britain, glass and pottery were made here in large quantities, so that the importation of glass, which was carried on at first, ceased to be necessary.”
Samian ware, which was a red glazed ware, was used ordinarily throughout the western half of the Roman Empire. It was manufactured first in Etruria, but afterwards its manufacture was imitated in Gaul. Very little of the genuine Samian ware from Etruria found its way into Britain, but the Gaulish Samian ware was imported in large quantities, and was used throughout the province.
The finer specimens are decorated with design in low relief, of a pictorial character, and the ware was of very good quality, for, 1,500 years after its manufacture, it preserves its colours and its lustre perfectly.
Castor ware, a native product, was made at Castor (Durobrivae), near the River Nen, and includes small vases of rusty copper or slate colour, with white ornament in low relief. “Castor ware is not Roman in character, but rather a local survival of late Celtic art.”
PLATE 5.
(Fig. 1): A Roman tablet of wood. This was covered with a thin coating of wax, upon which the writing was done with a stylus of metal or bone. When the inscription was no longer needed, a hot iron was held over the surface, and a new surface formed on the wax. (Fig. 2): A Roman stylus of iron. (Fig. 3): A Roman amphora. (Fig. 4): An ornamented vase of Cologne ware. (Fig. 5): A bowl of Cologne ware. (Fig. 6): An ewer or water bottle, with indented mouth. (Fig. 7): A deep bowl of Roman pottery. (Fig. 8): A cinerary urn of grey ware for containing the ashes of the dead. (Fig. 9): A decorated urn of Cologne ware. (Fig. 10): A vase of Castor ware, red, with black glazed neck ornaments, decorated with pinkish-white slip. (Fig. 11): A Roman glass hemispherical bowl. (Fig. 12): A drinking cup of thick Samian ware, 3¾ in. high.
[ROMAN ANTIQUITIES FOUND IN LONDON.]
(Guildhall Museum.)
The Roman influence in Britain was directed to the civilizing of the inhabitants. It gave the people better conditions of life; it guaranteed protection against the tyrannies of petty chieftains; and it gave to them the resources of Roman civilisation. The Roman remains that are to be found in our museums, unearthed after centuries of oblivion, show how definite was the influence of the Romans in the comforts and necessities of daily life.
“Keys and steelyards, roofing tiles and hairpins, glass bottles and spoons, statues and bells, represent wants and comforts strange to the ‘savage and shivering Britons,’ dressed in skins, whom earlier writers knew.” The manufacture of glass, chiefly beads, was carried on at Glastonbury in Roman times, but most of the glass found is Roman in character. The large green jars which were used for containing the ashes of the dead were generally made here, but the best specimens came probably from Gaul, where the manufacture of glass was carried on to a considerable extent.
PLATE 6.
(Fig. 1): A square bottle of green glass, found in a grave with cinerary urns. (Fig. 2): An unguentarium, or bottle for unguents, perfumes and other toilet requisites, of Roman glass. (Fig. 3): A Roman lamp of earthen-ware. The wick was inserted in the spout, and the central hole was for the purpose of feeding the lamp. (Fig. 4): Another Roman lamp, viewed from above. (Fig. 5): A Roman pole-axe, with expanded blade, oval shaft-hole, and pointed projection behind, 9 in. long. (Figs. 6 and 7): Two forms of Roman keys of bronze. (Fig. 8): A Roman shoe or buskin, with ten large holes stamped out on each side. (Fig. 9): An axe with crescent-shaped blade and tang for handle. (Fig. 10): A Roman spoon of copper (5 in. long). (Fig. 11): A Roman steelyard of bronze, with hooks and rings. (Fig. 12): A sacrificial knife (7¼ in. long). (Fig. 13): A Roman iron knife with ornamented bone handle.
[ROMAN ARCHITECTURE IN BRITAIN.]
Roman architecture in Britain, judging from the remains of buildings, was generally of an inferior description, for Britain was a remote and half-civilised province, and little attention appears to have been paid to make the buildings very ornate.
There are two principal varieties of masonry employed in their construction.
The first, which is very characteristic, consists of layers of irregularly shaped stones and flat tiles embedded in mortar, generally arranged in alternate layers of tiles and stones in mortar, forming a kind of concrete (Pl. [7], Fig. 3). The Mint wall at Lincoln, the Jewry wall at Leicester, and the walls at Richborough and Colchester are built in this manner.
The other variety consists of walls formed of regular courses, with wide joints of outer facings of square stones or ashlars, the interior spaces being filled with a rubble embedded in mortar. The blocks, which were of hewn sandstone, were about 8 in. by 10 in. on the face, and as much as 22 in. long in the bed. The whole rests on a course of larger foundation stones (Pl. [7], Figs. 1 and 2).
Roman mortar may generally be distinguished by the fact that it was mixed with powdered brick, and it is extremely hard. It is often easier to break the tile or stone than the mortar, and this hardness arises largely from the fact that the Romans always burnt the lime on the spot, and used it hot and fresh, for on the freshness of the lime the strength of the mortar largely depends. The walls of Burgh Castle, Suffolk, and Richborough, Kent, are among the most perfect Roman walls in England.
There are vestiges of Roman towns and villas throughout the country, but they consist of foundations only. The upper story of these Roman houses was usually of wood, and all the innumerable Roman towns and villas of which foundations have been discovered bear marks of destruction by violence, fire having been usually the agent of destruction.
PLATE 7.
(Fig. 1): Section of Roman masonry, showing the outer facing of regularly shaped stones and the interior of rubble and mortar. (Fig. 2): View of outside of wall. (Fig. 3): Roman arch at Colchester Castle, Hampshire, showing alternate layers of tiles or flat bricks and stones. (Figs. 4, 5 and 6): Fragments of Roman ornamental mouldings built in at Hexham. Roman building material is often used again in other buildings near the site of the Roman Station, as at Colchester Castle (Essex), St. Martin’s Church, Canterbury, and St. Alban’s Abbey (Herts.). (Fig. 7): Basement of Station on the Roman Wall. (Fig. 8): Arch of Roman gate at Lincoln. It was the north gate of the Roman city of Lindum, and still forms the principal entrance into the city from the north. There was a smaller arch on either side, but only the one on the east remains. It appears to have been without ornament of any kind. (Fig. 9): A stone capital, probably from the portico of a temple, found at Cilurnum (Chesters). It is elaborately sculptured with acanthus, is 17 inches in height, with a diameter, at its widest part, of 18 inches. (Fig. 10): A portion of the Roman Wall passing over a hill. The Roman Wall consistently passed in a straight direction over the country, and only swerved from a straight line to take, in the route, the boldest elevations. (Fig. 11): Section of the Wall in Northumberland. (a) Ditch of the Wall; (b) the stone wall; (c) the military way; (d) the ditch of the vallum; (e) the vallum (of earth).
[ROMAN ARMS, Etc.]
PLATE 8.
(Fig. 1): A Roman galley (from Pompeii). (Fig. 2): A Roman Eagle. This was mounted on a pole and carried before the Legion. The soldiers rallied round it and fought for its honour. It corresponded with the regimental flags of our time. (Fig. 3): A Roman sword. This was remarkable for the 25shortness of its blade. It was suspended from a shoulder belt passing over the left shoulder, so that the sword hung on the right side, a custom which was possible on account of the shortness of the blade. The length was about twenty-two inches. The blade was straight, of uniform width, double-edged, and cut at the end in an obtuse angle to form the point. (Fig. 4): A short sword or sword dagger. (Fig. 5): Scabbard of the same. (Fig. 6): A Roman Centurion, with an oval shield, such as was generally carried by horse soldiers. The body was protected by a metal cuirass formed of back and breast plates, strapped together at the sides, and fastened by broad belts passing over the shoulders. At the lower part of the cuirass were two bands of leather, one showing underneath the other, the edges of both being tagged or scalloped. Below this double border there was a kind of leather skirt, reaching nearly to the knee. A military cloak or mantle was picturesquely draped over the shoulder. Metal greaves covered the shins, and sandals, which were often highly ornamented, covered the feet. (Fig. 7): A Roman laminated cuirass worn by the heavily armed troops. It consisted of lames or plates of steel encircling the body, with curved lames passing over the shoulders, and several lames hanging vertically over the lower part of the trunk. They were sewn or rivetted to a tightly-fitting leather garment. (Figs. 8, 9 and 10): Roman helmets, all fitted with neck pieces to guard the neck—Figs. 8 and 9 with cheek pieces, hinged and fastening beneath the chin. (Fig. 11): Another form of shield, differing entirely from that in Fig. 6. “It is elongated and convex oblong, somewhat resembling a hollow watercourse tile.” It was carried by the legionaries, and was about 2 ft. 6 in. long. It was strengthened, at the top and bottom only, or all round, with additional bands of metal. With this form of shield, the well-known testudo or tortoise formation was made. (Fig. 12): A Roman sandal of leather.
[SAXON WEAPONS.]
The Saxon arms were the spear, the axe, the sword, the dagger, the long-bow, and the arrow.
The defensive armour consisted of helmet, shield, and byrnie.
The Spear was the chief weapon of the Saxons. It was of two forms: (1) 9 or 10 ft. long, for use against cavalry or as a cavalry weapon, and (2) about 6 ft. long, for use as a javelin or throwing spear. When the latter was used, it was generally carried in pairs.
The spear, or, rather, the spear-head is always found in Saxon graves, as it was buried with its owner. The shaft was generally of ash.
The Axe was a very characteristic weapon of the Saxon and kindred races, but it is very seldom found in graves. There were several forms, particularly a long, tapering blade (Fig. 6) and a broader blade (Fig. 7).
Sometimes the axe-head was mounted on a short handle, and at other times on a long shaft, to form a pole-axe, as shown in the Bayeux tapestry.
The Sword was essentially the cavalry weapon, and was the weapon of the upper classes, no person below the rank of Thane carrying it.
The earliest swords which have been found have no quillon or cross guard. The sword was usually about 3 ft. long, the blade being 30 in. long and about 2 in. wide near the hilt. It was double-edged, and tapered slightly towards the point. It usually had a wooden scabbard, and was often ornamented with gold and precious stones on the hilt.
The dagger or knife was a very general weapon, and has been found in many graves. It varies considerably in size. The soldier probably carved his food with the same weapon with which he stabbed his enemy.
The long-bow was not in general use among the Saxons. Our knowledge of it, and of arrows also, is mainly from MSS. It is a disputed point whether the English used the bow at Hastings, for only one archer is depicted on the English side.
For defensive purposes, the soldier wore a helmet of metal, or of leather strengthened with metal bands and rims, and he carried a shield. The latter was of wood, and was circular or oval in form. The centre was formed of metal, and was called a boss or umbo. As the shield was buried with a warrior, many umbos have been found in the graves, the wooden portion of the shield having decayed.
In early Saxon times, a protective garment called a byrnie was worn by the leaders. It may have been mailed or quilted and padded. In later times, when the nation was in a more prosperous condition, the use of this garment probably became much more general. At the time of the Norman conquest, there was very little difference in arms and equipment between the Normans and Saxons, on account of the intercourse between the two Courts.
PLATE 9.
(Fig. 1): A Saxon spear-head, 10½ in. long, with a socket for the shaft, found in Southwark. (Guildhall Museum, London.) (Fig. 2, 3 and 4): Saxon spear-heads, from MSS. The lateral projections from the shaft were probably guards, to prevent the shaft being severed by a sword cut. (Fig. 5): A spear-head of different form. (Fig. 6): A Saxon taper axe-head, 3½ in. wide and 6½ in. deep, found in the Thames. (Guildhall Museum, London.) (Fig. 7): Another and broader form of axe-head. (Fig. 8): A Saxon sword from an 8th century MS. (Figs. 9 and 10): Sword handles, found in Cambridgeshire. (Fig. 11): Umbo of Saxon shield. (Fig. 12): Saxon dagger or knife, with ornamental wooden handle. (Figs. 13, 14 and 15): Saxon arrow-heads. (Figs. 16 and 17): Saxon helmets. (Fig. 18): Saxon bow, from a MS.