CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION—The Three General Periods of the History of Philosophy, [1]
The Comparative Lengths of the Three General Periods, [1]
The Real Differences of the Three General Periods, [1]
Table of the Subdivisions of the Three General Periods, [4]
BOOK I. ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY
(625 B. C.–476 A. D.)
CHAPTER I. The Early Greek in Ancient Philosophy, [5]
The Divisions of Ancient Philosophy, [5]
The Literary Sources of Ancient Philosophy, [6]
The Environment of the Early Greek, [7]
1. His Geographical Environment [7]
2. His Political Environment [7]
The Native Tendencies of the Early Greek, as seen (1) In the Development of his Religion, (2) in his Reflections upon Physical Events, and (3) in his Interest in Human Conduct, [9–11]
The Three Periods of Greek Philosophy, [12]
CHAPTER II. The Cosmological Period: The Philosophy of Nature, [15]
The Peril in the Greek Political Situation: Persia and Carthage, [15]
The Peril in the New Religion: The Mysteries and Pythagoras, [16]
Characteristics of the Cosmologists, [18]
Table of Cosmologists, [20]
How the Philosophical Question arose, [20]
Map showing the Cities where the Cosmologists lived, [21]
Summary Comparison of the Monistic Philosophies, [22]
1. The Milesian School, [24]
The Milesian Philosophy, [25]
2. Xenophanes, the Religious Philosopher, [26]
The Philosophy of Xenophanes, [27]
3. Heracleitus, “the Misanthropist” and “the Obscure,” [28]
a. Heracleitus’ Doctrine of Absolute and Universal Change, [28]
b. Fire is the Cosmic Substance, [29]
c. The Definite Changes of Fire, [30]
d. The Practical Philosophy of Heracleitus, [31]
4. The Eleatic School, [32]
a. Parmenides, [32]
(1) The Cosmic Substance is Being, [33]
(2) Other Things than the Cosmic Substance (Being) have no Real Existence, [34]
b. Zeno, [35]
The Philosophy of Zeno, [36]
The Results of the Conflict between Heracleitus and Parmenides, [37]
CHAPTER III. Pluralism, [39]
Efforts toward Reconciliation, [39]
The New Conception of Change of the Pluralists, [40]
The New Conception of the Unchanging of the Pluralists—The Element, [40]
The Introduction of the Conception of the Efficient Cause, [41]
Summary of Similarities and Differences IN the Theories of the Reconcilers, [41]
The Pluralistic Philosophers: Empedocles, Anaxagoras, Leucippus, and the Later Pythagoreans, [42]
The Philosophy of Empedocles, [44]
The Philosophy of Anaxagoras, [45]
The Philosophy of the Atomists—Leucippus and the School at Abdera, [47]
The Later Pythagoreans, [48]
1. The Pythagorean Conception of Being, [49]
2. The Pythagorean Dualistic World, [51]
3. Pythagorean Astronomy, [52]
Historical Retrospect, [53]
CHAPTER IV. The Anthropological Period: The Philosophy of Man, [55]
An Historical Summary of the Anthropological Period, [55]
The Persian Wars and the Rise of Athens, [56]
The Greek Enlightenment, [58]
1. The Impulse for Learning, [58]
2. The Practical Need of Knowledge, [59]
3. The Critical Attitude of Mind, [61]
The Significance of the Sophists, [64]
The Prominent Sophists, [67]
The Philosophy of the Sophists, [68]
1. The Relativism of Protagoras, [69]
2. The Nihilism of Gorgias, [70]
The Ethics of the Sophists.—The Application of their Critical Theory to Political Life, [71]
Summary, [73]
CHAPTER V. Socrates, [74]
Socrates and Aristophanes, [74]
The Personality and Life of Socrates, [75]
Socrates and the Sophists, [80]
The Unsystematic Character of the Socratic Philosophy, [82]
The Ideal of Socrates, [83]
What the Socratic Ideal Involves, [85]
The Two Steps of the Method of Socrates, [88]
Socrates and Athens, [91]
The Logical Expedients of Socrates, [92]
Socrates and the Lesser Socratics, [93]
The Cynic School, [95]
The Cyrenaic School, [96]
CHAPTER VI. The Systematic Period, [98]
The Waning of the Greek National Spirit, [98]
The Place of the Three Systematic Philosophers in Greek History, [98]
The Fundamental Principle of the Systematic Period, [100]
A Summary of Greek Philosophy, [102]
Greek Philosophy (objective), [103]
Democritus and Plato—Their Similarities and Differences, [104]
The Life of Democritus, [106]
The Comprehensiveness of the Aim of Democritus, [108]
The Enriched Physics of Democritus—Hylozoism becomes Materialism, [109]
The Materialistic Psychology of Democritus, [111]
Democritus’ Theory of Knowledge—The World of Twofold Reality, [114]
The Ethical Theory of Democritus, [116]
CHAPTER VII. Plato, [119]
Abdera and Athens, [119]
The Difficulties in Understanding the Teaching of Plato, [120]
The Life and Writings of Plato, [121]
1. Plato’s Student Life, [121]
2. Plato as Traveler, [122]
3. Plato as Teacher of the Academy, [124]
Concerning the Dialogues of Plato, [126]
The Factors in the Construction of Plato’s Doctrine, [128]
1. His Inherited Tendencies, [128]
2. His Philosophical Sources, [130]
The Divisions of Plato’s Philosophy, [131]
Summary of Plato’s Doctrine, [132]
The Formation of Plato’s Metaphysics, [132]
The Development of Plato’s Metaphysics—The Development of Plato’s Ideas in the Two Drafts, [136]
Brief Comparison of the Two Drafts of the Ideas, [137]
Comparison of the Two Drafts of Ideas in More Detail, [137]
1. The Number of Ideas in the Earlier and Later Drafts compared, [137]
2. The Relation of the Ideas and the World of Nature in the Two Drafts compared, [138]
3. The Relation among the Ideas in the Two Drafts compared, [140]
Plato’s Conception of God, [141]
Plato’s Conception of Physical Nature, [142]
Plato’s Conception of Man, [144]
Plato’s Doctrine of Immortality, [146]
1. The Immortality of Pre-Existence, [146]
2. The Immortality of Post-Existence, [149]
The Two Tendencies in Plato, [150]
Platonic Love, [151]
Plato’s Theory of Ethics, [153]
1. Development of Plato’s Theory of the Good, [153]
2. The Four Cardinal Virtues, [154]
3. Plato’s Theory of Political Society, [155]
Appendix—Jowett’s Selection of Passages from Plato for English Readers, [158]
CHAPTER VIII. Aristotle, [166]
Aristotle in the Academy and Lyceum, [166]
Biography of Aristotle, [168]
Brief Chronological Sketch of Aristotle’s Life, [168]
Aristotle’s Biography in Detail, [169]
1. First Period—Early Influences, [169]
2. Second Period—Traveler and Collector, [171]
3. Third Period—Administrator of the Lyceum, [172]
The Writings of Aristotle, [173]
1. The Popular Writings, published by Aristotle himself, [174]
2. The Compilations, [175]
3. The Didactic Writings, [175]
Aristotle’s Starting-Point, [176]
The Fundamental Principle in Aristotle’s Philosophy, [177]
Aristotle’s Logic, [180]
Aristotle’s Metaphysics, [185]
1. Development is Purposeful, [185]
2. Aristotle’s Two Different Conceptions of Purpose, [187]
3. Aristotle’s Conception of God, [190]
4. Aristotle’s Conception of Matter, [191]
5. Aristotle’s Conception of Nature, [192]
The Mechanical Series,—Aristotle’s Theory of Physics, [194]
The Teleological Series: The Qualitative Changes of Phenomena, [196]
1. The Psychology of Aristotle, [196]
2. The Ethics of Aristotle, [199]
(a) The Practical Virtues, [200]
(b) The Dianoetic Virtues, [201]
The Political Philosophy of Aristotle, [202]
CHAPTER IX. The Hellenic-Roman Period, [204]
Its Time Length, [204]
The Fall of the Greek Nation and the Persistence of its Civilization, [204]
Map of the Empire of Alexander, showing the Extension of Hellenism, [205]
The Two Parts of the Hellenic-Roman Period, [208]
1. The Ethical Period, [208]
2. The Religious Period, [208]
The Undercurrent of Skepticism in the Hellenic-Roman Period, [209]
The Fundamental Problem of the Hellenic-Roman Period, [211]
The Centres of Hellenism, [213]
1. Athens, [213]
2. Alexandria, [215]
General Characteristics of the Ethical Period, [215]
1. The Abandonment of Metaphysical Speculation, [216]
2. The Growth of Science, [216]
3. Ethics became the Central Interest, [217]
The Schools, [218]
Map of Athens, showing the Location of the Four Schools, [219]
The Old Schools—The Academy and the Lyceum, [220]
1. The Academy, [220]
2. The Lyceum, [221]
The New Schools—The Epicureans and the Stoics, [222]
A Summary of the Agreements and Differences of the Stoics and Epicureans, [225]
CHAPTER X. Epicureanism, [227]
The Life of Epicurus, [227]
The Epicureans, [228]
Some Types of Hedonism,—Aristippus, Epicurus, and Rousseau, [228]
The Epicurean Ideal, [230]
The Place of Virtue in Epicureanism, [233]
The Epicurean Wise Man, [234]
The Epicurean Wise Man in Society, [235]
The Great Obstacles to Happiness, [236]
Epicurus’ Conception of the Physical World.—Qualified Atomism, [238]
CHAPTER XI. Stoicism, [241]
The Position of Stoicism in Antiquity, [241]
The Three Periods of Stoicism, [242]
1. Period of Formulation of the Doctrine, [242]
2. Period of Modified Stoicism, [242]
3. Period of Roman Stoicism, [243]
The Stoic Leaders, [243]
The Stoic Writings, [246]
The Stoics and Cynics, [246]
The Two Prominent Stoic Conceptions, [247]
The Conception of Personality, [248]
1. The Stoic Psychology, [248]
2. The Highest Good, [250]
The Conception of Nature, [251]
1. Nature is an All-pervading World-Being, [253]
2. Nature is an All-compelling Law, [253]
3. Nature is Matter, [254]
The Conceptions of Nature and Personality supplement Each Other, [256]
The Stoic and Society, [257]
Duty and Responsibility, [259]
The Problem of Evil and the Problem of Freedom, [260]
The Modifications of the Stoic Doctrine after the First Period, [261]
CHAPTER XII. Skepticism and Eclecticism, [264]
The Appearances of Philosophic Skepticism, [264]
The Three Phases of Philosophic Skepticism, [265]
1. The First Phase of Philosophic Skepticism is called Pyrrhonism, [265]
2. The Second Period of Philosophic Skepticism—The Skepticism of the Academy, [266]
3. The Third Period of Philosophic Skepticism—Sensationalistic Skepticism, [268]
The Last Century and a Half of the Ethical Period, Eclecticism, [269]
CHAPTER XIII. The Religious Period, [273]
The Two Causes of the Rise of Religious Feeling, [273]
The Need of Spiritual Authority, [275]
The Rise of the Conception of Spirituality, [277]
The Revival of Platonism, [279]
The Divisions of the Religious Period, [280]
The Hellenic Religious Philosophies, [282]
The Introductory Period of Hellenic Religious Philosophy. The Turning to the Past for Spiritual Authority, [282]
1. The Greek-Jewish Philosophy of Philo, [282]
2. Neo-Pythagoreanism, [285]
The Development Period of Hellenic Religious Philosophy. The Turning to the Present for Spiritual Authority. Platonism and Neo-Platonism, [287]
Neo-Platonism and the Two Introductory Philosophies, [288]
Neo-Platonism and Christianity, [288]
The Periods of Neo-Platonism, [290]
The Alexandrian School. The Scientific Theory of Neo-Platonism. The Life and Writings of Plotinus, [290]
The General Character of the Teaching of Plotinus, [291]
The Mystic God, [292]
1. The Supra-Consciousness of God, [292]
2. The Conception of Dynamic Pantheism, [293]
The Two Problems of Plotinus, [293]
The World of Emanations.—The Metaphysical Problem of Plotinus, [294]
The Spirit, [294]
The Soul, [295]
Matter, [295]
The Return of the Soul to God.—The Ethical Problem of Plotinus, [297]
The Syrian School.—The Systematizing of Polytheisms.—Jamblichus, [298]
The Athenian School.—Recapitulation.—Proclus, [299]
CHAPTER XIV. Patristics.—The Hellenizing of the Gospel, [302]
The Early Situation of Christianity, [302]
The Philosophies influencing Christian Thought, [305]
The Periods of Early Christianity, [306]
The Apologists, [307]
The Gnostics, [310]
The Reaction against Gnosticism.—The Old Catholic Theologians, [312]
Origen and the School of Catechists, [314]
BOOK II. THE MIDDLE AGES
(476–1453)
CHAPTER XV. Characteristics and Conditions of the Middle Ages, [319]
Comparison of the Hellenic-Roman Period and the Middle Ages, [319]
The Mediæval Man, [320]
How the Universe appeared to the Mediæval Man, [322]
Maps of the Ptolemaic Cosmography, [323], [325]
The Mediæval Man at School, [325]
A Mediæval Library, [326]
1. Books most commonly read, [327]
2. Books that the scholars might use, [327]
3. The Books most influential philosophically upon the time, [328]
The Three Periods of the Middle Ages, [328]
Summary of the Political and Educational Worlds of the Mediæval Man, [330]
CHAPTER XVI. The Early Period of the Middle Ages, [334]
The General Character of the Early Period, [334]
An Early Mediæval Geographical Map, [335]
The Historical Position of Augustine, [335]
The Secular Science, [339]
The Life of Augustine, [339]
The Two Elements in Augustine’s Teaching, [340]
The Neo-Platonic Element: the Inner Certainties of Consciousness, [341]
The Authority of the Church according to Augustine, [345]
The Dark Ages, [347]
The Revival of Charlemagne, [349]
John Scotus Erigena: Life and Teaching, [350]
The Greek Principle which Erigena formulated for the Middle Ages, [352]
The Last Century of the Early Period, [353]
CHAPTER XVII. The Transitional Period, [354]
The General Character of the Transitional Period, [354]
What is Scholasticism? [355]
Anselm: Life and Position in Mediæval Philosophy, [359]
Anselm’s Arguments for the Existence of God, [361]
Roscellinus: Life and Teaching, [361]
Storm and Stress, [362]
The Life of Abelard, [363]
Abelard’s Conceptualism. Universals exist in the Particulars, [364]
Abelard’s Rationalism.—The Relation between Reason and Dogma, [365]
CHAPTER XVIII. The Period of Classic Scholasticism, [368]
The General Character of this Last Period, [368]
The Two Civilizations, [369]
Map showing the Growth of Mohammedan Civilization in the Middle Ages, [370]
The First Contact of the Two Civilizations, [372]
The Conflict between the Two Civilizations.—The Crusades, [374]
The Revival of Learning, [375]
Diagram of Dante’s Poetic Conception of the Universe, [376]
The Strength and Burden of Aristotle to the Church, [378]
1. The Strength of Aristotle to the Church, [378]
2. The Burden of Aristotle to the Church, [379]
The Predecessors of Aquinas, [379]
The Life of Thomas Aquinas.—The Founder of the Dominican Tradition, [380]
The Central Principle of Thomas’s Doctrine—The Twofold Truth, [381]
The Problem of Individuality—The Relation of Particulars and Universals, [383]
The Primacy of the Will or the Intellect, [385]
Duns Scotus, The Founder of the Franciscan Tradition—Life and Philosophical Position, [386]
Duns Scotus’s Conception of the Twofold Truth.—The Separation of Science and Religion, [387]
The Inscrutable Will of God, [388]
The Problem of Individuality, [389]
After Duns Scotus, [390]
William of Ockam: Life and Teaching, [391]
After Ockam, [393]
INDEX, [395]