A Beginner's History of Philosophy, Vol. 2: Modern Philosophy

by Herbert Ernest Cushman

INDEX

Abbott, E. A., Francis Bacon, [40 n.] Absolute Reality, of Hegel, [314], [316], [321], [323]–326, [328], [329]. See [Reality]. Absolutism, spirit of, in Germany, from 1648 to 1740, [217]–223; in France, [217], [225]; destroyed by Frederick the Great and Lessing, [225], [226], [228], [229]. Æsthetic Idealism, of Schelling, [302], [304], [307]. Agnosticism, of Hume, [188]. Alchemists, the, [25]. Alembert, Jean le Rond d’, [211]. Althusius, Johannes, [47]. America, discovery of, [6]. Anacreonticists, the, [224]. Analysis. See [Induction]. Analytic judgments, of Kant, [249]–252. Antinomies, of Kant, [264], [265]. Antithesis, of Fichte, [295]; of Hegel, [327]. A posteriori, judgments, of Kant, [250]–252; material, the perceptions, [257]; principle, in ethics, [271], [272]. A priori, judgments, of Kant, [250]–252; principles, categories, [257], [271], [272]. Archæus, the, of Paracelsus, [26], [27]. Aristotle, represented by two antagonistic schools in the Renaissance, [11]. Art, in Schelling’s philosophy, [308]; and in Schopenhauer’s philosophy, [359]. Association of Ideas, according to Hume, [191]–193; by law of contiguity, [192]–194; by law of resemblance, [192]–196; by law of causation, [192], [193], [196]–199. Associational Psychology, Hobbes the father of, [56]. Associationalist Psychologists, [141]. Astronomers, mathematical, [32]–36. Atheistic controversy, of Fichte, [282], [284]. Atoms, scientific conception of, examined by Leibnitz, [119], [120], [121]. Attributes, according to Spinoza, [95], [96]. See [Qualities]. Auerbach, Berthold, Spinoza, [88 n.] Autobiographies, many of them written in the Enlightenment, [137]. Bacon, Francis, [31], [35]; life of, [39]; position of, in philosophy, [39]–42; his New Atlantis, [40]–42; the aim of, [42], [43]; his method, [43]–46; compared with Hobbes, [48]; seems to stand apart, [146]. Baldwin, J. M., Fragments in Philosophy, [84 n.] Ball, W. W. R., History of Mathematics, [36 n.], [40 n.] Bayle, Pierre, [203]. Beauty, in Schelling’s philosophy, [307]. Beers, H. A., History of Romanticism in Eighteenth Century, [295 n.]; History of Romanticism in Nineteenth Century, [295 n.] Berkeley, George, life and writings of, [169]–172; the influences upon his thought, [172]; the purpose of, [173], [174]; general relation of, to Locke and Hume, [174], [175]; his points of agreement with Locke, [175], [176]; the negative side of his philosophy, [176]–179; denies existence of abstract ideas, [177]–179; the positive side of his philosophy, [179]–183; and Hume, compared, [183], [184]. Blackwood Classics, Descartes, [70 n.], [73 n.] Bodin, Jean, [47]. Body, relation of mind and, according to Descartes, [78]–80; in Leibnitz’s philosophy, [126]. Bohn’s Libraries, Spinoza, [90 n.] Brahe, Tycho, [32], [33]. Brown, Thomas, [202]. Browning, Robert, Paracelsus, [25], [26 n.] Bruno, Giordano, [25], [27]–30, 32, 33. Buckle, H. T., [362]. Buffon, G. L. L. de, [211]. Butler, Joseph, his Analogy of Religion, [166]. Byron, G. G., Lord, on Berkeley, [182]. Caird, E., Philosophy of Kant, [236 n.] Calkins, M. W., Persistent Problems in Philosophy, [iv], [66 n.], [73 n.], [110 n.] Cambridge School, the, [61]. Campanella, Tommaso, his State of the Sun, [41 n.] Cartesian argument, the, [74], [75]. Categorical imperative, the, of Kant, [273]. Categories, Aristotelian and Kantian, [256], [257]; of Hegel, [323], [327]. Causation, association of, [192], [193], [196]–199. Chubb, Thomas, [165]. Church, mediæval, [14]; attitude of, toward science, in the period of the Renaissance, [19]–21, [62]–65; according to Hobbes, [60]. Civilization, of the Middle Ages, causes of the decay of, [4]–7; modern, is subjective, [15]. Classicism, German, [224], [296]. Coleridge, S. T., and Spinoza, [85]. Collegiants, the, Spinoza’s acquaintance with, [87]–89. Collins, Anthony, [165]. Columbus, Christopher, discovers America, [6]. Comte, Auguste, quoted on the Encyclopædia, [211]; his philosophy, [360]. Concomitant variations, the name, [38 n.] Condillac, E. B. de, [212]. Consciousness, ultimate certainty of, according to Descartes, [70]–72; implications of, according to Descartes, [72], [73]; in Fichte’s philosophy, [286]–288, [293]; in Schelling’s philosophy, [309]; in Hegel’s philosophy, [321], [322], [326], [327]; in Herbart’s philosophy, [336], [338]; in Fechner’s philosophy, [359]. Constantinople, fall of, [6]. Constitutionalists and Political Economists, the, of the Enlightenment, [142]. Contiguity, association of, [192]–194. Continuity, law of, [129]. Contradictions, the world a world of, according to Hegel, [321], [327], [328], [335]; of experience, according to Herbart, [334], [335]. Copernicus, Nikolaus, [7], [32]–34. Cosmic, unity, of Hegel, [322]–326; law, of Hegel, [326]–328. Counter-Revolution, the, [17]. Criticism, the Enlightenment a period of, [138]; Kant’s method of, [239]. Cusanus, Nicolas (Nicolas of Cusa), [23]–25. Darwin, Charles Robert, his Origin of Species formulated most fully the Evolution movement, [3], [362]. Decentralization of Europe and of philosophy, [iv], [12], [13]. Deduction, in the Natural Science period, [19], [21], [35]; defined, [35 n.]; use of, according to Galileo, [37]; according to Bacon, [40], [46]; according to Descartes, [70], [72], [73]; use made of, by the followers of Descartes, [81]. Deed-act, of Fichte, [293]. Deism, and Hume, [200]; of Voltaire, [210]. Deists, the English, [141], [164]–166; the German, [142]. Descartes, René, [31], [35]; compared with Hobbes, [48], [49]; the mental conflict in, [65], [66]; life and philosophical writings of, [66], [67]; the two conflicting influences upon the thought of, [67]–69; the method of, [69], [70]; the great contribution of, an absolute principle, [70]; induction, provisional doubt, ultimate certainty of consciousness, according to, [70]–72; deduction, implications of consciousness, according to, [70], [72], [73]; his proofs of the existence of God, [73]–75; the reality of matter, according to, [75]–77; his view of the relation of God to the world, [77]; of God to matter, [77], [78]; of God to minds, [78]; of mind and body, [78]–80; influence of, [80], [81]; relation of the Occasionalists and Spinoza to, [81]–84; his influence on Spinoza, [87]; his influence on Locke, [145], [146], [152]. Determinism, [53]. Dewing, A. S., Introduction to Modern Philosophy, [iv], [8 n.], [332 n.] Diderot, Denis, [211]. Differential calculus, discovered by Leibnitz, [112], [114], [119]. Discoveries. See [Inventions]. Dogmatism, defined, [187]. Doubt, provisional, of Descartes, [70]–72. Dualism, Cartesian, of mind and matter, assumed in the Enlightenment, [135]; of Berkeley, [179]; formed the background of Kant’s thought, [232]. Dualists, [174 n.] Duty, according to Fichte, [289]–295. Eclecticism, revived by Renaissance scholars, [11]. Edwards, Jonathan, [171]. Ego, the, of Kant, [260], [263], [264]; of Fichte, [288]–295, [313]; of Schelling, [304], [309]; of Hegel, [313], [314]. Empiricism, begun by Locke, [61]; defined, [61 n.]; in the Enlightenment, [137]; of Berkeley, [174]; of Hume, [189]; of the nineteenth century, [355]–357, [361], [362]. Encyclopædists, the, of the Enlightenment, [142], [211], [212]. England, in the Natural Science period, [17], [21], [31]; the Natural Science movement in, [46]; the Renaissance in, after Hobbes, [61]; the Enlightenment in, [140], [145]–147; comparison of the French Enlightenment with the Enlightenment in, [204], [205]; influence of, in France, in the Enlightenment, [206], [207]. Enlightenment, the, the second period of modern philosophy, [2], [3]; general treatment of, [132]–143; begins when the “new man” tries to understand his own nature, [132]; the practical presupposition of, [134]; the metaphysical presupposition of, [135]; the problems of, [135]–140; the period of empirical psychology, autobiographies, and Methodism, [137]; a period of criticism, [138]; a period of remarkable changes in the political map of Europe, [139]; a comparison of, in England, France, and Germany, [140], [204], [205]; the many groups of philosophers in, [140]–143; birthplaces of influential thinkers of (map), [144]; in Great Britain, [145]–147; in France, [203]–216; the situation in, in France, [203]–206; the English influence in, in France, [206], [207]; the two periods of, in France, [207], [208]; the intellectual (Voltaire, Montesquieu, the Encyclopædists), [208]–212; the social (Rousseau), [213]–216; in Germany, [216]–229; the introductory period (absolutism), [217]–223; sources of, [218]–223; the literary, in Germany, summary of, [223], [224]; the political (Frederick the Great), [224]–226; the course of, in Germany, [226]–228; Lessing, [228], [229]. Epicureanism, revived by Renaissance scholars, [11]. Epistemology, of Locke, [155], [156], [158], [160]–162; of Kant, [238], [239]. See [Knowledge]. Erdmann, J. E. on the Enlightenment, [133]. Eternity, in Spinoza’s philosophy, [105], [106]. Ethics of Spinoza, [102]–106; of Hume, [200], [201]; of Kant, [269]–277. Eucken, Rudolf, Problem of Human Life, [iv], [8 n.], [23 n.], [40 n.], [47 n.], [66 n.], [84 n.], [107 n.], [147 n.], [183 n.], [203 n.], [213 n.], [236 n.], [282 n.], [300 n.], [315 n.], [340 n.], [352 n.] Evil, in Leibnitz’s philosophy, [130]. Evolution, principle of, [3], [361], [362]. Experience, contradictions of, according to Herbart, [334], [335]. Extension, the essence of matter, according to Descartes, [77], [82]; in Spinoza’s philosophy, [93], [95], [96], [102]. Faith philosophy, Herder a writer on, [143]. Falckenberg, Richard, History of Modern Philosophy, [iv], [26 n.], [36 n.], [47 n.], [55 n.], [70 n.], [73 n.]; quoted, [274], [275]. Fechner, G. T., [359]. Feuerbach, L. A., [358]. Fichte, J. G., and Schelling andHegel, what they sought, [279], [281], [312]; life and writings of, [282]–285; the influences upon his teaching, [285], [286]; his two kinds of ideas, [286]; the moral awakening, according to, [287], [288]; the central principle in his philosophy, [288]–290; the moral world of, [290]–292; God and man, in the philosophy of, [292], [293]; what a moral reality involves, according to, [293]–295; his relation to Romanticism, [299]; and Schelling, a brief comparison of, as philosophers, [303]–305. Fischer, Kuno, Descartes and his School, [70 n.]; leads the “return to Kant,” [359]. FitzGerald, Edward, his translation of the Rubáiyát, [347], [348]. Force, fundamental ground of motion, according to Leibnitz, [119], [120]; identified with the metaphysical atom by Leibnitz, [121]; the word, as used by Leibnitz, squints toward physics and psychology, [122]. France, in the Natural Science period, [17], [21], [31]; the Enlightenment in, [140], [203]–216; the situation in, in the Enlightenment, [203]–206; the English influence in, [206], [207]; the two periods of the Enlightenment in, [207], [208]; the intellectual Enlightenment (Voltaire, Montesquieu, the Encyclopædists) in, [208]–212; the social Enlightenment (Rousseau) in, [213]–216; absolutism in, [217]. Francke, A. H., [220]. Frederick the Great, [223]–226. Freedom, Spinoza’s conception of, [104]; according to Locke, [154], [155]; Kant’s idea of, [270]; the postulate of, according to Kant, [276]; according to Fichte, [289], [290]; and God, Schelling’s philosophy of, [303]; transcendental, of Schopenhauer, [349]–351. Galilei, Galileo, [31]–33, [35]–39. Gama, Vasco da, discovers all-sea route to India, [7]. Gassendi, Pierre, was author of the introduction of Greek atomism into modern thought, [120]. Geneva, new religious centre in the Renaissance, [12]. Geometrical Method and its Opponents, in the Enlightenment, [142]. German Idealism, and modern philosophy, [355], [356]. German Idealists, places connected with (map), [280]; treated, [278]–329. German literature, a factor in the Enlightenment, [218], [219], [223]. German Philosophy, the third period of modern philosophy, [3]; treatment of, [230]–329; the three characteristics of, [231], [232]; the two periods of, [232], [233]. Germany, in the Renaissance, [12], [16], [17], [21], [31]; the Enlightenment in, [140], [216]–229; the introductory period (absolutism), [217]–223; summary of the literary Enlightenment in, [223], [224]; the political Enlightenment in (Frederick the Great), [224]–226; the course of the Enlightenment in, [226]–228; Lessing, [228], [229]; the convergence of philosophical influences in, [230], [231]. Geulincx, Arnold, [63], [83]. Gibbon, Edward, quoted, [138]. God, in the philosophy of Cusanus, [25]; in Bruno’s philosophy, [28]–30; Descartes’ proofs of the existence of, [73]–75; relation of, to the world, to matter, and to minds, according to Descartes, [77], [78]; in the philosophy of the Occasionalists, [83]; in Spinoza’s philosophy, [91]–106; in Leibnitz’s philosophy, [126], [127], [130], [131]; in the Enlightenment, [135]; in Berkeley’s philosophy, [181]–183; in Hume’s philosophy, [200]; in Voltaire’s philosophy, [210]; the idea of, according to Kant, [261], [265]–268; the postulate of the existence of, according to Kant, [276], [277]; in Fichte’s philosophy, [292], [293]; in Schelling’s philosophy, [300]; and freedom, Schelling’s philosophy of, [303], [312]; of the Mystic, [319]; in Hegel’s philosophy, [324]; according to Fechner, [359]. Goethe, J. W. von, Faust, [25], [26 n.], [85 n.]; and Spinoza, [84], [85]; describes the Enlightenment as an age of self-conceit, [134]; prominent in the Storm and Stress movement, [227]; as a Romanticist, [297]–299; and Schelling, their philosophy, [306]. Gottsched, J. C., [219], [223], [294]. Grace, world of. See [World of grace]. Great Britain, the Enlightenment in, [145]–147. See [England]. Greek, language and literature, study of, before and in the Renaissance, [10]–14, [16]. Greeks, the, naturalism of, recovered in the Renaissance, [14]. Grotius, Hugo, [47]. Gunpowder, discovery of, [6]. Hamilton, Sir William, [202], [358]. Hardenberg, Friedrich von (Novalis), on Spinoza, [92]; quoted, [295]. Hartmann, K. R. E. von, [342]. Harvey, William, [35]. Hegel, G. W. F., German philosophy ends with, [3]; and Fichte and Schelling, what they sought, [279], [281], [312]; comment of, on Schelling, [299]; and the culmination of Idealism, [312]–314; why he remains to-day the representative of Kant, [314], [315]; life and writings of, [315]–318; the fundamental principle of his idealism, [321], [322]; the cosmic unity of, [322]–326; the cosmic law of, [326]–328; his application of his theory, [328], [329]; basis of the opposition against, [331], [332]; and Schopenhauer, compared, [340], [341]; his philosophy, how interpreted by his followers, [358]. Heidelberg, University of, [12]. Herbart, J. F., as a follower of Kant, [330]–332; turns to the thing-in-itself, [332]; his programme at the beginning of his teaching, [332], [333]; life and writings of, [333], [334]; his contradictions of experience, [334]; his argument for realism, [334]–336; the many reals and nature phenomena, according to, [337], [338]; the soul and mental phenomena, according to, [338]–340. Herbert of Cherbury, [165]. Herder, J. G. von, brought into currency the word “humanity,” [133]; prominent in the Storm and Stress movement, [227]; true interpreter of Leibnitz, [228]. Hibben, J. G., Philosophy of Enlightenment, [107 n.], [119 n.], [132 n.], [179 n.]; quoted on Berkeley, [180]. History, conception of, in the nineteenth century, [357], [360]–363. Hobbes, Thomas, [31], [35], [36]; a political theorist, [47]; forerunner of modern materialism, [48], [49]; compared with Bacon, [48]; compared with Descartes, [48]; life and writings of, [49], [50]; the influences upon the thought of, [50]–52; his mission, to construct a mechanical view of the world, [52]; the fundamental principle in the teaching of, [52]–54; the method of, [54], [55]; kinds of bodies, according to, [55], [56]; his application of the mathematical theory to psychology, [56]–58; to politics, [58]–60; his Leviathan, [60]; and Descartes and Locke, [145], [146]; began the school of English Moralists, [167], [168]. Höffding, Harold, History of Modern Philosophy, [iv], [36 n.], [40 n.], [70 n.] Holland, in the Natural Science period, [17], [21], [31]. Holy Roman Empire, [217], [225]. Humanistic period, general character of, [15]–21; long list of representatives of, [22], [23]; consideration of representatives of (Cusanus, Paracelsus, Bruno), [23]–30. Humanity, the word, brought into currency by Herder, [133]. Hume, David, on Spinoza, [88]; the change in English intellectual interests shown in, [147]; general relation of Berkeley to, [174], [175]; a dualist, [174 n.]; life and writings of, [183]–186; compared with Berkeley, [183], [184]; influences upon the thought of, [186], [187]; his Skepticism and Phenomenalism, [187]–189; the origin of ideas, according to, [189]–191; the association of ideas, according to, [191]–193; association, by law of contiguity, [192]–194; by law of resemblance, [192]–196; association of causation, [192], [193], [196]–199; mathematics in his philosophy, [194], [195]; his conception of substance, [195], [196]; his attack on theology, [195], [196]; his attack on science, [196]–199; the extent and limits of human knowledge, according to, [199], [200]; his theory of religion and ethics, [200], [201]; the skepticism of, influenced Kant, [235]. Huyghens, Christian, [32]. Idea, the world as, and as Will, according to Schopenhauer, [345]–347; the misery of the world as, according to Schopenhauer, [348], [349]. Idealism, of Berkeley, [174]; after Kant, [278], [279]; subjective, of Fichte, [290], [304]; æsthetic, of Schelling, [302], [304], [307]; Transcendental, of Schelling, [309], [310]; Hegel and the culmination of, [312]–314; and Realism, and Mysticism, contrasted, [318]–321; Hegel’s, the fundamental principle of, [321], [322]; German, and modern philosophy, [355], [356]. Idealists, German, treated, [279]–329. Ideas, the proof of their truth, according to Descartes, [72]; innate, of Descartes, [73], [156]; innate, of Spinoza, [156]; innate, denied by Locke, [156], [157], [189]; innate, of Leibnitz, [157]; source of, according to Locke, [157]–159; in the philosophies of Locke, Berkeley, and Hume, [174], [175]; abstract, in Berkeley’s philosophy, [177], [179], [189]; source of, according to Berkeley, [181]–183; origin of, according to Hume, [187], [189]–191; association of, according to Hume, [191]–193; association of, by law of contiguity, [192]–194; by law of resemblance, [192]–196; Kant’s use of the term, [261]; the three, according to Kant (God, soul, totality of the universe), [261]–268; of Fichte, [286]; neo-Platonic, in Schelling’s philosophy, [312]. Identity, of indiscernibles, [129]; Schelling’s philosophy of, [303], [310], [311]. Ideologists, French, [358]. Idols, the, of Bacon, [45]. Illuminati, the, [227]. Immortality of the soul, the postulate of, according to Kant, [276]. Impressions, in Hume’s philosophy, [190]. Inconsistencies, of the world according to Hegel, [322]. Independent Philosophers, the, of the Enlightenment, [142]. Individual, independence of the, in the Enlightenment, [134]. Individualism, movement toward, in the Renaissance, [12], [15]; modern, the rise of, [132]–134; in the Enlightenment, its expression in England, France, and Germany, [140]; in France, in the Enlightenment, [207]–209; in Germany, [219], [220], [223], [225]–229; of the Romantic movement, [296]. Induction, in the Natural Science period, [19], [21], [35]; defined, [35 n.]; use of, according to Galileo, [37]; according to Bacon, [40], [46]; according to Descartes, [70]–72. Infinity, Spinoza’s idea of, [94], [95], [105], [106]. Innate Ideas, of Descartes, [73], [156]; of Spinoza, [156]; existence of, denied by Locke, [156], [157], [189]; of Leibnitz, [157]. Intellectual Enlightenment, in France, [207]–212. Inventions, of the Middle Ages, [6], [9]; in the nineteenth century, [354]. Italian nature philosophers, [22]. Italy, in the Renaissance, [10], [12], [16], [17], [21], [31]. James, William, Hibbert Journal, [315 n.]; Pragmatism, [352 n.] Jena, [233], [284], [302], [307]. Jewish Cabala, the, [11]. Johnson, Samuel, president of King’s College in New York, [171]. Judgments indispensable to knowledge, according to Kant (analytic, synthetic, a posteriori, a priori), [248]–252. Kant, Immanuel, his Critique of Pure Reason, marks the transition from the Enlightenment to German Philosophy, [2]–4, [232]; the influences upon, [233]–235; life and writings of, [235]–238; the problem of, [238], [239]; the method of, [239], [240]; the threefold world of (subjective states, things-in-themselves, and phenomena), [240]–243; his world of knowledge, [243]–245; place of synthesis in knowledge, according to, [245]–248; the judgments indispensable to knowledge, according to, [248]–252; proof of the validity of human knowledge, according to, [252]–260; validity of sense-perception consists in space and time, [253]–255; the validity of the understanding, [255]–260; the question of the validity of the reason, [260]–262; the idea of the soul, [261]–264; the idea of the universe, [261], [264], [265]; the idea of God, [261], [265]–268; summary of the theory of knowledge contained in the Critique of Pure Reason, [268], [269]; the ethics of (the problem of the Critique of Practical Reason), [269]–271; the moral law and the two questions concerning it, [271]–275; the moral postulates, [275]–277; idealism after, [278], [279]; his influence upon Fichte, [285], [286]; why Hegel remains to-day the representative of, [314], [315]; followers of (Herbart and Schopenhauer), [330]–332. Kepler, Johann, [32]–34. Khayyám, Omar, [347], [348]. Knowledge, in Hobbes’s philosophy, [57]; in Descartes’s philosophy, [77]; God the only object of, according to Spinoza, [92]; Locke’s theory of, [155], [156], [158], [160]–162; in Berkeley’s philosophy, [176]; in Hume’s philosophy, [187], [199], [200]; in Reid’s philosophy, [202]; Kant’s theory of, [238], [239]; Kant’s world of, [243]–245; the place of synthesis in, according to Kant, [245]–248; the judgments indispensable to, according to Kant, [248]–252; human, proof of the validity of, according to Kant, [252]–262; transcendent and transcendental, of Kant, [262]; of the soul, [262]–264; of the universe, [264], [265]; of God, [265]–268; summary of Kant’s theory of, contained in the Critique of Pure Reason, [268], [269]; according to Schopenhauer, [345]. Knutzen, Martin, teacher of Kant, [234]. Latin, before and in the Renaissance, [10]–12. Leibnitz, G. W. von, [31]; as the finisher of the Renaissance and the forerunner of the Enlightenment, [107], [108]; life and writings of, [108]–112; his early classical studies, [112], [113]; the new science and his discoveries, [113], [114]; influenced by political pressure for religious reconciliation, [114], [115]; the method of, [115]–118; the immediate problem for (that of reconciling science and religion), [118], [119]; the result of his examination of the principles of science, a plurality of metaphysical substances, [119]–122; his examination of the scientific conception of motion, [119], [120]; his examination of the scientific conception of the atom, [120], [121]; his theory of monadology, [121]; the double nature of his monads, [122]–125; the two forms of his conception of the unity of the substances, [125]; the intrinsic (philosophical) unity of his monads, [125]–129; the superimposed (theological) unity of his monads, [129]–131; his toleration compared with that of Locke, [151]; his philosophy, a source of the German Enlightenment, [220]–223; his philosophy developed and transformed by Wolff and Thomasius, [221]–223; Lessing and Herder as interpreters of, [228]; appears, through Lessing, as a motive power in German Enlightenment, [229]. Leibnitz-Wolffian philosophy, [221]–223, [231]; influenced Kant, [233], [234]. Lessing, G. E., and Spinoza, connection of, [85]; helped save Germany from a political revolution, [226]–228; gave the death-blow to pedantic absolutism, [228]; German literature begins with, [228]; as interpreter of Leibnitz, [228]; his philosophy, [229]. Life, in Leibnitz’s philosophy, [128]. Locke, John, his Essay on the Human Understanding marks the transition from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment, [2]–4; his general position in the history of philosophy, [145]–147; his life and writings, [147]–150; the sources of his thought, [150]–153; his Puritanancestry, [150]; his training in tolerance, [150], [151]; the scientific influence on, [151], [152]; the political influence on, [152], [153]; the purpose of, [153]–155; two sides of his philosophy, [155]–158; and scholasticism, [156], [157]; his psychology, [157]–160; his epistemology, [155], [156], [158], [160]–162; his practical philosophy, [162], [163]; the influence of, [163], [164]; general relation of Berkeley to, [174], [175]; Berkeley’s points of agreement with, [175], [176]. Logic, in the latter part of the Middle Ages, studied for its own sake, [4]; in Hegel’s philosophy, [323], [328]. London, new religious centre in the Renaissance, [12]; becomes an intellectual centre about the time of the publication of Locke’s Essay, [206]. Lotze, R. H., [359]. Louis XIV, French King, [203]. Louis XV, French King, [204]. Macaulay, T. B., Essay on Bacon, [40 n.]; on Bacon, [42]. Macchiavelli, Niccolò, [47]. Magic, in the Humanistic period, [18], [19], [21], [25]. Magnetic needle, discovery of, [6], [7]. Malebranche, Nicolas de, [63], [83]. Man, his relation to the universe in the Renaissance, [8]–18; in the philosophy of Paracelsus, [26]; in Hobbes’s philosophy, [55], [58]; in Descartes’s philosophy, [79]; in Spinoza’s philosophy, [103]; in Leibnitz’s philosophy, [126]; in Fichte’s philosophy, [292], [293]; in Schelling’s philosophy, [300], [309]. See [New man]. Materialism, of Hobbes, [48], [49], [53]; defined, [53 n.]; of the nineteenth century, [358]. Mathematical Astronomers, the, [32]–36. Mathematical law, according to Galileo, [37], [38]. Mathematics, in the Natural Science period, [19], [21]; modern influence of, grew from astronomical beginnings among the Humanists, [35]; of Hobbes, [48], [54], [56]–60; of Descartes, [48], [68], [69], [74], [76]; in Spinoza’s philosophy, [90], [91], [93], [99]; differential calculus, discovered by Leibnitz, [112], [114], [119]; in Leibnitz’s philosophy, [116], [122], [123]; in Hume’s philosophy, [194], [195]. Matter, the reality of, according to Descartes, [75]–77, [82]; relation of God to, according to Descartes, [77], [78]; in Berkeley’s philosophy, [177], [178]; in Schelling’s philosophy, [305]; in Hegel’s philosophy, [324]. Mechanism, of the world of Hobbes, [52]–54. Mediæval, man, [9], [10]; science, [11]; institutions, [11]; church, [14]; world, [15]. Mendelssohn, Moses, [221]. Metaphysics, Cartesian, assumed in the Enlightenment, [135]. Methodism, rise of, [137]. Middle Ages, the, causes of the decay of the civilization of, [4]–7. Mill, J. S., [38 n.], [358]. Mind, relation of God to, according to Descartes, [78]; relation of body and, according to Descartes, [78]–80; in the philosophy of the Occasionalists, [83]; in the philosophy of Locke, [156]–162; in Berkeley’s philosophy, [176], [180]; in Hume’s philosophy, [191]; in Reid’s philosophy, [202]; of Fichte and Schelling, [304]; in Hegel’s philosophy, [324]; phenomena of, according to Herbart, [338]–340. See [Soul]. Modern philosophy, comparative short time-length of, [iii], [iv]; difficulty in the study of, [1], [2]; periods of, [2]–4; and German idealism, [355], [356]. Modes, of mind and matter, according to Descartes, [77]; of thought and extension, according to Spinoza, [95], [96]. Monadology, Leibnitz’s theory of, [121]. Monads, of Leibnitz, metaphysical atoms, [112], [114], [119], [121]; the double nature of, [122]–125; conceived as soul-atoms, [122], [123], [126]; representation the general function of, [124]; are windowless, and mirror the universe, [125], [127]; the principle of unity among, called a pre-established harmony, [125]; the intrinsic (philosophical) unity of, [125]–129; the superimposed (theological) unity of, [129]–131. Montesquieu, C. de S. de, Baron, [208]. Moral, awakening, the, according to Fichte, [287], [288]; freedom, of Fichte, [289], [290]; world, of Fichte, [290]–292; reality, a, what it involves, according to Fichte, [293]–295. Moral Philosophers, of the Enlightenment, [141]. Moralists, English, the, [166]–168. Morality, according to Hegel, [326]. Morals, Kant’s theory of, [269]–277. More, Thomas, his Utopia, [41 n.], [47]. Morley, John, Diderot, [211 n.] Motion, in Galileo’s philosophy, [38]; in Hobbes’s philosophy, [53]; Leibnitz’s examination of the scientific conception of, [119], [120]. Music according to Schopenhauer, [350]. Mysticism, self-destructive, [5]; of Spinoza, [98]–102; and Realism, and Idealism, contrasted, [318]–321; of Schopenhauer, [347]; of twentieth century, [363]. Mystics, Protestant, the, [23]. Mythology and Revelation, Schelling’s philosophy of, [303], [311], [312]. Napoleon, quoted, [231]. Natura naturans and natura naturata, [29], [30], [97]. Natural Religion, the creed of, [165]. Natural Science period, the, general facts about, [15]–21; discussion of (Galileo, Bacon, Hobbes), [31]–61; discussion of the Rationalism of, [62]–131. Naturalism, of the Greeks, recovered in the Renaissance, [14]; in Hobbes, [53]; defined, [53 n.] Nature, in the Natural Science period, [18]; in the philosophy of Paracelsus, [27]; in Bruno’s philosophy, [29], [30]; its two aspects, natura naturans and natura naturata, [29], [30]; in the philosophy of the Rationalists, [63], [64]; continuity of, according to Leibnitz, [123], [126], [128], [129]; in the Enlightenment, [135]; in the philosophy of Locke, [163]; according to Kant, [248], [255], [258], [259]; as conceived by the Romanticists, [297]; Schelling’s philosophy of, [300], [304]–306; phenomena of, and the many reals, according to Herbart, [337], [338]; in Schopenhauer, [348]; how conceived, in the nineteenth century, [353]; according to Fechner, [359]. Nature philosophers, Italian, [22]. Neo-Platonism, dominated the Humanistic period, [17], [18], [21], [23], [25], [27]–29. New Man, in a New Universe, phrase characterizing first period of modern philosophy, [8]–18; the emergence of the, in the Enlightenment, [132]–134. Newton, Sir Isaac, [32]; his physics, Kant influenced by, [234]. Nietzsche, Friedrich, [342], [352 n.] Nineteenth century, pessimistic, [341], [342]; the character of the realism of, [353]–355; the barrenness of the philosophy of, and German idealism, [355], [356]; the philosophical problems of, [356]–362. Nineteenth Century Philosophy, the fourth period of modern philosophy, [3], [352]–363. Nominalism, doctrine of, led to the dissolution of the civilization of the Middle Ages, [6]. Noumena of Kant, [242]. Novalis. See [Hardenberg]. Occasionalists, the, [63], [81]; their relation to Descartes, [81]–83. Owen, John, Locke influenced by, [150]. Oxford University, [12]. Panpsychism, [102]. Pantheism, defined, [94]; of Spinoza, [94]–98. Paracelsus, [23], [25]–27. Paris, the centre of scholastic influence in the seventeenth century, [206]. Paulsen, Friedrich, cited, [231]; on Kant’s synthetic judgments a priori, [251 n.] Perceptions, of Berkeley, [181]; of Hume, [190]. See [Sense-perception]. Periods of modern philosophy, [2]–4. Pessimism, [341], [342], [344], [348]–351. Phenomena, the world of, according to Kant, [242]–243; realities impliedby, according to Herbart, [336]; nature, and the many reals, according to Herbart, [337], [338]. Phenomenalism, of Hume, [187]–189. “Philosopher’s stone, the,” [25]. Philosophical Religion, Lessing a writer on, [143]. Philosophical Revolutionists, the, of the Enlightenment, [142]. Philosophy, according to Hegel, [326]; modern, barren of ideas, [355]; and German Idealism, [355], [356]. Phrenology, in the nineteenth century, [358]. Physics, in Hobbes’s philosophy, [56]; of Descartes, [68]. See [Science]. Pietism, and Leibnitz, [115]; a factor in the German Enlightenment, [219], [220], [223], [230]; influenced Kant, [233]. Pietists, the, of the Enlightenment, [142]. Plato, [45 n.] Platonic Academy, the, of the Renaissance, [10]. Platonism, reaction toward, after Hobbes, [61]. Plotinus, [28]. Pluralism, of Leibnitz, [119]–122. Political Economists and Constitutionalists, the, of the Enlightenment, [142]. Political philosophers, [23]. Politics, according to Hobbes, [56], [58]–60. Pope, Alexander, on Bacon, [42]; Essay on Man, quoted, [133]. Popular Philosophers, the, of the Enlightenment, [142]. Positivism, Bacon the father of, in England, [43]; defined, [43 n.]; of Hume, [188], [189]. Prague, University of, [12]. Printing, discovery of, [6]. Protestant Mystics, the, [23]. Prussia, rise of, [218], [219], [223]; and Frederick the Great, [224]–226. Psychologists and related philosophers, of the Enlightenment, [142]. Psychology, in Hobbes’s philosophy, [56]–58; empirical, took the place of metaphysics in the Enlightenment, [137]; of Locke, [157]–160; of Hume, [189]; of Herbart, [338]–340; in the nineteenth century, [357]. See [Associational Psychology], [Associational Psychologists]. Psycho-physical parallelism, of Spinoza, [102]. Ptolemaic system, the, [33]. Pyrrho, Skeptic philosopher, [187]. Qualities, primary and secondary, in Locke’s philosophy, [161]; in Berkeley’s philosophy, [177], [178]. See [Attributes]. Rand, Modern Classical Philosophers, [iv], [40 n.], [47] n., [66] n., [84] n., [107] n., [147] n., [169] n., [183] n., [212] n., [236] n., [282] n., [300] n., [315] n., [340] n., [352] n., [360] n. Rationalism, defined, [61 n.]; the nature of, [62]–65; School of, in Germany, France, and Holland, [80]; of Wolff and the Leibnitz-Wolffians, [221]–223, [231]. Rationalists, the, [31], [63]–65. See [Descartes], [Spinoza], [Leibnitz]. Realism, Mysticism, and Idealism, contrasted, [318]–321; the argument for, according to Herbart, [334]–336; multiple, according to Herbart, [337], [338]; the return to, in the nineteenth century, [352], [353]; of the nineteenth century, the character of, [353]–355. Realistic Movement, the, [224]. Reality, of Fichte, [287]–295; of Realism, Mysticism, and Idealism, [320], [321]; implied by phenomena, according to Herbart, [336]; irrational, the will as, according to Schopenhauer, [347], [348]. See [Absolute Reality]. Reason, the question of its validity, according to Kant, [260]–262; the will exerted from, [272], [273]; in Hegel’s philosophy, [314], [323]. Reflections in Locke’s philosophy, [158], [159]. Reformation, Protestant, the, [7]. Reid, Thomas, [201], [202]. Religion, according to Hobbes, [60]; and science, Leibnitz’s attempt to reconcile, [118], [119]; in the Enlightenment, [137]; Philosophical, Lessing a writer on, [143]; of the Deists, [164], [165]; in Hume’s philosophy, [200], [201]; according to Hegel, [326]. Religious philosophy, of Schelling, [311], [312]. Renaissance, the, the first period of modern philosophy, [2]–4; general character of, [8]–11; significance of, in history, [11]–15; the problem of, [14]; two periods of, [15]–21; discussion of the Humanistic period of, [22]–30; birthplaces of the chief philosophers of (map), [30]; discussion of the Natural Science period of (Galileo, Bacon, Hobbes), [31]–61; in England after Hobbes, [61]; discussion of the Rationalism of the Natural Science period of, [62]–131. Representation, the general function of Leibnitz’s monads, [124], [126]. Resemblance, association by, [192]–196. Revelation and Mythology, Schelling’s Philosophy of, [303], [311], [312]. Revolution, French, the, [213], [214], [216]. Revolutionists, Philosophical, the, of the Enlightenment, [142]. Ribot, Théodule, German Psychology of To-day, [332 n.] Richter, J. P., forerunner of the literary Romanticists, [279]. Robertson, G. C., Hobbes, [47 n.], [66 n.] Romantic philosophers, the, [299]. Romanticism, [224]; the period of, [295], [296]; its meaning, [296], [297]; in philosophy, [299], [300]; takes a religious turn at beginning of eighteenth century, [311]. Romanticists, the, [284], [285]; Goethe as one of, [297]–299; the æsthetic humanism of, [308]. Rousseau, J. J., the most notable figure of France during the Enlightenment, [142]; his philosophy, [213]–216; his influence, [216], [230], [234], [235]. Royal Society, the, [40]. Royce, Josiah, Spirit of Modern Philosophy, [iv], [84 n.], [169 n.], [236 n.], [282 n.], [299 n.], [315 n.], [352 n.]; The World and the Individual, [352 n.] Salvation, Spinoza’s doctrine of, [102]–106. Schelling, F. W. J. von, and Fichte and Hegel, what they sought, [279], [281], [312]; the true Romantic spirit appears in, [299]; life and writings of, [300]–303; his philosophy of Nature, [300], [304]–306; his philosophy characterized, [301]; his transcendental philosophy, [302], [307]–310; his system of identity, [303], [310], [311]; and Fichte, a brief comparison of, as philosophers, [303]–305; his religious philosophy, [311], [312]. Schiller, J. C. F. von, prominent in the Storm and Stress movement, [227]; notable example of the influence of Kant upon literature, [233]; quoted on Kant, [233]; Artists, Letters on Æsthetic Education, [307 n.] Schleiermacher, F. E. D., [308], [311]. Scholasticism, a self-destructive method, [4]; mediæval, Renaissance had to reckon with, [11]; representatives of the revival of, [22]; after Hobbes, [61]; and Locke, [156], [157]. Schopenhauer, Arthur, his relation to Kant, [330]–332; and his philosophical relations, [340]–342; and pessimism, [341], [342], [344], [348], [349]–351; life and writings of, [342], [343]; the influences upon his thought, [343]–345; the world as will and the world as idea, [345]–347; the will as irrational reality, [347], [348]; the misery of the world as idea, [348], [349]; the way of deliverance, [349]–351. Schultze, F. A., teacher of Kant, [233]. Science, attitude of the Church toward, in the period of the Renaissance, [19]–21; modern methods in, began with Galileo, [32], [37]–39; in Bacon, [40]–46; in Hobbes, [54], [58]; and religion, Leibnitz’s attempt to reconcile, [118], [119]; Hume’s attack on, [196]–199; Hume’s two classes of, [199], [200]; in the nineteenth century, [353]–357; invaded by evolution,[361]. See [Natural Science period], [Physics]. Scientific methods, in the Renaissance, [18], [19]. Scientists, of the Natural Science period, [31]–39, [62]–65. See [Descartes], [Spinoza], [Leibnitz]. Scottish School of Philosophy, the, of the Enlightenment, [141], [201], [202]. Self, idea of, in Locke’s philosophy, [159], [160]; of Kant, [260]; of Fichte, [293]; of Schelling, [309], [310]. See [Ego]. Sensationalism, [53]. Sensationalists. See [Sensualists]. Sensations, of Locke, [158], [159]; of Kant, [245]; of Fichte, [290], [291]; of Herbart, [339]; of Fechner, [359]. Sense-perception, in what its validity consists, according to Kant, [253]–255. See [Perceptions]. Sensualists, the, of the Enlightenment, [141], [212]. Sentimentalist, the, of the Enlightenment (Rousseau), [142]. Seven Years’ War, [225]. Shaftesbury, Lord, and Locke, [148], [152], [153]. Shelley, P. B., Love’s Philosophy, [305 n.]; Prometheus Unbound quoted, [325]. Skepticism, revived by Renaissance scholars, [11]; of Hume, [187]–189; of Hume, influenced Kant, [235]. Skeptics, the, of the Enlightenment, [141]. Social Enlightenment, in France, [213]–216. Sociology, according to Comte, [360]. Solipsism, of Descartes, [72]; defined, [183]. Soul, according to Descartes, [72], [79]; the monad of Leibnitz conceived as, [122], [123], [126]; according to Hume, [196]; the idea of the, according to Kant, [261]–264; the postulate of the immortality of, according to Kant, [276]; in Herbart’s philosophy, [338]–340; the problem of the functioning of, [357]–360. See [Mind]. Space and time, knowledge possible by means of, according to Kant, [253]–255. Spencer, Herbert, Education, [43 n.]; and evolution, [362]. Spener, P. J., [220], [230]. Spinoza, Baruch de, [31], [35]; his relation to Descartes, [81]–84; the historical place of, [84]–86; influence of his Jewish training on, [86]; his impulse from the new science, and Descartes’s influence upon, [86], [87]; his acquaintance with the Collegiants, [87], [88]; life and philosophical writings of, [88]–90; the method of, [90], [91]; the fundamental principle in his philosophy, [91], [92]; three central problems in his teaching, [93]; his pantheism, [94]–98; the mysticism of, [98]–102; his doctrine of salvation, [102]–106; summary of his teaching, [106]; his conception of the world compared with Leibnitz’s, [127]; and Kant, foci of the philosophy of the generation after Kant, [278], [279]; his influence upon Fichte, [285]. Spirit. See [Mind], [Soul]. Spirituality of Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel, [281]. Staël, Madame de, quoted, [231]. State, the, according to Hobbes, [55], [58]–60. States, ideal, [41], [47]. Stephen, Leslie, Hobbes, [47 n.]; History of English Thought, [166 n.] Stewart, Dugald, [141], [202]. Stirling, J. H., Textbook to Kant, [236 n.] Stoicism, revived by Renaissance scholars, [11]. Storm and Stress movement, [224], [227], [229], [295], [296]. “Strife of methods, the,” [19], [35]. “Struggle of traditions, the,” [17], [18]. Subjective idealism, of Fichte, [290], [304]. Subjective states, the world of, according to Kant, [240]–242. Subjectivism, Renaissance marked by the rise of, [14], [15]. Substance, in Descartes’s philosophy, [77], [81], [82]; in the philosophy of the Occasionalists and Spinoza, [81]–84, [91]–95, [101]; in Leibnitz’s philosophy, [119]–122; in Locke’s philosophy, [160]–162; according to Locke, Berkeley, and Hume, [174], [175]; in Berkeley’s philosophy, [176], [178]; Hume’s conception of, [195], [196], Sufficient reason, law of, [129]. Suicide, according to Schopenhauer, [349]. Sympathy, according to Schopenhauer, [350], [351]. Synthesis, according, to Kant, [244], [245]; the place of, in knowledge, according to Kant, [245]–248; of Fichte, [295]; of Hegel, [327]. See [Deduction]. Synthetic, judgments of Kant, [249]–252. Taurellus, [11]. Tetens, J. N., [221]. Theology, Hume’s attack on, [195], [196]. Thesis, of Fichte, [295]; of Hegel, [327]. Things-in-themselves, the world of, according to Kant, [240]–242, [336]; how treated by Fichte, [290], [291]; how treated by Schelling, [300]; the philosophy of, [330]–351; the chief concern of philosophy, according to Herbart, [332]; implied by phenomena, according to Herbart, [336]; basis of Schopenhauer’s philosophy, [340]; according to Schopenhauer, [345], [346]. Thirty Years’ War, [217]. Thomasius, Christian, [142], [221]. Thought, in Spinoza’s philosophy, [95], [101], [102]; in Hegel’s philosophy, [322], [335]. Time and space, knowledge possible by means of, according to Kant, [253]–255. Tindal, Matthew, [165]. Toland, John, [165]. Transcendental, method, of Kant, [239], [240]; philosophy, of Schelling, [302], [307]–310; freedom, of Schopenhauer, [349]–351. Trent, Council of, [16], [20]. Truth, standard of, in the Middle Ages, self-destructive, [5]; criterion of, according to Descartes, [72]. Truths, of Leibnitz, [116], [117]. Tschirnhausen, E. W. von, [221]. Turner, William, History of Philosophy, [73 n.] Ueberweg, Friedrich, History of Philosophy, [iv], [209 n.] Understanding, in what its validity consists, according to Kant, [255]–260. Unity, of Leibnitz, [122]; a preëstablished harmony, [125]; the intrinsic (philosophical), [125]–129; the superimposed (theological), [129]–131; cosmic, of Hegel, [322]–326. Universal, concrete and abstract, [99], [100]. Universe, Man’s relation to, in the Renaissance, [8]–18; according to the Ptolemaic system, [33]; according to the Copernican system, [34]; the idea of the, according to Kant, [261], [264], [265]; according to Schelling, [304], [311]. See [New Man]. Universities, in the Renaissance, [12]; towns containing (map), [280]. Utilitarianism, [43]. Utopias, [41], [47]. Van der Ende, his influence on Spinoza, [87], [89]. Vienna, University of, [12]. Voltaire, F. M. A. de, [208]–210, [223]. Wagner, Richard, [342]. Watson, John, Hedonistic Theories, [47 n.] Weber, E. A., History of Philosophy, [iv], [70 n.], [73 n.], [107 n.], [332 n.], [352 n.] Weimar, [233], [307]. Wernaer, R. M., Romanticism and the Romantic School in Germany, [300 n.] Will, the, Kant’s theory of, [269]–277; the world as, and as idea, according to Schopenhauer, [345]–347; as irrational reality, according to Schopenhauer, [347], [348]; suicide and, according to Schopenhauer, [349]; the denial of, according to Schopenhauer, [349]–351. Windelband, Wilhelm, History of Philosophy, [iv], [8 n.], [23 n.], [30 n.], [47 n.], [70 n.], [119 n.], [132 n.], [183 n.], [230 n.], [236 n.], [278 n.], [282 n.]; on Kant’s synthetic judgments a priori, [251 n.] Wittenberg, new religious centre in the Renaissance, [12]. Wolfenbüttel Fragments, [85]. Wolff, Christian, [221], [222], [228]. Wolffians, the, [142]. World, of grace, [63], [64], [76], [83]; relation of God to, according to Descartes, [77]; in Spinoza’s philosophy, [97]; the, Leibnitz’s conception of, as the best possible, [130]; according to Goethe, [298]; in terms of consciousness, [321]; a world of contradictions, [321]; as will and as idea, according to Schopenhauer, [345]–347; as idea, the misery of, according to Schopenhauer, [348], [349]. See [Universe].