PREFACE

The pedagogical purpose of this history of philosophy is stated in the Preface to the first volume. It may be desirable in this place to restate what that purpose is.

This book is intended as a text-book for sketch-courses in the history of philosophy. It is written for the student rather than for the teacher. It is a history of philosophy upon the background of geography and of literary and political history. Since the book is intended for the student, it makes the teacher all the more necessary; for it puts into the hands of the student an outline of the history of philosophy and into the hands of the teacher the class-room time for inspiring the student with his own interpretations. In making use of geographical maps, contemporary literature, and political history, this book is merely employing for pedagogical reasons the stock of information with which the student is furnished, when he begins the history of philosophy. The summaries, tables, and other generalizations are employed, as in text-books in other subjects, as helps to the memory. Therefore the book has the single purpose of arranging and organizing the material of the history of philosophy for the beginner.

The student will be impressed with the short time-length of the modern period compared with the tremendously long stretches of the periods of antiquity. The modern period is only four hundred and fifty yearsin length, if we take the date 1453 as its beginning. Compared to the twenty-two hundred years of ancient and mediæval life, the period of modern life seems very short. Furthermore the student who has followed the philosophy of antiquity must have observed how often philosophy arose out of ethnic situations in which whole civilizations were involved. He will find that modern philosophy in this respect stands in contrast with the philosophy of ancient times. With the decentralizing of modern Europe, philosophy has also become decentralized. This does not mean that philosophical movements have included fewer people in their sweep, but that the movements have had shorter life, the transitions have been quicker, and the epochs have been briefer. Modern civilization is subjective; and its philosophy is thereby more technical, and more difficult to understand and to interpret than the philosophy of antiquity.

There are many helpful books in English on the history of modern philosophy, and the student should have them at hand. I call attention especially to Rand, Modern Classical Philosophers, for its judicious selection from the original sources; to Royce, Spirit of Modern Philosophy, chapters iii to x; to Eucken, The Problem of Human Life, pp. 303 to 518; and to the Summaries in Windelband, History of Philosophy, Parts IV to VII. Besides these there are valuable histories of modern philosophy by Falckenberg, Höffding (2 vols.), Weber, Ueberweg (vol. ii), Calkins, Dewing, and Rogers.

To friends who have read parts of the manuscript, I desire to acknowledge my indebtedness for many wise criticisms and suggestions; especially to Professor W. A. Neilson, Professor R. B. Perry, Dr. B. A. G. Fuller,and Dr. J. H. Woods of Harvard University; to Professor Mary W. Calkins of Wellesley College; to Professor W. P. Montague of Columbia University; and to Professor S. P. Capen of Clark College.

Tufts College, December, 1910.

CONTENTS
VOLUME II. MODERN PHILOSOPHY
(1453 to the Present Time)

CHAPTER I.The Characteristics and Divisions of the Modern Period[1]
The Difficulty in the Study of Modern Philosophy[1]
The Periods of Modern Philosophy[2]
The Causes of the Decay of the Civilization of the Middle Ages[4]
(a)The Internal Causes[4]
(1) The Intellectual Methods were Self-Destructive[4]
(2) The Standard of Truth became a Double Standard[5]
(3) The Development of Mysticism[5]
(4) The Doctrine of Nominalism[5]
(b)The External Causes[6]
CHAPTER II.The Renaissance (1453–1690)[8]
The General Character of the Renaissance[8]
(a)The New Man of the Renaissance[8]
(b)The New Universe of the Renaissance[9]
(1) The Transformation of the Physical Universe[9]
(2) The Restoration of the World of Antiquity[10]
The Significance of the Renaissance in History[11]
Map showing the Decentralization of Europe[13]
The Two Periods of the Renaissance: The Humanistic (1453–1600); The Natural Science (1600–1690)[15]
(a)The Similarities of the Two Periods[16]
(b)The Differences of the Two Periods[16]
(1) The Countries which participate in the Renaissance differ in the Two Periods[16]
(2) The Intellectual Standards differ in the Two Periods[17]
(3) The Scientific Methods in the Two Periods were Different[18]
(4) The Attitude of the Church toward Science differs in the Two Periods[19]
A Brief Contrast of the Two Periods—A Summary of the Discussion above[21]
CHAPTER III.The Humanistic Period of the Renaissance (1453–1600)[22]
The Long List of Representatives of the Humanistic Period[22]
Nicolas of Cusa (1401–1464)[24]
Paracelsus (1493–1541)[25]
Giordano Bruno (1548–1600)[27]
Map showing the Birthplaces of the Chief Philosophers of the Renaissance[30]
CHAPTER IV.The Natural Science Period of the Renaissance (1600–1690)[31]
The Philosophers of the Natural Science Period[31]
The Mathematical Astronomers[32]
Galileo Galilei (1564–1641)[36]
The Life of Francis Bacon, Baron Verulam (1561–1626)[39]
The Position of Bacon in Philosophy[39]
The Aim of Bacon[42]
The Method of Bacon[43]
(a)Bacon’s Criticism of the Past[44]
(b)Bacon’s Positive Construction[45]
The English Natural Science Movement[46]
Thomas Hobbes and his Contemporaries[47]
The Life and Writings of Hobbes (1588–1679)[49]
1. As a Classical Scholar (1588–1628)[49]
2. As Mathematician (1628–1638)[49]
3. As Philosopher (1638–1651)[50]
4. As Controversialist (1651–1668)[50]
5. As Classical Scholar (1668–1679)[50]
The Influences upon the Thought of Hobbes[50]
1. His Premature Birth[50]
2. His Father[51]
3. The New Mathematical Science[52]
The Fundamental Principle in the Teaching of Hobbes[52]
The Method of Hobbes[54]
The Kinds of Bodies[55]
Hobbes’s Application of the Mathematical Theory to Psychology[56]
Hobbes’s Application of the Mathematical Theory to Politics[58]
The Renaissance in England after Hobbes[61]
CHAPTER V.The Rationalism of the Natural Science Period of the Renaissance[62]
The Nature of Rationalism[62]
The Mental Conflict in Descartes[65]
The Life and Philosophical Writings of Descartes (1596–1650)[66]
1. As Child and Student (1596–1613)[66]
2. As Traveler (1613–1628)[66]
3. As Writer (1629–1650)[67]
4. In Stockholm (1649–1650)[67]
The Two Conflicting Influences upon the Thought of Descartes[67]
The Method of Descartes[69]
Induction—Provisional Doubt—The Ultimate Certainty of Consciousness[70]
Deduction—The Implications of Consciousness[72]
The Existence of God[73]
The Reality of Matter[75]
God and the World[77]
The Relation of God to Matter[77]
The Relation of God to Minds[78]
The Relation of Mind and Body[78]
The Influence of Descartes[80]
The Relation of the Occasionalists and Spinoza to Descartes[81]
Portrait of Spinoza[84]
The Historical Place of Spinoza[84]
The Influences upon Spinoza[86]
1. His Jewish Training[86]
2. His Impulse from the New Science—Descartes’ Influence[86]
3. His Acquaintance with the Collegiants[87]
The Life and Philosophical Writings of Spinoza (1632–1677)[88]
1. In Israel (1632–1656)[89]
2. In Retirement (1656–1663)[89]
3. In the Public Eye (1663–1677)[90]
The Method of Spinoza[90]
The Fundamental Principle of Spinoza’s Philosophy[91]
Three Central Problems in Spinoza’s Teaching[93]
The Pantheism of Spinoza—The All-Inclusiveness of God[94]
The Mysticism of Spinoza[98]
Spinoza’s Doctrine of Salvation[102]
Summary of Spinoza’s Teaching[106]
Leibnitz as the Finisher of the Renaissance and the Forerunner of the Enlightenment[107]
The Life and Writings of Leibnitz (1646–1716)[108]
1. Leipsic and University Life (1646–1666)[111]
2. Mainz and Diplomacy (1666–1672)[111]
3. Paris and Science (1672–1676)[111]
4. Hanover and Philosophy (1676–1716)[112]
The Three Influences upon the Thought of Leibnitz[112]
(1) His Early Classical Studies[112]
(2) The New Science and his own Discoveries[113]
(3) Political Pressure for Religious Reconciliation[114]
The Method of Leibnitz[115]
The Immediate Problem for Leibnitz[118]
The Result of Leibnitz’s Examination of the Principles of Science—A Plurality of Metaphysical Substances[119]
1. Leibnitz first scrutinized the Scientific Conception of Motion[119]
2. Leibnitz next examined the Scientific Conception of the Atom[120]
3. Leibnitz then identified Force with the Metaphysical Atom[121]
The Double Nature of the Monads[122]
The Two Forms of Leibnitz’s Conception of the Unity of Substances[125]
The Intrinsic Unity of the Monads—The Philosophical Unity[125]
The Superimposed Unity of the Monads—The Theological Unity[129]
CHAPTER VI.The Enlightenment (1690–1781)[132]
The Emergence of the “New Man”—Individualism[132]
The Practical Presupposition of the Enlightenment—The Independence of the Individual[134]
The Metaphysical Presupposition of the Enlightenment[135]
The Problems of the Enlightenment[135]
(a)Utilitarian Problems[136]
(b)Questions of Criticism[138]
A Comparison of the Enlightenment in England, France, and Germany[140]
The Many Groups of Philosophers of the Enlightenment[140]
Map showing the Birthplaces of some of the Influential Thinkers of the Enlightenment[144]
CHAPTER VII.John Locke[145]
The Enlightenment in Great Britain[145]
John Locke, Life and Writings (1632–1704)[147]
1. Student Life (1632–1666)[147]
2. As Politician (1666–1683)[148]
3. As Philosophical Author (1683–1691)[149]
4. As Controversialist (1691–1704)[149]
The Sources of Locke’s Thought[150]
1. His Puritan Ancestry[150]
2. His Training in Tolerance[150]
3. The Scientific Influence[151]
4. The Political Influence[152]
Summary[153]
The Purpose of Locke[153]
Two Sides of Locke’s Philosophy[155]
(a)The Negative Side—Locke and Scholasticism[156]
(b)The Positive Side—The New Psychology and Epistemology[157]
Locke’s Psychology[158]
Locke’s Theory of Knowledge[160]
Locke’s Practical Philosophy[162]
The Influence of Locke[163]
The English Deists[164]
The English Moralists[166]
Chronological Table of the English Moralists[168]
CHAPTER VIII.Berkeley and Hume[169]
The Life and Writings of George Berkeley (1685–1753)[169]
1. His Early Training (1685–1707)[169]
2. As Author (1707–1721)[170]
3. As Priest and Missionary (1721–1753)[171]
The Influences upon the Thought of Berkeley[172]
The Purpose of Berkeley[173]
Berkeley’s General Relation to Locke and Hume[174]
Berkeley’s Points of Agreement with Locke[175]
The Negative Side of Berkeley’s Philosophy[176]
1. As shown in General in his Analysis of Abstract Ideas[177]
2. As shown in Particular in his Analysis of Matter[177]
The Positive Side of Berkeley’s Philosophy[179]
1.Esse est Percipi[179]
2. The Existence of Mind is assumed by Berkeley[180]
3. Spiritual Substances are Sufficient to explain all Ideas[181]
The Life and Writings of David Hume (1711–1776)[183]
1. Period of Training (1711–1734)[184]
2. Period of Philosopher (1734–1752)[185]
3. Period of Politician (1752–1776)[185]
Influences upon the Thought of Hume[186]
Dogmatism, Phenomenalism, and Skepticism[187]
The Origin of Ideas[189]
The Association of Ideas[191]
The Association of Contiguity[193]
The Association of Resemblance[194]
1. Mathematics[194]
2. The Conception of Substance: Hume’s Attack on Theology[195]
The Association of Causation: Hume’s Attack on Science[196]
The Extent and Limits of Human Knowledge[199]
Hume’s Theory of Religion and Ethics[200]
The Scottish School[201]
CHAPTER IX.The Enlightenment in France and Germany[203]
The Situation in France in the Enlightenment[203]
The English Influence in France[206]
The Two Periods of the French Enlightenment[207]
The Intellectual Enlightenment (1729–1762)—Voltaire, Montesquieu, and the Encyclopædists[208]
Voltaire (1694–1778)[209]
The Encyclopædists[211]
The Social Enlightenment (1762–1789)[213]
Rousseau (1712–1778)[213]
The German Enlightenment (1740–1781)[216]
The Introductory Period (1648–1740). Absolutism[217]
1. The Rise of Prussia[218]
2. The Early German Literature[219]
3. The Pietistic Movement[219]
4. The Transformation of Leibnitz’s Rationalism[220]
Summary of the Literary Enlightenment of Germany (1740–1781)[223]
The Political Enlightenment of Germany—Frederick the Great[224]
The Course of the German Enlightenment[226]
Lessing[228]
CHAPTER X.Kant[230]
The Convergence of Philosophical Influences in Germany[230]
The Three Characteristics of German Philosophy[231]
The Two Periods of German Philosophy[232]
The Influences upon Kant[233]
1. Pietism[233]
2. The Leibnitz-Wolffian Philosophy[233]
3. The Physics of Newton[234]
4. The Humanitarianism of Rousseau[234]
5. The Skepticism of Hume[235]
The Life and Writings of Kant (1724–1804)[235]
The Problem of Kant[238]
The Method of Kant[239]
The Threefold World of Kant—Subjective States, Things-in-Themselves, and Phenomena[240]
The World of Knowledge[243]
The Place of Synthesis in Knowledge[245]
The Judgments Indispensable to Human Knowledge[248]
The Proof of the Validity of Human Knowledge[252]
1. In what does the Validity of Sense-Perception consist?[253]
2. In what does the Validity of the Understanding consist?[255]
Has the Reason by itself any Validity?[260]
The Idea of the Soul[262]
The Idea of the Universe[264]
The Idea of God[265]
Conclusion[268]
The Problem of the Critique of Practical Reason: The Ethics of Kant[269]
The Moral Law and the Two Questions concerning it[271]
1. The First Question concerning the Moral Law[272]
2. The Second Question concerning the Moral Law[273]
The Moral Postulates[275]
1. The Postulate of Freedom[276]
2. The Postulate of the Immortality of the Soul[276]
3. The Postulate of the Existence of God[276]
CHAPTER XI.The German Idealists[278]
Idealism after Kant[278]
Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel[279]
Map showing the University Towns and other Important Places connected with the German Idealists[280]
The Life and Writings of Fichte (1762–1814)[282]
1. His Education (1762–1790)[283]
2. Discipleship of Kant (1790–1794)[283]
3. His Life at Jena (1794–1799)[284]
4. His Life at Berlin (1799–1814)[284]
The Influences upon Fichte’s Teaching[285]
Why we Philosophize[286]
The Moral Awakening[287]
The Central Principle in Fichte’s Philosophy[288]
The Moral World[290]
God and Man[292]
What a Moral Reality involves[293]
1. It involves the Consciousness of Something Else[293]
2. It involves a Contradiction[294]
Romanticism[295]
Goethe as a Romanticist[297]
Romanticism in Philosophy[299]
The Life and Writings of Schelling (1775–1854)[300]
1. Earlier Period (1775–1797)[302]
2. The Philosophy of Nature (1797–1800)[302]
3. The Transcendental Philosophy (1800–1801)[302]
4. The Philosophy of Identity (1801–1804)[303]
5. The Philosophy of Freedom and God (1804–1809)[303]
6. The Philosophy of Mythology and Revelation (1809–1854)[303]
A Brief Comparison of Fichte and Schelling as Philosophers[303]
Schelling’s Philosophy of Nature[305]
Schelling’s Transcendental Philosophy[307]
The System of Identity[310]
Schelling’s Religious Philosophy[311]
Hegel and the Culmination of Idealism[312]
Why Hegel remains to-day the Representative of Kant[314]
The Life and Writings of Hegel (1770–1831)[315]
1. Formative Period (1770–1796)[317]
2. Formulation of his Philosophy (1796–1806)[317]
3. Development of his Philosophy (1806–1831)[317]
Realism, Mysticism, and Idealism[318]
The Fundamental Principles of Hegel’s Idealism[321]
The Cosmic Unity[322]
The Cosmic Law[326]
Hegel’s Application of his Theory[328]
CHAPTER XII.The Philosophy of the Thing-in-Itself[330]
Herbart and Schopenhauer[330]
Johann Friedrich Herbart[332]
The Life and Writings of Herbart (1776–1841)[333]
The Contradictions of Experience[334]
The Argument for Realism[334]
The Many Reals and Nature Phenomena[337]
The Soul and Mental Phenomena[338]
Arthur Schopenhauer and his Philosophical Relations[340]
The Life and Writings of Schopenhauer (1788–1860)[342]
1. Period of Education (1788–1813)[343]
2. Period of Literary Production (1813–1831)[343]
3. Period of Retirement (1831–1860)[343]
The Influences upon Schopenhauer’s Thought[343]
The World as Will and the World as Idea[345]
The Will as Irrational Reality[347]
The Misery of the World as Idea—Pessimism[348]
The Way of Deliverance[349]
CHAPTER XIII.The Philosophy of the Nineteenth Century[352]
The Return to Realism[352]
The Character of the Realism of the Nineteenth Century[353]
Modern Philosophy and German Idealism[355]
The Philosophical Problems of the Nineteenth Century[356]
1. The Problem of the Functioning of the Soul[357]
2. The Problem of the Conception of History[360]
INDEX[365]